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Embracing Jazz: Exploring Audience Participation in Jazz Music in Its Birthplace

Article  in  International Journal of Arts Management · September 2013

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Marketing Management
Embracing Jazz:
Exploring Audience Participation
in Jazz Music in Its Birthplace
J
azz was a new form of musical expression
that emerged at the beginning of the 20th
century in America and embodied artistic,
social and cultural change. Aesthetically, jazz
was revolutionary in that it challenged standard
musical concepts, personified sounds that were
artistically flexible and vibrant, and afforded
freedom of expression. Socially and culturally,
jazz spawned ground-breaking changes in
America. Before American society became
racially integrated, jazz musicians and their
recordings were being listened to by people of
all ethnicities (White, 2009).
However, the momentum and favour that
jazz once enjoyed with American audiences has
not necessarily persisted. American audiences
for this art form are declining. According to the
National Endowment for the Arts’ (NEA) (2008)
Survey of Public Participation in the Arts, people
in the age range 45 to 54 – traditionally the
largest jazz proponents – have shown a steep
decline in attendance at jazz concerts. In 2002,
13.9% of those surveyed in this age cohort
reported attending jazz performances; by 2008,
only 9.8% indicated they had attended a jazz
concert – a decline of 30%. Historically, college-
educated individuals patronized live jazz.
However, results of the survey indicate that the
proportion of college-educated adults attending
jazz performances decreased from 20.9% in 2002
to 14.9% in 2008. Further, long-term-trend
analyses are showing an aging audience for jazz.
According to the NEA survey, the average age
of a jazz audience member is 46 and young adults
Volume 16, NUMBER 1 • fall 2013
Elyria Kemp, Michael G. White
aged 18 to 24 were far less likely to attend jazz
events in 2008 than in 2002.
Findings from other sources also suggest that
cultivating younger as well as more diverse audi-
ences for jazz has been problematic (Warner,
2010). The Jazz Audiences Initiative compiled
information about ticket buyers at prominent
jazz institutions across the United States (Warner,
2010). Its findings suggest that 83% of ticket
buyers are over the age of 45 and 79% are white/
Caucasian. There are no significant gender dis-
parities, however: The results show that 46% of
buyers are female and 54% male.
Some critics attribute the decrease in jazz
audience participation to evolution of the art
form itself. Jazz, once a popular music, has
become high culture; thus, its audience and
demographics now emulate those of classical
music and opera (Teachout, 2009). Others sug-
gest that the problem is one of access and that
there are fewer venues offering live jazz
(Blumenfeld, 2009). Still others hold that cut-
backs in music education have stifled jazz audi-
ence development (Jenkins, 2001). Furthermore,
some purport that there is a fundamental prob-
lem with the categorization and branding of the
music itself (Payton, 2011). Nonetheless, the
debate continues about how to address the issue
of declining audience participation for jazz music.
This study examines the issue of declining
jazz audience participation. New Orleans has
long been heralded as the birthplace of jazz. Each
Elyria Kemp, PhD, is Assistant
Professor in the Department
of Marketing and Logistics,
College of Business
Administration, University
of New Orleans. Her research
interests include hedonic
­consumption, emotions
and consumption, and social
­marketing and public policy
issues as they relate to
­vulnerable consumers.
Before entering academia,
she worked in the arts and
entertainment industry.
Michael G. White, PhD, is
the Keller Endowed Chair
in the Humanities at Xavier
University of Louisiana. In
addition, he is a prominent
figure in the jazz world, with
an active career as a clarinet-
ist, bandleader, historian,
recording artist and advocate
for the authentic, traditional
New Orleans jazz style.
35
year over 8 million visitors pour into the city
from around the world to experience its charm,
culture, cuisine and indigenous music (New
Orleans Convention and Visitors’ Bureau, 2011).
Although jazz can be heard at various venues as
well as at music festivals throughout the city,
local audiences do not form the majority at ven-
ues dedicated to the performance of the art form.
This study explores local audience participation
for jazz in New Orleans by examining barriers
to participation that might exist within the local
community. The Motivation, Ability and
Opportunity (MAO) framework, first introduced
in the consumer research literature (MacInnis
and Jaworski, 1989) and later applied to audience
development (Wiggins, 2004), is used to inves-
tigate possible barriers to local jazz audience
participation in New Orleans. Empirical evi-
dence, consisting of residents’ insights about
jazz, was obtained through in-depth interviews.
These interviews provide the basis for a deeper
understanding of individuals’ disposition towards
jazz and possible barriers to participation
(McCracken, 1988). Using insight gleaned from
the components of the MAO, recommendations
are offered as to how to mitigate such barriers
through strategic marketing initiatives that create
engaging jazz experiences.
Orleans had a distinct cultural character and a
multi-ethnic populace. It was in such an environ-
ment that the confluence of culture, race, politics
and geography gave rise to jazz (Hasse, 2000;
McKernan and Mulcahy, 2008; Giddins and
Deveaux, 2009).
At the beginning of the 20th century New
Orleans boasted one of the largest ports in the
Western Hemisphere. It was a bustling city and
music played an active role in its civic and com-
munity life. Operatic and symphonic music
thrived. The city played host to numerous march-
ing bands and parades. It had a city-wide dance
culture, and bands provided the dance accom-
paniment (Hasse, 2000).
However, early New Orleans jazz (today, also
referred to as “traditional New Orleans jazz”)
was more than just music that accompanied
dance or a mythicized music of the brothels; it
was the music of the entire New Orleans com-
munity. It could be heard regularly in various
neighbourhoods, enjoyed by people of all ages
and ethnic groups, through a number of activities
that fed the city’s penchant for celebration: pic-
nics, boat rides, sporting events, parades, funer-
als, advertising on wagons, public concerts and
political rallies (White, 2009).

Jazz also had deep-rooted social significance.

Jazz in New Orleans It had special meaning for the African-American
community. As African Americans saw their legal

T he art of music improvisation is central to

the jazz idiom (Schuller, 1968). This extem-
poraneous development and expression of musical
ideas has defined jazz throughout its history
(Gridley, 1987). One American city in particular
served as the breeding ground for the development
of jazz. At the turn of the 20th century, New
and social status diminish, jazz became a means
for expressing the collective consciousness that
addressed social concerns and served as a model
for democratic society. Jazz offered social and
psychological uplift (White, 2009). It was from
the African-American community in New Orleans
that some of the most significant early jazz figures

A b st r a c t

Jazz is an American art form that has become a reflection of universal passions, emotions and the human
experience. However, American audience participation for the art form is declining. New Orleans has long been
heralded as the birthplace of jazz, and although jazz music can be heard at various venues as well as music
festivals throughout the city, local audiences do not make up the majority at venues dedicated to jazz perform-
ance. This study examines barriers to audience participation for jazz music. Specifically, audience participation
in New Orleans is explored using the Motivation, Ability, Opportunity model as a guiding framework. Empirical
evidence, consisting of residents’ insights concerning jazz and possible barriers to participation, was gathered
via in-depth interviews. Further, drawing from the literature on consumer engagement and brand experience,
a model is proposed to address how such barriers might be overcome through strategic marketing efforts that
create meaningful and engaging jazz consumption experiences.
KEYWORDS
Jazz, audience development, New Orleans, marketing

36 International journal of arts management

emerged, including Buddy Bolden, Jelly Roll FIGURE 1
Morton, Sidney Bechet and Louis Armstrong.
LOCAL ATTENDANCE AT JAZZ CLUBS IN NEW ORLEANS

7 % of local audience participation at jazz clubs

Jazz Audiences in New Orleans
6

N ew Orleans continues to be highly regarded

Number of jazz clubs reporting

for its contribution to jazz. Since its begin- 5
nings, jazz has spawned exceptional musicians,
those who left the city to pursue music careers 4
elsewhere and those who remained and reside
in New Orleans still. In 2003 the NEA com- 3
missioned a study to examine the work life of
jazz musicians (Jeffri, 2003). The study reported 2
that New Orleans was home to more than
1,700 jazz musicians. 1

New Orleans also plays host to a number of 0

music clubs and festivals where jazz is performed.
In its 2011 directory of “Great Jazz Venues,”
DownBeat magazine lists 14 clubs in New
Orleans where jazz is performed regularly. This
suggests that, with a population of slightly over
360,000 (US Census Bureau, 2011), New
Orleans boasts more jazz clubs per capita than
other American cities with an active jazz scene,
including New York and San Francisco. However,
despite the number of premier jazz musicians it
has produced, the availability of jazz to its popu-
lation and the significance of jazz to its history,
New Orleans may be witnessing a less than
enthusiastic reception of jazz by its residents.
Examination of the venues where jazz is per-
formed consistently reveals that local residents
do not form the majority of the audience. A sec-
ond directory, this one compiled by the New
Orleans Tourism and Marketing Corporation
(2012), lists 21 clubs where jazz is performed
0–10 11–20 21–30 31–40 41–50 > 50
regularly. In order to arrive at a more accurate
depiction of the live jazz scene in New Orleans,
as well as to determine the local audience par-
ticipation rate, the two directories were triangu-
lated and the clubs contacted. At each club, once
it was confirmed that jazz was being performed,
the respondent was asked how many nights a
week it was being performed and what percentage
of the audience consisted of local residents. This
endeavour yielded a definitive list of 17 clubs
where jazz is being performed regularly (at least
three nights a week). All of the clubs are located
in New Orleans proper, nine in the French
Quarter or the Central Business District (CBD).
According to recent population data (Greater
New Orleans Community Data Center, 2010),
the French Quarter is home to over 3,800 people

RÉSUMÉ

Le jazz est une forme d’art américaine qui a su refléter les passions, les émotions et l’expérience humaine. Cependant, la
participation du public américain à cet art est en déclin. La Nouvelle-Orléans est reconnue pour être le berceau du jazz,
et bien qu’il soit possible d’entendre cette musique dans divers lieux de la ville tels que les festivals de musique, le public
local ne constitue pas la majorité dans les lieux dédiés aux spectacles de jazz. Cette étude examine les barrières à la par-
ticipation du public aux spectacles de jazz. En particulier, cette participation du public à La Nouvelle-Orléans est examinée
à travers le modèle des motivations, des compétences et des occasions, lequel sert de cadre de référence. Les évidences
empiriques, consistant dans les opinions des résidants au sujet du jazz et dans les possibles barrières à la participation,
ont été recueillies au moyen d’entrevues en profondeur. De plus, s’appuyant sur la littérature concernant le comportement
du consommateur et l’expérience de marque, un modèle indique comment de telles barrières peuvent être surmontées
grâce à l’élaboration de stratégies de marketing s­ usceptibles de créer des expériences de consommation du jazz signi-
fiantes et engageantes.
MOTS CLÉS
Jazz, développement du public, La Nouvelle-Orléans, marketing

Volume 16, NUMBER 1 • fall 2013 37

and 2,600 households, while the CBD has
approximately 2,200 residents and 1,200 house-
holds. The remaining eight clubs are located in
surrounding neighbourhoods (i.e., Marigny,
Bywater), predominately residential. The 17 clubs
have an average seating capacity of 100.
Findings from the investigation reveal that
local residents make up less than 50% of the
audience in 71% of the clubs (see Figure 1).
Overall, according to self-reports by the clubs,
the average proportion of local residents attend-
ing performances is 38%.
New Orleans is celebrated as the birthplace
of jazz. Furthermore, jazz has played a significant
role socially and culturally in the city. However,
some of the concerns regarding dwindling audi-
ence participation at jazz performances in the
rest of the country might be emblematic of what
is occurring in New Orleans. This phenomenon
warrants an investigation of how local audience
participation for jazz music might be developed.
For decades, arts organizations, including sym-
phony orchestras, theatres and ballet companies,
have sought to cultivate and build audiences
through audience development initiatives.
Following is a discussion of audience develop-
ment and its relevance for jazz music in
New Orleans.
Audience Development: The MAO Model
and the Consumer Experience
The research literature contains audience devel-
opment models that offer conceptual, empirical
and anecdotal strategies for reaching new audi-
ences (Falk and Dierking, 1992; Heilbrun and
Gray, 1993; Diggle, 1994; Morison and Dalgleish,
1994; McCarthy and Jinnet, 2001; Zakaras and
Lowell, 2008). One model that has attracted
much attention is the RAND model proposed
by McCarthy and Jinnet (2001). It provides a
method for segmenting non-participating indi-
viduals and suggests that some are disinclined to
participate in the arts due to their background
and attitudes. The model differentiates among
factors that may influence an individual’s decision
whether to attend arts events and delineates the
process and stages by which an individual pro-
gresses to the point of becoming a participant.
However, researchers have criticized the
RAND model because it does not allow for
multiple factors that may interact and impact
decision-making at each stage of the process
leading to audience participation. Additionally,
the model has been criticized for not taking into
account how marketing strategies employed at
each stage to target potential audience members
can influence other audience segments, and not
just the one being targeted (Wiggins, 2004).
Hence, Wiggins (2004) proposes using a model
from the consumer research literature, the MAO
model developed by MacInnis and Jaworski
(1989), to examine barriers to arts participation.
According to Wiggins, the MAO accounts for
interaction effects at each stage in the process
and enables the organization to anticipate the
potential effects of marketing strategies on vari-

B uilding or developing audiences for the arts

has led to much debate and dialogue over
the past several decades. Audience development
ous market segments.

Specifically, the MAO posits that consumers

involves innovative ways for arts and cultural experience barriers to action because they lack the
organizations to meet the needs of existing and motivation, ability or opportunity to act, or some
potential audiences (McCarthy and Jinnet, 2001). combination of the three. In the MAO, motivation

RESUMEN

El jazz es una forma de arte estadounidense que se ha vuelto el reflejo de pasiones, emociones y experiencia humana universales.
Sin embargo, la participación del público estadounidense en esta forma de arte va disminuyendo. En Nueva Orleans, la proclamada
cuna del jazz, sigue oyéndose esta música en varios lugares y festivales sin embargo en estos eventos dedicados al jazz el público
local es minoría. En este estudio se analizan los obstáculos para la participación en la música jazz, y más específicamente, la
participación del público de Nueva Orleans utilizando el modelo Motivación, Capacidad, Oportunidad como marco rector. Los
datos empíricos se recogieron mediante entrevistas detalladas en las cuales se buscaban la percepción de los residentes del jazz
y los posibles obstáculos a su participación. Basándose en la documentación sobre el compromiso del consumidor y la experiencia
de marca, se propone un modelo que permita vencer dichos obstáculos mediante esfuerzos estratégicos de mercadotecnia que
lleven a la creación de experiencias valiosas y atractivas de consumo de jazz.
P A L A BR A S CLAVE
Jazz, participación de públicos, Nueva Orleans, mercadotecnia

38 International journal of arts management

is defined as the desire to act, ability as individual
factors relating to the skills or proficiency needed
to act, and opportunity as the absence of environ-
mental or situational barriers to action.
The diminishing size of jazz audiences indi-
cates that there may be certain barriers to par-
ticipation. However, once the barriers have been
determined, exploring ways to mitigate them
and to create “engaging consumption experi-
ences” that encourage participation is para-
mount. Zakaras and Lowell (2008) call for
cultivating engaging experiences with the arts
and underscore the importance of equipping
individuals with the ability to be moved by the
expressive and intellectual qualities of art.
In the marketing literature, consumer engage-
ment has been defined as the level of a customer’s
physical, cognitive and emotional presence within
an organization (Patterson, Yu and de Ruyter,
2006), as well as the intensity of an individual’s
participation in and connection with the organi-
zation’s offerings (Vivek, Beatty and Morgan,
2012). Ultimately, marketers strive to engage
consumers through the experiences they have
with a product or brand. Brakus, Schmitt and
Zarantonello (2009) introduce the term “brand
experience” to the marketing literature, concep-
tualizing it as the subjective and internal con-
sumer responses evoked by brand-related stimuli
that are part of a brand’s design, identity, pack-
aging, communications and environment.
According to Brakus, Schmitt and Zarantonello
(2009), brand experience elicits four distinct
types of consumer response: sensorial, emotional,
intellectual and behavioural. Sensorial responses
refer to whether the brand makes an impression
on the consumer’s senses (sight, sound, hearing,
smell and touch); emotional (affective) responses
are related to whether the brand induces feelings
and sentiments in the consumer; intellectual
(cognitive) responses have to do with the degree
to which the consumer engages in thinking about
the brand; finally, the behavioural component
refers to the consumer’s willingness to engage
in physical action associated with the brand.
The four components of brand experience
might also be applied to consumption experi-
ences, and thus be integral elements in engaging
audiences in the arts. Specifically, appealing to
the distinct components of experience (emotions,
senses, intellect and behaviour) may positively
impact motivation, ability and opportunity (see
Figure 2). Offering positive emotional experi-
ences that stimulate the senses can engage
Volume 16, NUMBER 1 • fall 2013
individuals by creating desire, interest and moti-
vation. Similarly, appealing to an individual’s
intellect and cognition regarding the artistic
offering may enhance proficiency and ability.
Finally, inciting the individual to take action
with respect to the offering (e.g., to use public
transportation if parking is limited) may mitigate
perceived situational and environmental barriers
related to opportunity. Ultimately, when con-
sumers have positive experiences with an art
form or cultural organization, repeated interac-
tions will strengthen their emotional, psychologi-
cal or physical investment in it.
This study examined the attitudes and percep-
tions of New Orleans residents with respect to
jazz music and possible barriers to audience par-
ticipation. The MAO was used as a guiding
framework for exploring why there may be bar-
riers to local jazz audience participation in New
Orleans. Insight gleaned from the study is used
to determine how engaging experiences might
be created for potential audiences.
Methodology
A
n interpretive research approach was employed
to examine local audience participation for
jazz music in New Orleans (McCracken, 1988;
FIGURE 2
Enhancing MAO through Experiential Components
using the Marketing Mix
Emotions
+
Product and Motivation
Promotion +
Senses
Promotion Intellect/ + Ability
and Place Cognition
Place,
Action/ +
Promotion Opportunity
Behaviour
and Price
39
Thompson, 1997). Such an approach involves
existential-phenomenological, or in-depth, inter-
views with individuals to generate textual data.
This methodology allows for the discovery of an
individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
For the present study, in-depth interviews were
conducted with residents of New Orleans.
Recruitment notices were posted on bulletin
boards in coffee shops, gyms, bookstores and
community centres, in local newspapers and on
social media sites, seeking individuals willing to
be interviewed about their experience with jazz
music. Twenty-three individuals responded to
the notices. They were screened for participation
in the study using opened-ended questions about
their involvement with jazz (e.g., Do you like jazz
music? Do you attend jazz events?). Having experi-
ence with jazz or having attended a jazz event
was not a criterion for participation in the study.

T a b le 1

SAMPLE (N = 18)

Years lived in Native of Jazz performance

Pseudonym Gender Age Ethnicity Occupation New Orleans New Orleans attender

Angela Female 30 Caucasian Waitress 6 No Yes

Promotions
Barbara Female 57 African American 57 Yes Yes
coordinator
Business
Carla Female 22 Caucasian 1 No Yes
analyst
College
Darren Male 24 African American 21 Yes No
student
Edward Male 38 African American Electrician 36 Yes Yes
Business
Faye Female 34 African American 34 Yes No
owner
Retired
Geraldine Female 60 Caucasian 10 No Yes
teacher
Helen Female 54 Caucasian Disc jockey 37 Yes Yes
Business
Irene Female 61 African American 61 Yes No
owner
Administrative
Katy Female 59 Caucasian 34 Yes No
assistant
Marvin Male 46 Caucasian Teacher 46 Yes No
Quincy Male 59 African American Educator 20 No Yes
Rita Female 56 African American Educator 48 Yes No
Business
Sam Male 54 Caucasian 55 Yes Yes
development
Stephanie Female 48 African American Manager 48 Yes No
Business
Tim Male 60 Caucasian 54 Yes Yes
owner
Victor Male 30 Hispanic American Engineer 23 No Yes
Business
Zachary Male 56 African American 56 Yes No
owner

40 International journal of arts management

The only purpose of the screening process was
to ascertain how forthcoming the individual
might be in an interview setting.
Five of those who responded to the notice
were not selected for the study, based on the
researchers’ judgement of an individual’s ability
to take part effectively in an interview. Ultimately,
18 individuals were selected – 10 females and
eight males. The mean age of participants was
47 (see Table 1). All participants lived no more
than six miles from a jazz club. Each person was
compensated $20 for taking part. Interviews
were conducted in person using the long inter-
view method (McCracken, 1988). Participants
(referred to hereafter as “informants”) were asked
questions related to (1) their attitudes towards
jazz music; (2) the importance of jazz to the city
of New Orleans; (3) whether they attended jazz
performances; (4) how they thought other resi-
dents of New Orleans perceived jazz music;
(5) the degree to which jazz is supported by local
residents; and (6) what role, from a cultural
standpoint, jazz music might play in the future,
both locally and globally.
Interviews lasted approximately one hour. All
interviews were audiorecorded and transcribed.
Following an iterative process, where text from
the interviews was examined multiple times and
categorized, the researchers arrived at a consensus
regarding the identification of meta-themes that
were methodically integrated into an emerging
theoretical argument.
In addition to interviewing the informants,
the researchers regularly visited jazz clubs and
interfaced with club managers/owners, music
festival producers and jazz musicians on the
subject of local audience participation for jazz
music. This resulted in a more thorough com-
prehension of the discourses surrounding jazz
music in New Orleans.
Meta-themes: Barriers to Participation
S everal themes emerged consistently across
the interviews. These were related to inform-
ants’ attitude towards jazz music as well as pos-
sible barriers to audience participation suggested
in the three components of the MAO model.
The themes, along with commentary by the
informants, are explicated next.
Volume 16, NUMBER 1 • fall 2013
Motivation-Related Themes
There was consensus among the informants
about the importance of jazz to the heritage of
New Orleans. Some of the informants were jazz
enthusiasts while others were not. However, they
all acknowledged that jazz and the city’s past are
inseparable: Everybody knows that New Orleans
is the City of Jazz – even people outside of New
Orleans. Jazz is critical to the city’s heritage. I take
it for granted since I live here, but people come from
all over to hear the music. It frames up what the
city is. (Carla) Jazz is as important to the city of
New Orleans as the Mississippi River. (Quincy)
New Orleans and jazz music will always be insepa-
rable. (Marvin) Jazz music is an attachment to
the past. All the styles that have been developed . . .
it’s a way to connect to our forefathers . . . [the
musicians] develop it and they pass it on. (Angela)
However, despite conceding the importance
of jazz to the city, some of the informants identi-
fied barriers to attending jazz performances. One
of these barriers was fundamentally related to
lack of interest or motivation.
In Maclnnis and Jaworski’s (1989) MAO
model, motivation is goal-directed arousal. It is
defined as an individual’s desire or readiness to
engage in an activity. Individuals are motivated
to behave in a certain manner when they ascer-
tain that their self-interest will be served. If an
individual does not perceive that self-interest
will be served, there may be no inherent motiva-
tion to comply.
Further, music can be classified as a charac-
teristically hedonic product. Hedonic products
are goods and services with subjective features
that elicit pleasurable affective responses from
consumers (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982;
Chaudhuri and Holbrook, 2001). Listening to
music is a hedonic consumption experience –
many individuals listen to music with the goal
of deriving some type of gratification or pleasure
from the experience. However, some of the
informants expressed a lack of interest in jazz,
indicating that the listening experience was not
always gratifying. For example, one informant,
Angela, who had recently begun to take an inter-
est in jazz and was beginning to attend jazz per-
formances, admitted that some of her friends
were not interested in going to performances
because they felt that understanding and enjoy-
ing the music required too much effort: It might
be difficult for some to enjoy jazz. It’s kind of like
a filter. You have to be willing to go out and find
what you want to listen to. (Angela)
41
 An issue surrounding jazz is the aging of its
audience. Data show that younger people are less
likely to attend jazz events now than ever before
(NEA, 2008). Some of the informants alluded
to this phenomenon. Irene, who expressed con-
cern about the failure of younger people to attend
jazz performances in New Orleans, recalled her
journey to appreciation: As I got older, I started
appreciating jazz . . . you know, when you’re younger
you may just say, “That’s a long song.” (Irene)
Another informant, Stephanie, provided rationale
for the aging of the audience: Jazz is complicated
– a sit-down-and-listen-to music. Young people
don’t have the patience to sit down and listen . . .
they want to dance. (Stephanie) Darren, who had
been born in New Orleans and was now attend-
ing university there, echoed this view: We [younger
people] are . . . preoccupied with listening to other
genres of music. Jazz is low on the totem pole. Jazz
is not on radio and television . . . it’s, like, out of
sight, out of mind . . . When people think of jazz
they think more mellow and chill, and this may not
appeal to younger people. (Darren)
Although many informants acknowledged
that jazz was once of great social and cultural
import to New Orleans, some felt that there
was now a disconnect between this type of
music and the people. One informant, Zachary,
who was very familiar with the music scene in
New Orleans and had grown up amidst many
of the renowned musicians from the area,
lamented the declining state of jazz: We’re not
fans of the modern jazz stuff because you can’t
dance to it. Also, some of today’s jazz musicians
are just not audience-friendly. They don’t play
for their audiences. It seems that some have figu-
ratively adopted that Miles Davis approach – when
he turned his back on his audiences. They don’t
play for the audience. Jazz has almost become
museum music. It’s not for the locals. They allow
the tourist people to control it – it’s over-influenced
by tourism. (Zachary)
Historically, jazz had strong roots in the
African-American community in New Orleans.
Jazz provided a means for expressing the c­ ollective
consciousness and offered social and psychologi-
cal uplift for the community (White, 2009).
However, several of the African-American
informants suggested that these feelings towards
the music may not exist today: Appreciation
for the music may have changed after integration.
It took the music from our culture . . . It was
something we held precious and sacred, but now
it’s different. (Barbara)
42
Ability-Related Themes
In the MAO, ability refers to a consumer’s skills
or proficiencies. High ability can imply that indi-
viduals have some form of knowledge that can
be assessed regarding a behaviour or action
(MacInnis, Moorman and Jaworski, 1991).
Research has shown that education helps indi-
viduals develop the skills necessary for negotiating
the abstract. Such skills are useful for appreciating
the arts (Toffler, 1964). The literature also sug-
gests that there is a strong association between
increased participation in the arts and arts educa-
tion (Bergonzi and Smith, 1996; Colbert, 2003).
Two middle-aged informants, Barbara and
Rita, suggested that lack of education may also
be a contributing factor in the declining interest
in jazz among young people: When I was growing
up, music was really a part of your life. Even the
poorest of families had children that took music
lessons. There was always a piano teacher in the
neighbourhood . . . these people encouraged and
fostered music appreciation. (Barbara) The younger
people aren’t aware about jazz because we’re guilty
of not informing younger people about the music
because we take it for granted. There’s limited expo-
sure. There’s definitely a disconnect. Part of this is
our fault. We’ve taken arts education out of the
schools and diminished its importance. (Rita)
Lack of ability can also be due to other internal
or individual factors. The cost of attending jazz
performances was another reason cited for declin-
ing audience participation. Price is an element in
the marketing mix that can be used as an extrinsic
cue and indicator of product quality and value.
Some of the jazz clubs in New Orleans require
either an admission fee or a drinks minimum.
Several informants stated that this could be oner-
ous, with some unable to pay: It’s hard to find the
money to go out. It’s hard to find the time to go out.
People are tired when they come home from work.
(Geraldine) [They] have taken our music . . . a price
has been put on it that we sometimes can’t afford.
Now you have to pay for jazz. (Barbara) New
Orleans folks may avoid those places that they think
are expensive. They’re looking for lagniappe [a little
extra]. They’re looking to do things as inexpensively
as possible. If you know that you can hear music for
free, and another place might cost you $20, then
maybe you decide to go elsewhere. Here in New
Orleans we’re used to getting a little bit more . . .
getting something free . . . going to somebody’s house
to eat . . . going to listen to music and not having
to pay much . . . that’s New Orleans . . . that’s
what folks do here. (Quincy)
International journal of arts management
Opportunity-Related Themes
The MAO defines opportunity as the extent to
which distractions affect an individual’s willing-
ness to engage in an activity. Opportunity also
includes situations in which the individual wants
to act but is unable to because of some environ-
mental obstacle (Rothschild, 1999). In the context
of jazz music in New Orleans, opportunity may
be impacted by the number and types of jazz
venues available. Although New Orleans has more
jazz clubs per capita than other American cities,
almost all the informants cited accessibility as a
barrier to audience participation. Accessibility
was related not to the number of places where jazz
could be heard but, rather, their location. Some
informants recalled having places in their neigh-
bourhood where they could hear jazz but said that
these no longer existed. Barbara had grown up in
a part of New Orleans where jazz could be heard
in the neighbourhood bars: They want to control
where the music will be. They’ve taken it out of the
neighbourhoods and have placed it where they want
it to be . . . the system . . . the city . . . politics . . .
interests. (Barbara) A number of informants noted
that many of the jazz clubs were inconveniently
located and that parking was a major obstacle:
It’s hard to gain access to the places where jazz is
performed. The parking is bad . . . and crime is an
issue in some of the areas. (Zachary) People that
were born here – locals – really don’t come to the
French Quarter as a rule. We stopped going on Canal
Street after the malls opened. You know why? It’s
because of parking. The city has every parking space
locked up. Any time you have to pay for parking you
eliminate people . . . that’s just the way it is. [Name
of club] has great musicians but it’s a hassle to get
to . . . people don’t like Bourbon Street. (Helen) Our
downtown is a tourist trap . . . not to say that there’s
not good music downtown. (Edward) Geraldine,
who had respiratory problems, took issue with
the fact that most jazz is performed in nightclubs.
This was a pronounced barrier for her: If you’re
going to go to a bar to hear music, you’re going to
have to be tolerant of smoke and alcohol. Some people
don’t want to go to bars. (Geraldine)
In marketing, communication and promotion
help to build awareness and trust through con-
sistency of execution (Yoo, Donthu and Lee,
2000). There was consensus among the inform-
ants that jazz performances in New Orleans are
not consistently promoted. Some felt that they
had to be especially proactive to obtain informa-
tion about events. Katy, who considered herself
“a New Orleans girl,” conceded that it could be
difficult to find out about jazz events in the city:
Volume 16, NUMBER 1 • fall 2013
I’m from New Orleans. My heart is New Orleans.
But sometimes things going on in the city just fly
right by you. It’s hard for us locals to know what’s
going on in the city. I know we have some of the
greatest jazz musicians on earth here, but I’ve been
missing out. (Katy) Another informant concurred:
If you want to hear jazz music, there’s not a con-
certed effort to make the public aware of what’s
going on with jazz music in the city – outside of
the festivals. (Stephanie)
Some informants felt that they were not part
of the target market for jazz performances and
that no concerted effort was being made to share
information about jazz events with them: Local
jazz promoters don’t waste their time marketing
their product to us. The demographic that they’re
looking for will seek them out. Maybe this is why
they don’t have commercials on TV and radio.
(Edward) People who get most of the music are the
tourists and not so much the locals. The promoters
target the tourists because they spend a lot of money.
They might focus more on the locals. It would be
better for the city and the music itself. (Victor)
Coda
Although the informants were forthcoming about
what factors might preclude them from attending
jazz events, several expressed concerns about jazz
music’s vitality in the community and the reti-
cence of locals to enthusiastically embrace the
genre: We think that we will always have it because
we have always had it. (Barbara) We will let jazz
die and that will be cultural genocide. (Irene) We
have so much tied up in jazz music, we don’t even
think about it, it’s a part of us. However, sometimes
when you have things readily available you don’t
appreciate it. (Edward)
Discussion of Findings: Enhancing
Motivation, Ability and Opportunity
I n addition to reaching new consumer segments
and building market share, audience develop-
ment involves cultivating relationships, which
in turn entails engaging the community and
collaborating and connecting with relevant stake-
holders. The present study was exploratory in
nature and generalizability of the findings to the
New Orleans population cannot be subsumed.
The findings do highlight the barriers that may
exist with respect to local audiences for jazz.
Nonetheless, once barriers to participation are
43
uncovered, cultural managers must find ways to
mitigate them and engage target audiences.
The findings suggest that barriers to participa-
tion related to motivation, ability and opportu-
nity can be overcome or mitigated by appealing
to the components of experience proffered in the
brand experience literature (Figure 2). Further,
the four elements of (brand) consumption experi-
ence – emotional, sensorial, intellectual and
behavioural – can be engendered by using stra-
tegic marketing elements embodied in the mar-
keting mix (McCarthy, 1960) to develop positive
experiences for the target audience. The market-
ing mix, also known as the 4P’s – product offer-
ing, promotion, price, and place or distribution
– comprises the parameters that marketers use
to create value in a product as well as elicit posi-
tive responses from the target market (Culliton,
1948; Borden, 1964; McCarthy, 1960).
Implications for applying the MAO frame-
work and the four components of consumption
experience to address the problem of local audi-
ence participation for jazz music in New Orleans
are delineated next.
Motivation: Stimulating the Emotions
and Senses
Jazz music was once an integral part of the New
Orleans community. However, the findings of
this study indicate that some residents may feel
disenfranchised with respect to the art form.
Finding ways to re-establish or develop relational
ties between the music and the local community
will be key in increasing audience participation.
As discussed above, the motivation component
of the MAO refers to a lack of interest in engaging
in a particular behaviour. Informants indicated
that one of the reasons why jazz is not being enthu-
siastically embraced by the public is that it is
perceived to be an intellectual and even “museum”
music. This lack of motivation surrounding the
perception of jazz can be attributed to how the
art form has come to be positioned. In marketing,
“positioning” refers to the process of establishing,
in the minds of target consumers, the desired
perception of a product or brand relative to the
competition (Ries and Trout, 2000). Perception
is not always objective reality but is the truth as
it exists in the minds of consumers.
Concerted efforts could be made to reposi-
tion jazz among the population so that the
44
music appeals to their emotions and senses.
This would establish jazz as a living art form,
ever changing and growing, and as a reflection
of sociocultural discourses.
Connecting emotionally with individuals to
motivate them to attend jazz performances might
also require that jazz presenters and musicians
adopt a market orientation and consider the
needs and desires of their audiences (Colbert,
2003). Marketers often attempt to differentiate
their products and brands by adopting a market
orientation. This entails understanding the needs
of the consumer and making a commitment to
the continuous creation of value for the consumer
(Jaworski and Kohli, 1993; Sorjonen, 2011). By
adopting a market orientation, jazz presenters
and musicians can make attempts to shape the
product offering so that they deliver a unique,
personal entertainment experience that rivals
other entertainment options.
Additionally, effective promotion that
encourages jazz audience participation can
appeal to the emotions and senses. Many of the
informants in this study felt that performances
at jazz clubs in New Orleans are not consistently
promoted. Initiatives to promote jazz events can
inform as well as build excitement about the
jazz experience.
Some informants saw the cost of admission
to jazz performances as a barrier to audience
participation. However, examination of admis-
sion charges at prominent jazz clubs in New
Orleans found that the average price (whether
an admission fee or a one-drink minimum) is
$15. This is just slightly more than the cost of a
movie. Some individuals may be labouring under
misapprehensions about the cost of live jazz
entertainment. This problem could be remedied
by providing accurate information. However,
several informants also mentioned that some
New Orleanians may be accustomed to accessing
jazz for free. This is certainly evident during
second line parades, still a tradition in the city,
where brass marching bands can be seen and
heard in the streets of certain neighbourhoods.
Hence, there may be an issue of individuals being
resistant to paying to hear jazz because they do
not ascribe enough value to it.
Value can be defined as a personal and subjec-
tive assessment of the net worth of an object,
entity or activity (Babin and Harris, 2011). Often,
when individuals feel an emotional connection
to an object or entity, they ascribe more value
to it (Brodie et al., 2011). With respect to local
International journal of arts management
participation for jazz music, attempts might be
made to design promotions that appeal to the
senses and emotions and articulate the benefits
of being an audience member at a jazz event.
Individuals might then be more willing to bear
the cost of being participants.
Ability: Appealing to Intellect/Cognition
In the MAO, limited ability refers to individual
factors that may prevent an individual from act-
ing. An ability factor that could impact local
audience participation is lack of education. Critics
have argued that cutbacks in music education
may have stifled jazz audience development
(Jenkins, 2001). This view was expressed in the
present study. Several informants attributed the
diminishing interest in the art form to lack of
education and exposure to jazz among youth.
A key aspect of the consumer experience is
appealing to consumer cognition and intellect.
To positively engage with a product offering, the
consumer should possess positive thoughts and
cognition towards the product. If the consumer
does not understand the product and lacks the
knowledge needed to understand it, interest in
the product will be impacted and consumption
may even be prevented.
Jazz presenters may be able to narrow the
education gap through promotion and outreach.
Efforts might include sponsoring outreach events
(e.g., off-site musical performances) in local
neighbourhoods. To mitigate costs, such initia-
tives could be undertaken in tandem with other
entities (i.e., other clubs, festivals). Educating
potential audiences and fostering awareness about
jazz could lead to the development and cultiva-
tion of relationships with the local community.
These efforts could eventually pay off in the
form of increased local patronage.
Opportunity: Changing Behaviour
Essential to the consumption experience is getting
the individual to act in some way related to the
product offering or brand. Purchase or consump-
tion of the product is one of the primary desired
behaviours. In the present study, many informants
took issue with the location of jazz venues, citing
it as a barrier to participation. They indicated
that many of the venues are located in congested
areas where parking is a problem. The venues
where jazz is performed may not always be
Volume 16, NUMBER 1 • fall 2013
conveniently located, but if the framing of posi-
tive attributes is employed by emphasizing the
benefits of attending a performance, this might
be perceived as less of a barrier. Additionally,
clubs could inform local residents about safe and
convenient ways to access the site, such as by
using public transportation. Also, offering drinks
discounts to local residents who present a parking
stub could boost attendance.
Some informants said they did not believe
that they were the target audience for many of
the jazz clubs or that promotions were directed
at them. However, jazz venues can dispel such
misperceptions by reaching out to locals in their
promotional efforts. This might include hosting
“a locals’ night,” where local audience members
are afforded some special recognition or perk.
Campaigns to encourage locals to become “tour-
ists” in their own city have gained momentum
in recent years (Walker, 2003). Jazz clubs might
be successful in partnering with the city on ini-
tiatives to encourage residents to explore local
entertainment opportunities.
Theoretical Implications
T he MAO framework, first introduced in the
consumer research literature, has been
applied in audience development to examine
barriers to participation in the arts. The present
study not only investigated why there may be
barriers to audience participation in one of
America’s indigenous art forms, but contributes
to arts management theory by offering prescrip-
tions for enhanced motivation, ability and oppor-
tunity for creating positive consumer experiences.
Once specific barriers to attendance are uncov-
ered, potential audiences can be engaged through
positive experiential encounters by appealing to
their emotions, senses, intellect and behaviour.
Further, positive experiential encounters can be
engendered through an effective marketing pro-
gram. For example, creating positive experiences
that appeal to the emotions and senses through
positioning and the adoption of a market orienta-
tion can ignite desire, interest and motivation.
Similarly, appealing to an individual’s intellect
and cognition through effective promotion of
and education regarding the artistic offering can
enhance proficiency and ability. Finally, encour-
aging the individual to take action with respect
to the offering through creative promotion,
pricing and improved accessibility may mitigate
perceived situational and environmental
obstacles. Engagement in the arts will not only
45
increase attendance but also enrich the experi-
ence of audience members.
Managerial Implications
W ith the exception of organizations like
Jazz at Lincoln Center and SF Jazz Center,
jazz music has not enjoyed institutionalization
like other performing arts, such as symphonic
music, dance and theatre. These art forms have
permanent companies and the staff necessary to
support regular seasons. However, the narratives
by informants in this study offer some insight
into possible barriers to participation in high art
(i.e., symphonic music, dance and opera). Many
barriers that consumers experience may be related
to limited motivation, ability and opportunity
as conceptualized in the MAO framework; once
specific barriers are discovered, however, it is
paramount that ways be found to develop
engaging consumption experiences.
Cultural managers can start by using market-
ing mechanisms included in the marketing mix
to create engaging experiences. For example, to
address motivational barriers, managers might
attempt to connect emotionally and appeal to
the senses of potential audiences through posi-
tioning, branding and the adoption of a market
orientation. This might include finding innova-
tive ways to keep the offering relevant and excit-
ing. For instance, bundling a cultural offering
with other products that have favour with and
significance for consumers (e.g., dinner at a popu-
lar restaurant) or employing sensory branding
techniques (analytical methods that aggregate
the use of sensory stimuli such as scent, sound
and texture in brand building) might increase
desire and motivation.
Further, if ability is an obstacle, cultural man-
agers might continue with concerted efforts to
educate and build awareness about artistic offer-
ings in order to enhance intellect and thought
about the offering. This could include continuing
to offer lectures/performances, programs for
youth and various outreach activities, but the
organization should also seek more ­economical
ways to educate and inform potential audiences,
such as through virtual outlets and social media.
Such efforts will promote top-of-mind awareness
of the organization and its offering.
To enhance opportunity and stimulate positive
behaviour, organizations could continue to offer
46
promotional discounts when appropriate and
introduce initiatives that increase accessibility
(e.g., free parking, use of different venues through-
out the season, public transportation vouchers).
In the entertainment marketplace, consumers
have an array of options from which to choose.
Further, as home arts and entertainment options
improve and become more affordable, people
may be less inclined to leave their homes for
entertainment (Ellenberger, 2012). Creating
unique, engaging consumption experiences that
appeal to the emotions, senses and intellect and
that eventually alter behaviour will be vital.
Concluding Remarks
A lthough this study offers insights into pos-
sible barriers to jazz audience participation,
it is not without limitations. Due to the qualita-
tive nature of the research, a small sample was
used. As a result, the data may not fully explicate
all existing barriers to jazz audience participation.
Future studies might adopt survey methods
whereby a larger number of individuals are
solicited for their attitudes, opinions and behav-
iours regarding jazz. Additionally, the sample
comprised New Orleans residents only. Future
research might consider collecting data in other
markets. Finally, this study used the three com-
ponents of the MAO as a guiding framework
for data collection. Future studies might collect
empirical evidence that addresses the experiential
variables (i.e., emotion, senses, intellect and
behaviour) considered in the present study. This
might also allow for the testing of relationships
between these variables and the MAO.
New Orleans has been credited with giving
birth to jazz, an art form that during the course
of the 20th century became a reflection of uni-
versal passions, emotions and the human experi-
ence. Not only might appreciation for this music
be re-examined in its native city, but perhaps
Americans should re-assess their perspective on
jazz music, which was one of the country’s first
indigenous art forms. The challenge for jazz
presenters and musicians may be to create engag-
ing experiences that enable individuals to change
their perspective. Darren, one of the younger
informants in the present study, concluded his
interview with the following remark: I’ ll think
about jazz as something alive and living, and not
just something historic and old.
Perhaps this is a good place for all of us to start.
International journal of arts management
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