Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222 – 234

A review of recent advances in the application of blank-holder

force towards improving the forming limits of sheet metal parts
E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi *
Department of Mechanical Engineering–Engineering Mechanics, Michigan Technological Uni6ersity, Houghton, MI 49931, USA

Received 14 January 1997

Abstract

This paper presents a review of current industrial research and development in blank-holding technology, and its effect on the
formability of sheet metals. The first section of the paper introduces a brief historical background of how and why the formability
of sheet metal is defined in terms of a two-dimensional strain map. It also describes how the measure of formability depends on
the state of strain, which in turn depends on the specific experimental technique used. Section 2 briefly reviews research work
dealing with both experimental and theoretical determination of the forming-limit diagram (FLD), the focus being to demonstrate
the significance of the strain path on the FLD by showing how the calculated limit strain depends on the strain history. Sections
3 and 4 demonstrate that for a given sheet material and part geometry, the parameters involved in stamping practice can
significantly affect the formability of the material. It is shown how the blank-holder force and the way it is applied on the blank
affects the state of stress and strain within the part, and also influences the strain path. Section 3 reviews open- and closed-loop
control of the blank-holder force, and demonstrates that by properly adjusting this parameter the working window between the
tearing and wrinkling boundaries can be expanded. The research work reviewed in this section employed a uniformly-distributed
blank-holder force, which varied with time (punch depth). The application of this technology to large, industry-size panels is
mostly reported by the Japanese automobile industry. Section 4 describes how the real-time control of the blank-holder force has
been expanded to include spacial as well as time variations. The papers reviewed in this section deal with the multi-force
variable-blank-holding technique and report considerable improvement in formability. Significant development in this area has
been made in Germany, leading to the construction of production-size presses. So far as an optimum trajectory of blank-holder
force variation is concerned, the results are inconclusive. It appears that an ideal trajectory depends on both part geometry and
material type. Considering that different materials show different sensitivity to various modes of failure, the above observation is
not unexpected. © 1998 Published by Elsevier Science S.A.

Keywords: Blank-holder force; Forming limits; Sheet metal parts

1. Historical background ings increased significantly.

1.1. Strain-defined failure-limit cur6es
The limits of formability in sheet metal operations are
described in terms of the principal strains by the forming-
limit diagram (FLD). The development of the FLD
began with tests performed by Keeler and Backofen on
the stretching of circular blanks by a hemispherical
punch [1]. They observed that as the in-plane strain ratio
(the ratio of the circumferential strains to the radial
strains) increased from 0 to 1, the fracture – strain read-
* Corresponding author.
Keeler subsequently proposed the use of electrochem-
ically-etched grids to measure strain histories and strain
distributions as a tool for determining forming limits[2].
He constructed a diagram with axes of major and minor
strains, and represented the ‘critical strain level’ as a
curve which increased as the state of strain changed from
plane-strain toward balanced biaxial tension.
In 1967, Marciniak and Kuczynski proposed their
analytical model for limit-strain prediction based on the
initial inhomogeneity of a material, which has been
foundational for much of the subsequent work in this
area and is commonly referred to as the M–K theory [3].
They attributed changes in limiting strain values to

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PII S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 9 7 ) 0 0 3 6 8 - 3
 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
the loading history of the specimen, the ratio of the
principal stresses, and several material properties, in-
cluding the initial inhomogeneity. They noted that the
largest limiting strains in the biaxial stretching region
were obtained during equal biaxial tension, whilst the
minimum values occurred in plane-strain.
One of the primary applications of the circular grid
system and FLD proposed by Keeler was the analysis
of strain distributions in actual stampings to improve
part quality and optimize die design [4]. Since Keeler’s
experiments continued to verify his earlier results,
showing that the lowest formability exists under plane-
strain conditions, he proposed restricting the inward
flow of metal from the flange in order to induce biaxial
tensile strains, thereby increasing the forming limits.
The preceding studies focused on the determination
of forming limits solely in the region of biaxial tension.
However, in 1968, Goodwin used a combination of
cup- and tension-tests to obtain a failure band in both
the negative and positive quadrants of minor strain,
creating the general form of the forming-limit diagram
as shown in Fig. 1 [5].
In order to reveal the effects of planar anisotropy on
formability, Marciniak et al. performed an experimen-
tal study involving steel, aluminum, and copper [6].
These tests were performed under proportional-strain-
ing conditions, and showed that the forming limits were
significantly different in the rolling direction compared
with transverse direction. This demonstrated that the
limit curve does not consist of mirror images which
begin at the principal axes and meet at the state of
equal biaxial tension; instead, the limit strains are gen-
erally somewhat greater in the rolling direction.
A further investigation of variations in the forming-
limit diagram was conducted by Ghosh and Hecker,
who concluded that the limit strains obtained in punch-
Fig. 1. The Keeler – Goodwin forming-limit diagram (FLD) [5].
223
stretching operations were considerably higher than
those resulting from in-plane stretching tests [7,8]. Their
in-plane stretching tests employed the use of a
polyethylene spacer on either side of the nose of a
punch in order to induce in-plane deformation. They
theorized that the friction and curvature present during
punch stretching cause strain localization to take place
at a much lower rate than for in-plane stretching.
Up to this point, most work on constructing the
forming-limit diagram had employed the use of grid
strain analysis on actual automotive stampings or on
test specimens deformed by punches of various ge-
ometries. In 1975, Hecker introduced a methodical
approach involving the stretching of sheets of various
widths over a hemispherical punch to obtain strain
conditions ranging from uniaxial tension to balanced
biaxial tension[9]. Using the onset of localized necking
to define a single limit of failure, Hecker obtained a
forming-limit curve lying mostly within the Keeler–
Goodwin band. The advantage of his technique is the
ability to determine an entire forming-limit curve with
specimens of different widths and/or the use of different
lubricants. His experimental forming-limit curve for
aluminum-killed steel is shown in Fig. 2.
An analytical model describing neck growth in sheet
metals under various loading conditions, from which a
predicted forming-limit diagram can be calculated, was
subsequently developed by Lee and Zaverl [10]. Their
results corresponded to those of the lower, in-plane
forming limits. However, the analysis did not account
for the effects of strain history and its influence on such
properties as the plastic strain ratio. The authors had
previously developed a generalized constitutive equa-
tion to address these effects, but determined that its
inclusion would make the analytical forming-limit
model inhibitively complex.
2. Strain-path effects on the forming-limit diagram
Hsu et al. have demonstrated, by actual measure-
ments, that the strain paths in axisymmetrical cup
drawing operations are not linear [11]. As the flange is
drawn in, the strain paths in that region of the cup
undergo a substantial shift between the initial and latter
stages of deformation.
Early work in the development of the forming-limit
diagram assumed linear strain paths. With the full use
of grid-strain analysis and, later, computer simulation,
the strain histories in various deep-drawing operations
have become more readily identifiable. Acknowledging
the importance of the strain path in determining a
forming-limit diagram, Hecker presented the actual
strain paths that occurred during his hemispherical-
punch FLD test, as shown in Fig. 3 [8].
224 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234

Fig. 2. FLD for aluminum-killed steel [9].

Shortly after the Keeler – Goodwin FLD had been
developed, researchers began to find that, for some
materials, such forming limits changed significantly
with alterations in the strain path. An early experimen-
tal study, performed by Matsuoka and Sudo, investi-
gated the forming limits of aluminum-killed steel sheets
that had been subjected to various types of second-
stage strains, following first-stage deformation through
balanced biaxial tension, uniaxial tension, or a modified
drawing operation [12]. They determined that, in gen-
eral, the forming limits increased with increases in the
first-stage strains. The exception was the case of first-
stage balanced biaxial tension, which resulted in signifi-
cantly lower fracture strains.
Kobayashi et al. conducted their own investigation of
strain-path-dependent forming limits in aluminum-sta-
bilized steel sheets [13]. Their findings confirmed Mat-
suoka and Sudo’s [12] conclusion that equi-biaxial
prestrains resulted in a reduction in the forming-limit
curve. They also established that plane-strain predefor-
mation resulted in a slight reduction in the forming
limits, whereas uniaxial prestrain tension caused the
forming limits for subsequent equi-biaxial stretching to
be greater than those obtainable in constant strain ratio
deformation. Plane-strain deformation following uniax-
ial tension resulted in failure at substantially lower
major strain values than those of the limit strains in the
constant strain ratio FLD.
Müschenborn and Sonne performed a major study of
the strain-path dependency of the forming-limit dia-
grams for aluminum-killed and titanium-stabilized
steels [14]. They showed that prestraining which in-
 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
volved drawing or uniaxial tension generally caused the
forming-limit diagram to shift in the direction of in-
creasing major strain. Predeformation which involved
biaxial stretching, however, resulted in a downward
shift in the FLD. Based on the results of their experi-
ments, the authors developed a set of empirical rules for
the calculation of forming-limit diagrams resulting from
two-stage strain paths.
The research of Kleemola and Pelkkikangas also
involved the use of two-stage strain paths with either
uniaxial or balanced biaxial prestraining [15]. The re-
sults of their experiments with AKDQ steel were gener-
ally in agreement with forming limits calculated using
the methods of Müschenborn and Sonne. Their work
indicates that the trend toward an upward shift in the
FLD that results from uniaxial prestrain is most pro-
nounced when the second stage of strain involves biax-
ial tension. Their forming-limit diagram construction
shows that second-stage strain ratios between uniaxial
tension and plane-strain result in failure at slightly
lower values of major strain. The authors obtained
similar results for 5 percent cold-rolled copper and
although much less pronounced, for 70:30 soft brass.
Laukonis and Ghosh determined forming limits for
equi-biaxially-prestrained cold-rolled and annealed alu-
minum-killed steel and 2036-T4 aluminum alloy [16].
Their experiments confirmed the downward shift in the
forming-limit curve for biaxially-prestrained AK steels.
The testing of the 2036-T4 aluminum, however, found
that the plane-strain limit remained essentially un-
Fig. 3. Strain paths for lubricated (L) and dry (D) tensile and
punch-stretching specimens of indicated widths: the FLC denotes the
onset of localized necking [8].
225
changed through various amounts of biaxial prestrain-
ing.
An investigation into the strain-path effects on the
forming limits of aluminum alloys was undertaken by
Lloyd and Sang. The authors used five different alu-
minum alloys, including 1100-0, 3003-0, 2036-T4, 5182-
0, and X-96 [17,18]. In their first series of tests, the
authors prestrained the specimens in uniaxial tension,
followed by further tensile deformation in an orthogo-
nal direction. The authors concluded that the tensile
failure limit of aluminum alloys 2036-T4 and 5182-0
exhibited no change from that of ordinary, single-stage
uniaxial loading. The 1100-0 and 3003-0 aluminum
alloys failed at a higher strain sum than in uniaxial
tension.
Several efforts have been made to develop a strain
path-dependent theoretical forming-limit diagram based
on the M–K theory of neck formation and the an-
isotropic flow theory of plasticity. One of the first
attempts to predict a FLD for two-stage strain paths
with linear components was undertaken by Rasmussen,
who also performed experimental verification of his
model using aluminum-killed steel [19]. His results
showed a general upward shift of the forming-limit
curve for uniaxial prestraining and a downward shift
corresponding to balanced biaxial prestraining. Ras-
mussen subsequently extended his assessment to include
particular curvilinear strain paths [20]. He concluded
that the important difference between the forming-limit
curves of single-stage linear strain paths and curvilinear
strain paths appears when the latter portion of the
curvilinear path approaches plane-strain conditions,
which results in a dramatic reduction of the forming
limit.
A model for determining forming-limit diagrams for
isotropic, rate-sensitive materials subjected to complex
strain paths was developed by Barata da Rocha and
Jalinier [21]. Like Rasmussen, they concluded that the
direction of the strain path during the final stages of
deformation is the important factor in determining the
limits that define the onset of plastic instability. Barata
da Rocha et al. [22] then augmented their analysis with
the work of Marciniak et al. [6] on the effects of
anisotropy of forming limits in the region of biaxial
stretching. The resulting theoretical model was capable
of predicting strain-path-dependent forming-limit dia-
grams for anisotropic materials.
Further development in the modelling of the
modified forming-limit diagram was performed by Lu
and Lee, who approached their analysis by examining
two different hardening models: isotropic and kine-
matic [23]. The authors noted that the forming-limit
calculations were significantly easier to perform with
the isotropic hardening model, which also yielded more
accurate predictions for the case of uniaxial prestrain-
ing followed by balanced biaxial tension. On the other
226 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
Fig. 4. Forming-limit diagram with wrinkling-limit curve [25].
hand, the kinematic hardening model led to predicted
forming-limits that were very close to the experimental
values determined for particular aluminum-killed and
aluminum-stabilized steel sheets under proportional
straining.
More recently, interest in strain-path-dependent
forming-limit diagrams for aluminum alloys has been
driven by their potential application in the automotive
industry. Graf and Hosford performed experiments us-
ing aluminum alloy 2008-T4, prestrained at various
levels of uniaxial tension, biaxial tension, and plane-
strain [24]. The specimens were then subjected to the
hemispherical-punch FLD test. The authors confirmed
that the minimum point of the forming-limit diagram
always occurs for plane-strain conditions, regardless of
the path followed during prestraining. They also deter-
mined that biaxial prestrains generally lower the FLD,
whereas plane-strain and uniaxial-tension prestrains
generally raise the forming-limit curves. The reduced
formability in biaxially prestrained sheets was at-
tributed to ridging, which developed parallel to the
rolling direction.
3. Control of blank-holder forces to improve sheet
metal formability
With the development of a forming-limit diagram to
denote the fracture strain limits of a material, efforts
were made to find a similar frontier to express the onset
of metal buckling due to compressive instability.
The first major effort to define a wrinkling-limit
curve (WLC) was undertaken by Havranek in his study
of conical cup formation [25]. His experiments yielded a
series of data points that formed a narrow, linear band,
as shown in Fig. 4. In the range of material thicknesses
tested, 0.25–0.99 mm, the wrinkling-limit curve proved
to be independent of sheet thickness.
Subsequent research by Szacinski and Thomson,
however, indicated that a wrinkling-limit curve cannot
be obtained in a form that can be included in the
traditional forming-limit diagram [26]. Strain measure-
ments performed on drawn stainless-steel sink bowls
failed to distinguish between regions of the forming-
limit diagram where wrinkling would and would not
occur. According to the authors, this situation occurred
because the strain values at wrinkling were determined
by the geometry of the test rather than by a condition
of instability. The authors, noting that wrinkling may
occur at any point on the forming-limit diagram, specu-
late that wrinkling depends on the strain history, and
that some changes in the strain path introduce a com-
ponent of compressive stress which, if it reaches a
critical magnitude, may initiate wrinkling.
Using Havranek’s general concept of a ‘safe’ region
between the wrinkling- and forming-limit curves, Hardt
and Lee proposed two closed-loop control strategies to
provide, for each individual stamping specimen, suffi-
cient ‘tensile bias’ to prevent wrinkling, yet low enough
to avoid fracture failures [27]. Earlier work by Doege
and Sommer had also examined the possibility of con-
trolling the blank-holder force (BHF) with respect to
the displacement of the punch as a means of safely
avoiding the onset of either buckling or tearing, as
shown in Fig. 5 [28].
The first system established by Hardt and Lee was
designed to maintain a constant blank-holder displace-
ment, allowing a limited amount of flange buckling as a
predictive measurement of buckling in the unsupported
region of the part [27]. The blank-holder force was kept
at the minimum necessary to prevent buckling in the
unsupported region in order to avoid tearing. Their
second approach was to regulate the volume of material
entering the die cavity, through a generalized thickness
variable (t). This variable was used to control the
BHF. The authors concluded that their strategies did
not appreciably increase the maximum cup height
which could be achieved, but did significantly reduce
the sensitivity of this maximum value to changes in the
blank-holder control variable.
Fig. 5. Qualitative illustration of the BHF working window for
successful part drawing [28].
 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234 227

This work was continued by Hardt et al., who em-

ployed closed-loop control of sheet forming operations
to determine optimal blank-holder force trajectories
[29,30]. These control schemes were based upon the
tangential force and the normalized average thickness.
Through a proportional plus integral (PI) controller,
the tangential force and the normalized average thick-
ness feedback values were used to control the binder
force servo valve. The authors performed a series of
tests in the forming of conical cups from cold-rolled
steel sheet. The tangential force and the normalized
average thickness control experiments did not result in
a significant increase in the maximum cup height over
the cup heights achievable at an optimum, constant
blank-holder force. However, the failure heights in the
closed-loop system were almost constant throughout
the entire range of initial blank-holder forces, meaning
that prior knowledge of the optimum constant BHF
was not necessary [29]. The usefulness of these tech-
Fig. 6. Diagram showing the onset of wrinkling, (o) and fracture,
niques were subsequently extended to the forming of
( +), along with the amplitude of the wrinkles, as a function of
square boxes of unequal corner radii [30]. blank-holder force and punch displacement [32].
Yossifon et al. performed further research in the area
of variable blank-holder force [31]. They implemented a that were obtained from these experiments varied sig-
control scheme which allowed the BHF path to be nificantly with variations in the types and properties of
preset over the entire range of the punch stroke. the steels being tested. The initial BHF values used by
Through a series of constant-BHF tests performed on the authors were high, from which point the closed-
annealed aluminum 1100-0 blanks, the authors were loop control began to decrease the BHF as the punch
able to devise a diagram of BHF as a function of punch load increased, in order to ensure that ‘the material is
stroke, similar to Fig. 5, which showed the linearly- stretched to the highest level’ without causing tearing.
bound regions beyond which the specimen would un- The minimum BHF value corresponded to approxi-
dergo either fracture or wrinkling. They concluded that mately the same point in the punch stroke as the
the optimal variable BHF path is that which corre- maximum punch load, as shown in Fig. 7. The authors
sponds to the minimum boundary of the acceptable found such a scheme to be capable of significant im-
zone, meaning that the blank-holder force is to be provements in the obtainable limiting drawing ratios.
maintained at a value just sufficient to avoid the wrin-
kling frontier on their BHF-punch stroke diagram.
Majlessi and Lee also developed a diagram which
shows the onset of wrinkling and fracture at various
blank-holder force values as a function of punch travel
[32]. Their work quantitatively established for EIDQ
steel, BHF-dependent wrinkling and fracture frontiers
that had been defined qualitatively by Doege and Som-
mer [28]. Majlessi and Lee suggest that, for the speci-
men geometry and the material tested, a lowest point
exists on the fracture curve in such a diagram, and that
BHF may be varied in such a way that its trajectory
closely follows that contour of the fracture curve, in
order to minimize wrinkling whilst avoiding the frac-
ture limit, as demonstrated in Fig. 6.
Similar research performed by Kergen and Jodogne
was aimed at determining minimum BHF curve trajec-
tories for various steels [33,34]. Using a wrinkle-detec-
tion system based on measuring the distance between
the die and the blank-holder, the authors were able to Fig. 7. Minimum BHF trajectory and measured punch load for the
establish a BHF scheme based on closed-loop control. drawing of a 150 mm diameter steel (XD340) cylindrical cup from a
The measured BHF trajectories and minimum BHF blank of 300 mm diameter [33,34].
228 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
Fig. 8. Profile of the body wrinkles resulting from two different BHF trajectories [36,37].
Earlier work by Thiruvarudchelvan and Lewis had
proven success with the exact opposite approach [35].
Using a urethane pad of the proper dimensions as a
sleeve between the punch and the blank-holder, the
authors were able to generate blank-holder forces
roughly proportional to the punch force in the process
of drawing wrinkle-free cups.
This fundamental disagreement on the shape of the
optimum blank-holder force trajectory is also reflected
in the work of other researchers regarding the use of
linear-combination BHF schemes in the drawing of
actual panels. Hirose et al. showed the success of an
increasing, linear-combination BHF trajectory [36,37].
This pattern, as illustrated in Fig. 8, proved effective in
preventing the formation of wrinkles in an automobile
body panel. The authors further concluded that when a
decreasing, linear-combination BHF trajectory (also
shown in Fig. 8) is employed, the body wrinkles remain
unaffected [36].
A different finding was made by Van der Hoeven et
al., who found a decreasing linear-combination BHF
trajectory helpful in improving the quality of fender
panels, although in their study it also proved necessary
to add holes to specific areas in each blank in order to
eliminate undesirable deflections [38]. Kirii et al., who
also tested different linear and linear-combination BHF
patterns in panel formation, concluded that a linearly
decreasing BHF scheme was the optimum approach,
because it eliminated cracks and wrinkles in the drawn
part and resulted in the smoothest and most symmetri-
cal upper fuel inlet area in the panel [39].
Likewise, Blümel et al. found decreasing BHF pat-
terns to be effective, in which the blank-holder force
was increased slightly during the initial stage of the
punch travel before decreasing linearly to zero at the
end of the punch stroke [40]. Gunnarsson et al. also
determined, for axisymmetric deep drawing, that blank-
holder force trajectories which decreased linearly from
the optimum constant BHF to zero were superior to
both constant and increasing schemes, in terms of
allowing operations of a greater drawing ratio to be
performed without tearing [41].
Axisymmetrical cup-forming process simulations in-
volving the closed-loop control of blank-holder forces,
based on the tangential force and normalized average
thickness trajectories of Hardt et al. [29,30], were per-
formed by Sim and Boyce using finite-element analysis
[42]. These models yielded numerical results for the
BHF trajectories that had been employed by the closed-
loop system to increase the height to which the cups
could be drawn. The authors found further improve-
ments in the simulated achievable draw depth when the
blank-holder forces were controlled to be decreased if
the material thinned more rapidly than was specified in
a predetermined localized thickness trajectory.
Jalkh et al. [43] and Cao et al. [44] built upon this
work to develop both experimental and analytical ap-
proaches to determining variable BHF trajectories. The
authors, having concluded that decreasing BHF trajec-
tories were ineffective, performed a series of drawing
tests with minimal initial blank-holder forces. The
small, initial BHF was held constant until wrinkling
appeared in the flange, at which time the BHF was
stepped upwards to a new level, to be maintained until
wrinkling occurred again. The process was repeated
until a ‘staircase’-shaped BHF trajectory, which could
then be smoothed through the fitting of simpler func-
tions, was developed for the process. By using a finite-
element model to predict the onset of buckling (believed
to be the more critical mode of failure in the drawing of
cups made from the aluminum 2008-T4 alloy in ques-
tion), the authors were able to calculate an upwards-
climbing BHF trajectory which was consistent with that
determined experimentally, except at high punch dis-
placements where the model’s emphasis on the suppres-
sion of wrinkling produced a severe, impractical
upswing in the blank-holder force.
Further work toward establishing BHF trajectories
through finite-element analysis was performed by
Traversin et al., who were able, in ‘most’ cases, to
simulate the onset of wrinkling in steel cups with an
accuracy of 95 percent [45]. Using BHF trajectories
similar to the minimum-curve type shown in Figs. 6
and 7, Traversin et al. were able to form cups with a
greater drawing ratio whilst avoiding buckling failures.
Although differences between the finite-element model
and the experimental results did remain, their computer
analysis proved relatively successful at predicting and
controlling the forces involved in the operation.
 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
Fig. 9. Onset of tearing with the BHF pulsating at a frequency of 3 Hz for the static case (a =0 kN) and non-static amplitudes of 9, 13, and 20
kN [49].
Although they noted that the relative effectiveness of
increasing or decreasing BHF schemes may be reversed
depending upon the geometries and strain histories
involved, Hishida and Wagoner determined that the
best performance in the formation of two types of
automotive fender panels was achieved by an increasing
trajectory [46]. Their experimental tests accounted for
the fracture limits, wrinkle heights, and the surface
distortion present in the formed panels. The increasing
BHF trajectory that they successfully employed was
one in which the blank-holder force remained constant
through the first stage of the punch travel and was then
increased to a higher value for the remainder of the
test.
Different results were obtained by Ahmetoglu et al.,
who employed computer modelling in the drawing of a
round cup [47]. Three different values (punch force,
radial stress, and thickness strain) were used to control
the blank-holder force during the simulation. The au-
thors smoothed these results into a single, descending
BHF trajectory, which was then utilized in the drawing
of a 330.2 mm diameter blank into a 152.4 mm galva-
nized steel cup. In experiments performed with constant
blank-holder forces, a BHF of 7 tons had resulted in
failure due to severe wrinkling, whereas a BHF of 10
tons had led to failure by fracture at 73.0 mm of punch
travel. The descending BHF trajectory (from 15 to 7
tons) that had been calculated resulted in the successful
drawing of the cup to a height of 159 mm.
Decreasing BHF trajectories was further examined
by Ahmetoglu et al. regarding the deep drawing of
rectangular parts from aluminum alloy 2008-T4 [48].
Their experiments and finite-element analysis indicated
that reducing the BHF from a large value to one at
which wrinkling would have otherwise occurred under
constant conditions significantly reduced the amplitude
of the wrinkles, whilst avoiding the fracture associated
with a greater constant BHF.
229
More recently, a new approach to the variation of
blank-holder forces has involved pulsation. Experi-
ments by Siegert and Ziegler have found that the onset
of wrinkling in a blank drawn with a pulsating BHF
occurs at a displacement similar to that obtained under
a constant BHF equal to the maximum force of the
pulsation [49]. The reduction in the friction force
achieved when the pulse reduces the BHF to below this
maximum allows increased deformation to occur prior
to tearing, without sacrificing effective wrinkle suppres-
sion. An example of the increase in the working win-
dow achieved with zinc-coated and phosphated steel
sheets, employing a pulse frequency of approximately 3
Hz (the specific frequency itself was determined to be of
little influence), is shown in Fig. 9.
4. Localized variable BHF control and its effects on
strain paths and the FLD
One alternative to the traditional, rigid blank-holder
was proposed by Doege and Sommer, regarding the
drawing of non-axisymmetric components [50]. They
developed a flexible blank-holder consisting of an elas-
tomeric sheet and a series of pressure bars. They com-
ment that an ordinary rigid blank-holder mainly
touches the thickest points of the sheet, i.e. within the
corners of the flange. Thus, wrinkles forming on the
outer edge of the flange are unaffected by a rigid
blank-holder due to insufficient contact; attempts to
rectify this situation by increasing the BHF risk gener-
ating tears in the specimen. They reported that the
flexible blank-holder configuration allowed more even
contact with the flange surface, resulting in better sup-
pression of the outer-edge wrinkles.
Doege and Stock then combined the development of
the elastic blank-holder with the variation of BHF with
respect to punch stroke and location [51]. Two basic
230 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
Fig. 10. Improvements in the maximum attainable forming height through independent control of the corner BHP (pc) and the side BHP (ps) with
a segmented blank-holder plate [57].
types of elastic-blank holders were used: an elastic,
mechanically-resistant rubber plate and a hydro-elastic
blank-holder with a closed pressure bolster. In the latter
system, the blank-holder is designed such that a pres-
surized space exists immediately behind the elastic sheet
that contacts the surface of the specimen, allowing for
equal distribution of the applied blank-holder pressure
regardless of any localized differences that may occur in
the thickness of the flange. The pressures in the hy-
draulic cylinders associated with different portions of
the blank-holder were controlled during the punch
stroke in order to obtain the advantages of a variable
BHF scheme. The authors found this to be effective in
producing drawn parts without wrinkling or fracture.
The intermediate step between flexible and rigid
blank-holders proved to be the segmented blank-holder,
one which could be subjected to a different BHF con-
trol scheme at different locations, depending on the
geometry. This situation was studied in simulations
performed by Wang and Majlessi in the case of the
drawing of a square box [52]. The blank-holder design
in question consisted of an eight-piece segmented plate,
with four pieces corresponding to the four sides of the
cup and four corresponding to the four corners. The
finite-element analysis indicated that acceptable results
were obtained when the corner blank-holder pressures
(BHP) were maintained at a low, constant level (10 psi),
whilst the maximum side blank-holder pressures were
significantly higher (300 psi). Variable BHP trajectories
also produced sound cups such as an increasing scheme
where the side BHP increases linearly from 0 to 300 psi
halfway through the punch displacement before being
held constant thereafter.
In order to experimentally examine the practical ef-
fects of such location-varying BHF control, numerous
equipment modifications have been made to introduce
newly-developed blank-holder technologies. The Insti-
tute for Metal Forming Technology at the University of
Stuttgart, for example, introduced a system for adapt-
ing single-action presses to include multiple indepen-
dently-controlled blank-holder hydraulic cylinders [53].
This was followed by the inclusion of a segmented
blank-holder, considered by Siegert et al. to be an
‘essential’ step in achieving optimized, closed-loop BHF
control [54]. Similar modifications of a double-action
press to include separately-controlled hydraulic cylin-
ders acting on a segmented blank-holder was under-
taken at Michigan Technological University by Saeedy
and Majlessi [55]. A large industrial example of the
application of such multi-point technology is the trans-
fer press at the Sindelfingen plant of Mercedes-Benz,
constructed by Müller-Weingarten AG in 1994, for the
production of panels from blanks of 4.2× 2 m [56]. The
Sindelfingen press employs 15 hydraulic cylinders, each
independently controlled, supplying a total blank-
holder force of 6000 kN.
Further development of segmented blank-holders
and experimental confirmation of their effectiveness in
the drawing of square parts were performed by Murata
and Matsui [57]. They found that even when the BHP
in the corners and the sides were held equal and con-
stant, the attainable drawing height was greater with
the segmented blank-holder than with the rigid, single-
piece blank-holder. The cup height at fracture was
further increased when the side and corner regions of
the blank-holder were subjected to variable BHP con-
trol. The authors had established a fracture-limit curve
(LB) and a flange-wrinkling-limit curve (LW). Although
several different types of blank-holder control patterns
were investigated, the scheme shown in Fig. 10a proved
to be superior. The side BHP was controlled in a
manner allowing it to parallel the fracture-limit curve,
while remaining in the ‘safe’ region of the BHP vs.
punch stroke diagram, in the same manner as the path
shown in Fig. 6. In another series of tests, as demon-
strated in Fig. 10b, the corner BHP was maintained at
a minimal value until the onset of wrinkling, at which
point the pressure in that region had to be increased,
 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
Fig. 11. Three-region variable BHP trajectory scheme designed for a divided blank-holder plate in which one quadrant consists of twelve
independent segments [58].
allowing the authors to establish an optimum mini-
mum-force trajectory for the corner of the blank-
holder. They reported that their BHP scheme with the
segmented blank-holder produced mild steel cups of
which the maximum heights were approximately 1.7
times larger than those obtainable with a one-piece,
rigid blank-holder subjected to a constant BHF, as
indicated in Fig. 10c. The improvement with aluminum
alloy sheet cups was roughly 1.3 times.
Manabe et al. refined and reversed the system of
Murata and Matsui by introducing a divided blank-
holder for square-cup drawing in which one quadrant
was divided into twelve independent segments [58]. This
arrangement allowed the authors to devise a scheme in
which three different BHF trajectories, corresponding
to three different regions of the blank-holder as shown
in Fig. 11, were employed. Manabe et al. used a de-
creasing corner BHF trajectory, an increasing side BHF
trajectory, and a minimal constant BHF in the
boundary region adjacent to the die corner radius. The
authors reported that this system improved the depths
to which square cups could be drawn successfully be-
yond those attainable with the scheme of Murata and
Matsui.
Murata and Matsui had noted that in the corner
region of the square cups, at larger forming heights,
their variable BHP scheme with the segmented blank-
holder resulted in significantly lower strains near to the
nose of the punch (where failure commonly occurs) and
higher strains in the region of the cup along the shoul-
der of the die [57]. They concluded that the improve-
ment was the result of delayed straining in the critical
regions along the punch nose radius.
Employing a blank-holder in which the BHF did not
vary with respect to location, Fukutomi et al. also
established that delaying some plastic strains until the
latter stages of a forming operation improved the di-
mensional accuracy of fender panels [59]. The authors
concluded that such strains, should be increased whilst
the panel fitted itself to the punch. As a result, they
determined that an increasing, rather than decreasing,
231
blank-holder force trajectory should be adopted to
affect the strain path in such a manner.
Both types of variable blank-holder trajectories were
studied by Wang and Majlessi, who used a finite-ele-
ment method to analyze the strain distributions and
strain paths present in the deep drawing of a round cup
[60]. The strain paths established in this manner were
divided into three basic types. The model demonstrated
that the material in the flange was subjected to near-
uniaxial tension on a linear strain path, whilst the metal
beneath the punch face stretched linearly in near-biaxial
tension. The intermediate regions consisted of initial,
nearly-linear strain paths ranging between two ex-
tremes, followed by plane-strain. The variable BHF
scheme used in the analysis was based on a low level of
100 kN and a high level of 150 kN, which served as the
constant initial or final values (with a gradual switch
near to the mid-point of the operation), depending
upon whether a particular trajectory was increasing or
decreasing, as shown in Fig. 12a. Although they re-
ported that the model did not indicate any substantial
changes in strain path between the two variable
schemes and a constant BHF of 125 kN, the authors
did determine that in the absence of other differences,
an increasing BHF trajectory was most favorable, due
to its ability to prevent the wrinkling that might other-
wise result from the large, compressive circumferential
strains in the flange, which are greatest during the later
stages of deformation.
Examining these results, Wang et al. focused on a
variable BHF-induced shift in the strain ratio during
the first stage of the strain path experienced by those
material points subjected to bi-linear deformation [61].
By employing the M–K model to calculate the form-
ing-limit diagram for the actual strain paths, the au-
thors were able to show that the smaller first-stage
strain ratio magnitude associated with their increasing
variable BHF trajectory resulted in a higher actual
forming-limit curve than those of the constant or de-
creasing BHF schemes, as shown in Fig. 12. Wang et al.
proposed that their work, combined with further exper-
232 E.J. Obermeyer, S.A. Majlessi / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 75 (1998) 222–234
Fig. 12. Modified forming-limit diagram under actual strain paths obtained with three variable BHF patterns [61].
imental research, be used to develop a systematic
method of devising blank-holder force trajectories that
vary according to location and punch stroke, based
upon the effects of the BHF variations on the strain
paths and, as a result, on the modified forming-limit
diagram itself.
5. Conclusions
The stamping of sheet metal parts is limited by two
primary types of failure: wrinkling (buckling) and tear-
ing. This paper reviews attempts to optimize this pro-
cess by defining, in terms of strain, the fracture- and
wrinkling-limits of the material, as well as reviewing
efforts to use the variation of blank-holder forces to
avoid such limits to the greatest possible extent.
Schemes have been devised for the variation of the
blank-holder force with respect to punch stroke and
location on the flange. Although the pattern of the
optimum BHF variation is not unique and depends on
the part geometry and material, it is agreed generally
that a variable BHF applied on a rigid, one-piece
blank-holder generates superior results compared with
a constant BHF. This is because stamping is a non-
steady-state process in which the stress- and strain-
states change significantly during the operation,
meaning that the potential of developing splits or wrin-
kles varies with time. In addition, it is also generally
accepted that the use of a segmented or elastic blank-
holder results in an improvement in forming conditions
over those attained with a uniformly-applied BHF over
a rigid binder. This effect is explained by the deforma-
tion not being homogeneous in stamping, and there-
fore, the flange material thickening differently at
various locations.
The development of strain-path-dependent forming-
limit diagrams has allowed researchers the opportunity
to determine more accurately the actual safety margin
for each strain path in a real stamping, and for those
paths that could result from BHF variations and other
modifications.
These advances have facilitated the development of
optimized binder-force application techniques. Deploy-
ment of these techniques will ultimately enable the
industry to effectively implement open- and closed-loop
control of the stamping process, and to further exploit
the formability of sheet metal in the production of
lighter and more reliable parts.
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