The Aristocracy of Service The legacy of Kurt Hahn in the 21st century

Philippe Narval

Shortened version of a dissertation submitted to the University of Oxford for the degree of M.Sc. Education (Comparative International Education) in Trinity Term, 2011.

Es gehrt zum Menschen, berfordert zu werden. Sonst kommt das Beste, das er vermag, nicht zur Wirklichkeit. Karl Jaspers

Table of Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................... 2 Kurt Hahns Life ....................................................................................... 8 Kurt Hahns pedagogy and its historical context......................................15 Hahns Mission.......................................................................................15 Hahn and Britain ...................................................................................18 The Declines - Hahn's Critique of Society .............................................22 The Remedies Hahns Pedagogy .........................................................23 Kurt Hahns Achievements .......................................................................27 Salem .....................................................................................................27 Gordonstoun ..........................................................................................28 Outward Bound .....................................................................................29 The Duke of Edinburghs Award ...........................................................30 The United World Colleges ...................................................................32 Findings - Discussion and Analysis..........................................................33 Background to Interviews ......................................................................33 Interview structure and content ............................................................33 Kurt Hahns Mission in Education ........................................................35 Scholarships and Access .....................................................................36 Community Engagement ....................................................................37 The role of innovation ........................................................................38 Hahns Pedagogy and Society ................................................................39 Critique of Society ..............................................................................39 Recognition .........................................................................................40 Evidence and Impact ..........................................................................40 The Remedies Hahns Pedagogy .........................................................42 Challenge ............................................................................................43 Service ................................................................................................44 Leadership...........................................................................................46 Final Reflections .......................................................................................48 Conclusion ................................................................................................50 References.................................................................................................52

Introduction
As I am laying the finishing touches to this study, youth all over London are rioting in their communities. Events are still unfolding and too immediate for people to answer the many questions around the underlying causes. The German educational pioneer Kurt Hahn (1886-1974) would have had a clear answer as he believed that we live in a diseased civilisation, against which the young are inadequately protected (Hahn, 1944, p. 3). Instilled with a Victorian idealism Hahn saw education as the cure of the phelgmainousa polis 1 (Hahn, 1938, p. 4) and inspired by Plato he wanted schools to provide healing pastures for the young. He was both a man firmly rooted in Victorian values of education for leadership and a pedagogical innovator. A man of action (Mann, 1991, p. 133) throughout his life, he founded the schools Salem in Germany, Gordonstoun in Scotland and the international United World Colleges. He is responsible for the creation of the Outward Bound Movement and the Duke of Edinburghs Award Programme (DofE), which have both reached millions of youth in the UK and internationally. Hahn inspired many other initiatives. The Round Square Schools network was founded in Gordonstoun and unites over 80 schools worldwide which draw on Hahns pedagogy. The international organisation VSO (Volunteer Service Overseas) and the UK based charity CSV (Community Service Volunteers) both were founded by Alec Dickson a friend of Hahn - who got his first inspiration and ideas from setting up an Outward Bound School at Man OWar Bay in Nigeria (Swaisland, 2004, p.1). The International Baccalaureate (IB) Programme was directly influenced by the United World Colleges (UWCs) and its Atlantic College in Wales played from the start, a leading part in the IBs development2 (Peterson, 1987, p.13). The entire outdoor

1 2

= inflamed city Alec Peterson met Hahn originally in 1957 shortly before being appointed head of the University of Oxfords Department of Education. Upon visiting Atlantic College in 1961 Peterson embarked on 2

adventure education movement owes a lot to Hahns impetus and ideas. Particularly in the United States this movement has had an enormous reach through organisations like Outward Bound and National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS), founded in turn by Paul Petzold who had helped set up the first American Outward Bound Programme in 1963 (NOLS, 2011). Whereas today the language of Hahns speeches and writings might at times sound outdated, Hahn during his time was a gifted fundraiser with a mesmeric influence and great charm (Hunt, 1978, p. 131). However, his radical pedagogic thinking polarized his contemporaries both within and without an academic setting, and after Hahn had sought refuge from the Nazis in England in 1933 various criticisms of the political corollaries of his thought were levelled towards him. In the 1930s his pedagogy was attacked for resembling to closely the fascist youth movements (Marwick, 1964, p. 143; James, 1990, p. 11) and later on for being too elitist as well as for his supposedly outdated emphasis on character building (Worsley, 1985, p. 190). His supporters and admirers - ranging from the likes of the late educationalist Sir Brian Simon to Prince Philip, the current Duke of Edinburgh - praised him for his novel ideas in experiential learning, his emphasis on service, his stress on human potentiality and his imaginative approach to its release (Simon, 1998, p. 9). Amongst the various appraisals of Hahns achievement both hagiographic and anecdotal accounts of Hahns work and his ventures are to be found. His impact is registered in biographies of people as diverse as the mountaineer Sir John Hunt, the historians Golo Mann and George Mosse (both students at Salem in the 1920s) as well as numerous, brief references to him in texts on outdoor adventure pedagogy and experiential learning. Nevertheless Kurt Hahn is not well known to a wider audience. In Germany where his work originated he is largely forgotten, outshone by educational thinkers such as Rudolf Steiner and Maria Montessori. I write from

designing a broad academic curriculum for the school, which later under his leadership evolved into the IB. Peterson was also part of the founding committee of Atlantic College (IBO, 2004). 3

personal experience to say that even within organisations he directly founded his name is not always omnipresent. While I was a student at the Lester B. Pearson UWC in Canada, Hahn was reduced to a footnote in the history of the college3. Equally it was this personal experience of studying at Pearson College, which aroused my interest in Kurt Hahn and motivated me to analyse his philosophy and pedagogy more closely in this research. Little scholarly work has been published on Kurt Hahn, analysing his educational thought and legacy (van Oord, 2010, p. 253; Freeman, 2011, p. 24), and there is no comprehensive evaluation of his achievements published. Considering the impact of Hahns ideas described above, I hope that my study will help to address this imbalance. Over the last hundred years Kurt Hahns ideas have elicited both strong support and equally charged criticism. The first in a long line of commentators was the German novelist Hermann Hesse who praised Hahns first and only novel Frau Elses Verheiung in 1910 (Hesse, 1988, p. 473). Those who worked with Hahn generally admired his innovative and pioneering spirit. Adam Arnold-Brown, who was appointed the first warden of the Outward Bound Mountain School in Cumbria, published such an early account. He specifically values Hahns novel approach to character building through outdoor adventure (Arnold-Brown, 1962). James Hogan (1968) - another key figure in the early days of Outward Bound - argues along similar lines in his account of the foundation of the Outward Bound Movement. Henry Brereton, a former director of studies of Gordonstoun, places Hahn squarely in the tradition of British public schools and sees his pedagogy of service as a positive innovation to the traditional hierarchies of the boarding school system (Brereton, 1968, p. 138). Others who knew Hahn published alternative positive accounts on him or aspects of his work (James, 1957; Peddie, 1975; Hunt, 1978; Flavin, 1996).

Charles Stetson similarly argues that most people involved with Outward Bound USA are unaware of the name of the man who conceived the program and brought it to life (Stetson, 2004, p. 1). 4

Hugh Heckstall-Smith (1962), who worked at Gordonstoun for a brief period from 1947 until 1949, takes a more critical stance and is doubtful about effectiveness of Hahns claims to improvement of character. The journalist T. C. Worsley (1985), who is generally critical of public school education and best remembered for his autobiographical book Flannelled Fool, goes further in ridiculing Hahns Germanic weight and Platonic idealism in the same book. In 1970, Hermann Rhrs edited a collection of largely favourable, personal recollections on Hahn and another volume of supportive essays was edited by D. A. Byatt two years after Hahns death in 1976. In stark contrast MP and political campaigner Leo Abse poured scorn on Hahn in a diatribe entitled Wotan, My Enemy Can Britain live with the Germans in the European Union. Abse derides Hahns pedagogy, which he saw as founded upon the ideals of fantasied pure desexualised Teutonic knights of yore and derided Hahns attempts to outlaw puberty among his adolescent boys (Abse, 1994, p. 44). The German historian Golo Mann son of the famous German novelist Thomas Mann who generally reports very favourably about his former headmaster at Salem school, takes a more measured approach, but is also critical of Hahns attitude towards sexuality. This is the aspect of Hahns thinking which is least appreciated nowadays.

Kurt Hahns work tends to produce divided opinions. This in itself calls for a calmer, more reflective approach 125 years since his birth. Historical research can provide such an approach. It can objectify, contextualise and, as George Mosse argues, it can be empathetic, which means putting contemporary prejudice aside while looking at the past without fear or favour (Mosse, 2000, p. 5). Historical research is also a basis for asking questions about the present. As the past two decades have seen a re-emergence of the practice and rhetoric of character education (Freeman, 2011, p.21) and as this ideal was central to Kurt Hahns philosophy, it would only seem appropriate to examine his legacy and the relevance of his philosophy within its historical context. This is especially pertinent
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as I mentioned that little academic research is available on Hahn. His overall influence whatever it may be does not seem to be appropriately reflected in academia. The above stated question regarding Hahns legacy is broad and would overstretch what I can possibly investigate and rationalise in within this framework. It needs narrowing and focus and I therefore decided to focus on the five institutions which Kurt Hahn directly founded - Salem, Gordonstoun, Outward Bound, the Duke of Edinburghs Award and the United World Colleges. All of these still officially trace their origins to him and describe him as their inspiration. Decision makers inside these institutions can provide a unique perspective and insight on Hahns pedagogy as they reflect on it today in relation to their own field experience. Thus this dissertation will attempt to answer, by means of analysis of qualitative interviews with directive staff and board members of the core five, the question: Where does the relevance and legacy of Kurt Hahns pedagogy and philosophy lie today, for the organisations he founded directly? This involves allowing the interviewees to comment on a number of aspects of Hahns thought that I identify to be central principles. The organisations are diverse enough to assure a broad range of views. Nevertheless they share the Hahnian focus on experiential learning and they aim to instil moral values and to develop a range of attitudes and skills in young people all of which assures the comparability of results. Inevitably this will also lead to comments on the organisations evolution and the changing circumstances in which they operate, while exposing certain historical continuities. Engaging on this level of analysis will necessitate a reply to the previously mentioned issue of historical context. To be more precise: If I am to ask questions about a historical figure today, I very much need to strive to understand this same figure. In order to engage with contemporaries about Hahns legacy and relevance, I need to understand where he comes from. Where can we place Kurt Hahn socio-culturally,
6

which ideas influenced him and of course what are the main principles of his philosophy which interviewees will be asked to comment on?

Kurt Hahns Life4

Kurt Hahn was born into a cosmopolitan and prosperous family living in the fashionable district of Berlin Wannsee in 1886. His grandfather had been a successful entrepreneur and industrialist in the Rhineland and his son Oskar Hahn took over the family steel business at the turn of the century. His mother Charlotte Landau was a cultured woman and she hosted a famous salon. As the accomplished pianist that she was, she acted as a benefactress of the young Arthur Rubinstein (Sutcliffe, 2011, p. 8), 5 who was also befriended by the thirteen year old Kurt (Knoll, 1998, p. 352). Hahn admired his mother greatly and dedicated his first and only novel Frau Elses Verheiung (1910) to her. Lola Warburg-Hahn the wife of one of his three brothers in turn a sister of the German banking scion Eric Warburg - also played an important role in Hahns life and remained very supportive of his work throughout (Flavin, 1996, p. 4). For his secondary schooling Kurt Hahn attended the respectable WillhelmsGymnasium on Potsdam Square in Berlin, and he seems to have suffered under the stifling atmosphere of academic rigor (Knoll, 1998, p. 1). During this period, in the summer of 1902, Kurt Hahn embarked on a walking tour in the Dolomites with his uncle and three English boys his age (Flavin, 1996, p. 6). The boys were pupils of Cecil Reddies Abbotsholme in Derbyshire and their enthusiasm about their school and the life there caught on with Hahn. They presented Hahn with a copy of Hermann Lietzs laudatory account of the school entitled Emlohstobba. This book by

Facts from Kurt Hahns life are cited from where not otherwise stated his entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Wedell, 2004). 5 We get a glimpse of the illustrious family life from a memoir written by Sir Neville Butler. Kurt Hahn had actually secured Butlers release of from Ruhleben Internment Camp where he had been imprisoned as enemy alien after the outbreak of WWI and arranged for him to stay with the family until he could return to England. Coincidentally the young man was later to become secretary to PM Ramsay MacDonald and turn secured a high level intervention with the Nazi foreign minister von Neurath after Hahns arrest in 1933 contributing to his release (Byatt, 1976). 8

the German educational reformer and founder of the Landerziehungsheime left a lasting impression on Hahn (Skidelsky, 1969, p. 117). The years from 1904 to 1910 Hahn spent studying, initially for a year at the University of Oxford and then in Berlin, Heidelberg, Freiburg and Gttingen. In 1910 he returned to Oxford once more. Before World War I it was quite common for a member of the German social and political elite to spend time at Oxford and Hahns anglophilia was representative of the cosmopolitan nationalism within sections of the German aristocracy and bourgeoisie (Weber, 2008, p. 80). In his final years at Oxford, Hahn was active in college life through sport - mostly athletics and hockey and engaging in debates at the Oxford Union society (Knoll, 1998, p. 2). He was also a member of the Anglo-German Society which had the purpose to contribute to mutual understanding and to facilitate and strengthen the interchange of ideas between the two countries (Poster advertising the society, Weber, 2008, p. 77). Contrary to popular perception, which would suspect insurmountable rivalries between the Germans and the English in the years leading up to World War I, Germany was actually held in high esteem at Oxford during this period (Weber, 2008, p. 57). Considering Hahns personal abilities, it must not have been difficult for him to come into contact and establish friendly ties with members of a powerful British elite that would serve him well later on. At Oxford Hahn also developed a fierce admiration of what he saw as the English Public School system (Heckstall-Smith, 1962, p. 119). Hahn later argued that public schools trained certain personal qualities like confidence in effort, modesty in success, grace in defeat, fairness in anger, clear judgement even in the bitterness of wounded pride, readiness for service at all times all of which he greatly admired (Hahn, 1944, p. 3). The training of personal qualities such as these and generally an education for gentlemen was at the heart of undergraduate education at many Oxford colleges. This was in contrast to German elite universities like Heidelberg, which placed a stronger emphasis on academic
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achievement (Weber, 2008). The emphasis on education for leadership in both the British public schools and the University of Oxford with its teaching of how to be a certain kind of person (Wiener, 2004, p. 140) inspired Hahn and he vowed to found a new school in Germany upon his return (The Work of Kurt Hahn, 1958, p. 197). This return was somewhat forced upon him with the breakout of World War I. Unlike most young German men Hahn was not drafted into the army, as he was declared unfit for service. Hahn had suffered a severe sunstroke in 1904 and as a result undergone complicated cranial surgery in 1907. This treatment brought little relief and Hahn continued to be plagued by heavy migraine attacks throughout his life. Instead of the army he was seconded to the Zentralstelle fr Auslandsdienst the Intelligence unit of the German foreign ministry and responsible for analysing the British public opinion through a close monitoring of its press. Hahns precise and insightful reports were soon noticed by his superiors and he was transferred to the military department of the same ministry to assist Colonel Hans von Haeften, the political adviser of General Ludendorff and the German High Command (Knoll, 1998, p. 3). In 1917 he met Prince Max of Baden with whom he shared many political views. Both were nationalists in regards to Germanys role in the Easter Provinces and the claim to colonial empire (Sutcliffe, 2011, p.11). At the same time they opposed the escalation of the U-Boot warfare by the German navy and were strong proponents for armistice negotiations following a German recognition of Belgiums sovereignty (Knoll, 1998). The German high command was of different opinion and the subsequent outcome is well known. When Prince Max von Baden was appointed imperial chancellor in October 1918, Hahn became his personal secretary. As Ludendorffs last offensive had collapsed, the Prince had little room for political manoeuvre and in fact was forced to assume the role of the liquidator of the German Empire.

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Through his family connections with the Warburg family, Hahn was able to attend the Versailles peace negotiations and unofficially joined the German delegation (Mann, 1970). Hahn, as most of his contemporaries, was appalled by the allied demands at Versailles and the resulting treaty. As a reaction, he, Prince Max von Baden, Max Weber and Robert Bosch founded the Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr eine Politik des Rechts6 in Heidelberg, in February 1919. This group set itself the aim to influence public opinion in countries formerly opposed to Germany in order to achieve a revision of the Versailles treaty (Knoll, 1998, p. 90). Considering the war years of 1914-1919 we can not only see Kurt Hahn emerge as a political figure, but it is important to stress in what short time he managed to reach the upper echelons of a conservative, intellectual elite. Undoubtedly Hahn had great talents and brought with him the right type of connections, but it was war itself that had both a restricting and a liberating effect on life: people whose paths would never have crossed otherwise, meet, talk, combine, conspire (Becker, 1970, p. 147). With the tumultuous birth of the Weimar republic - attacked from the outset by radical forces from right and left - Hahn withdrew with Prince Max von Baden to his Schloss a former Cistercian monastery in Salem near Lake Constance. It was there that he founded the eponymous boarding school in 1920, whilst writing the memoirs with or better for Prince Max. Hahn founded the school in the tradition of the Lietz schools and wanted inspired by Platos educational philosophy to educate a generation of more responsible leaders in Germany. The connections Hahn had in Berlin and the reputation of Prince Max will have helped a great deal in the recruitment of initial students. The historian George Mosse for example, son of the prominent and influential newspaper publisher, was sent to Salem because his father had known Hahn from their time at the Willhelms-Gymnasium (Mosse, 2000, p. 53). Nevertheless, this does not wholly explain the rapid growth of the school and the

= Working Group for a Politics of Justice 11

success Hahn had in the first decade of Salems foundation. Again I must point to Hahns personal abilities as fundraiser, organizer and educator, for an explanation. Hahn - as with many of his other educational ventures was also successful in enlisting capable individuals for his causes; in Salem Karl Reinhart one of Germanys leading educationalists and Marina Ewald a former teacher of the progressive Odenwaldschule, who had received her university training in America were among them (Dargel et. al., 2010, p. 48). Without going into detail, a cursory glance at the Salem report card shows how differently the school was conceived from the standard German Gymnasium. The school marks only represent a small part of the final report to parents, which comprised numerous other classifications such as Esprit de Corps, Sense of Justice, the ability to state facts precisely, the ability to follow out what one believes to be the right course of action, manual dexterity as well as conscientiousness (Dargel et. al., 2010, p. 66). The admiration for the school was not unanimous however and as early as 1924, Hahn and the school were attacked by anti-Semitic press (Flavin, 1996, p. 2). The weak democratic culture in the Weimar republic and a prevailing mistrust in democracy, which Hahn shared with many Germans, made the Nazi rise to power in the 1920s much easier. Even though Hahn had personally underestimated the danger of the Nazis, he finally came out against them publicly in 1932, asking all alumni to terminate their allegiance either to Hitler or to the school (Flavin, 2006, p. 19). Shortly after the Nazis came to power in January 1933, Hahn was arrested in Salem, imprisoned for a week and released only on intervention by numerous supporters. Hahn sought refuge in England in the same year. Salem continued as a school, oscillating between co-option into the Nazi system of education and resistance until 1943 (Poensgen, 1996, p. 49) and was then reopened straight after the war. Hahn had been allowed upon intervention by Eric Warburg to travel to Germany and successfully negotiated with the French army to vacate the school in 1945. In the meantime, Hahn had successfully opened Gordonstoun boarding school in North12

eastern Scotland and experimented with the Moray Badge Achievement Awards. Out of the latter grew Outward Bound, which began in 1941 with a first sea school in Aberdovey. Some students and staff had joined Hahn in Gordonstoun coming from Salem, including the young Prince Philip of Greece, who would later play a central role in the foundation of the Duke of Edinburghs Award Programme. Hahn shrewdly built his ventures in England and Scotland on a network of powerful supporters which included the historian and Master of Trinity College Cambridge, George Trevelyan, Archbishop William Temple, Julian Huxley and the mountaineer and friend of Lord Baden-Powell, Geoffrey Winthrop-Young (Jeal, 2001, p. 351)7. The reputation of Salem certainly also aided his efforts, which in the 1930s had gained further credibility in elite circles, as its sports team won the public schools athletics competition, among 120 public schools at the White City in London, three times in this period (Brereton, 1968, p. 141). The latter years of Hahns life will become apparent through the introduction of the organisations he founded in the following chapter. However, a short biographical mention should be made of the personal tribulations Hahn suffered during his life as they may benefit the understanding of his philosophy. Whether related to his neurological illness or not, Hahn was a life-long manic-depressive and he was forced to abandon his Oxford examinations in 1906 because of his mental condition. He suffered three further breakdowns in 1945, in 1952 - at the time when he had to leave Gordonstoun as headmaster - and in 1968 after a car accident (Sutcliffe, 2011, p. 14). Perhaps it is from this perspective of personal suffering that he derived his strong belief that your disability is your opportunity (Hahn, 1960, p. 4)8 .

For an extensive list of Hahns powerful network for friends and acquaintances (including their short biographies) refer to Veevers and Allison (2011, pp. 80 92). Another illustration of Hahns superb network is the list of the first members of the governing body of Gordonstoun provided by Brereton (1968, p. 197/8). Ahead of his time, Hahn took also a very positive and inclusive approach to people with disability. He mentions in more than one occasion that special concessions should be made to the physically 13

As much as he was an innovator and reformer, Kurt Hahn was also caught in misconceptions of his day and age. He suppressed his own homosexuality (Brumlik, 2010, p. 4) and took an awkward, but common stance on sexuality (Mann, 1991, p. 146). According to George Mosse, Hahn and his contemporaries saw manliness as freedom from sexual passion, the sublimation of sensuality into leadership of society and the nation (Mosse, 1985, p. 13)9. Within this framework puberty was a deformity to be avoided, and during this time the human strength of childhood had to be maintained, unbroken and undiluted throughout adolescence, with the help of les grandes passions, the non-poisonous passions (Hahn, 1948, p. 21). This is not to say that Hahn remained stuck in his Victorian frame of mind. In fact in the course of his life he underwent a remarkable transformation. He founded Salem as a nationalist, encouraging Wehrsport exercises in the 1920s and ended as true peace building internationalist, founding the Atlantic College in Wales. In many ways he seems to have been caught between elements of tradition and modernity, something I will elaborate on in the subsequent chapter.

handicapped who through the daily challenge of their disability have often developed an undefeatable power to overcome (Hahn, 1965, p. 9). 9 I believe there is an interesting parallel here with the biography of the famous Baden-Powell whose subconscious need to control his sexuality by advising others how to deal with bad desires played a most important part in his emergence as adviser-in-chief to the youth of the world (Jeal, 2001, p. 411) 14

Kurt Hahns pedagogy and its historical context

Hahns Mission
Kurt Hahn never laid out a coherent or systematic philosophy of education (Skidelsky, 1969, p. 229) and this possibly harmed his reputation in Germany, where professing to an original theory is almost a prerequisite for fame in posterity. His texts are mostly public speeches, which strike through their repetitiveness, moral tone and emotional metaphors and stories. They were not intended for posterity, but for audiences of the time and day, and on most occasions Hahn was simply trying to rally support for his projects. Even during his lifetime Hahn would admit of not aiming at a systematic philosophy of education, but rather a pedagogy that borrowed from everywhere, from the British public school, from the Boy Scouts, from Plato. Apparently quoting Prince Max, he at many times declared jovially: Well, you know, it is in education like in medicine, you must harvest the wisdom of the thousand years. If you ever came across a surgeon who wants to take out your appendix in the most original manner possible, I would strongly advise you to go to another surgeon (Hahn, 1965, p. 1). Nevertheless his borrowing itself led to a unique combination of ideas and practice that fell on fertile ground in Germany and even more so in Great Britain. Hahns attempt at reform of schooling in the beginning of the 20th century stood in line with a larger development. The English progressive school movement began with Cecil Reddie, who had originally been influenced by two of the prophets of English socialism (Wiener, 2004, p. 119) - Edward Carpenter and Patrick Geddes - and their denunciation of industrialism and commercialism. Reddie regarded existing public schools as a microcosm of the competitive capitalist society, whose replacement by the co-operative commonwealth he looked forward to (Searby, 1989, p. 1). On the one side, his school Abbotsholme founded in 1889 was part of the creation of the
15

New Jerusalem, on the other side however, it deeply rooted in the tradition of the public schools and geared towards the education of the directing classes (Reddie, 1900, p. I). Abbotsholme was unique as it involved students at all levels in the work of running the country estate, such as clearing woodland, harvesting and animal husbandry. Reddie reduced the classical bias of other public schools whilst placing emphasis on the learning of modern languages (Lietz, 1910, p. 298). This was supplemented by popular, practical afternoon activities, so that the boys who disliked games could find pleasure in canoeing or beekeeping (Searby, 1989, p. 18). Reddies attracted another reformer to follow in his footsteps, Hermann Lietz. He spent a year at Abbotsholme as a teacher and was thoroughly impressed by Reddies efforts to train hardy and venturesome boys (Lietz, 1900, p. 308). Upon his return to Germany, Lietz produced, a somewhat strange panegyric entitled Emlohstobba (the titles riddle is not hard to guess) and laid the foundations to a network of Landerziehungsheime, boarding schools fashioned along the lines of Abbotsholme. As with Reddie, the affinity with nature went hand in hand with a doctrine of the evil of urbanization. Under the influence of the anti-Semitic writer Paul Lagarde, Lietz feared the looming demise of the German people and of the German Kulturnation (Lassahn & Ofenbach, 1986, p. 69). Kurt Hahn stands at the end of a long line of English German educational exchange. Cecil Reddie had spent formative years at Gttingen university, admired German order and discipline, and was influenced of the educational philosopher Herbart (Searby, 1989, p. 3). He in turn inspired the foundation of the Lietz schools with their specifically German touch of nationalism. Hahn, inspired by both, was to return to Britain to contribute to the rejuvenation of the British public schools with his innovative approach to outdoor adventure and active service. Like those before him, Hahn was driven by unease about the education system of his time. As aforementioned, Kurt Hahn published a short novel with an educational theme under the title of Frau Elses Verheiung in 1910. This novel tells the story of
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the suffering, endured by Erwin, a young boy of privileged background in a rigorous Gymnasium in a small German town. It even merited short praise from Hermann Hesse, who mentioned it in a journal column entitled Ferienlektre (summer readings) (Hesse, 1988, p. 473). This does not mean that the book represents any literary achievement and after reading it myself I can only assume that Hesse - who himself had suffered under a harsh boarding school regimen comments in an act solidarity. The world is lucky that Kurt Hahn did not pursue a career as a novelist but in turn became an educationalist. Nevertheless the book gives insight into Hahns thinking as it contains a metaphor of his critique of conventional schooling in Germany at the turn of the century. The academically rigorous Gymnasium fails to recognize the abilities of the young protagonist who is creative and a dreamer. He is daring and active in the outdoors and embarks on solitary walks in nature to find consolation and calm. During playtime he is a natural leader and the local village youth look up to him. Erwin holds what Hahn later referred to as health giving passions: the love of enterprise, the love of aloneness and the love of skill (Hahn, 1938, p. 6). The confrontation with his school comes to a dramatic climax when young Erwin is ridiculed in front of his classmates by his headteacher for an essay he had written with high hopes and great passion. Only his mother understands Erwins sensibilities and the need to protect his childlike spirit (Hesse, 1988, p. 473). Against her husbands will a stern resentment-filled academic - she takes him out of school (I assume to be privately schooled). Hahn referred to himself as a pupil of Plato (Becker, 1970, p. 138). At Oxford Hahn had come under the influence of the philosopher J.A. Stewart the leading Platonist of his day (Skidelsky, 1969, 184) and there he developed a particular admiration for Platos Republic (Heckstall-Smith, 1962, p. 119). Platos scheme laid out in the Republic is novel in that it limits education to the ruling classes and those few others deemed fit for it (Boyd and King, 1972, p. 33). He conceives education essentially as
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a training in values and as a training to goodness (Livingstone, 1959, p. 118). Physical training solely interests Plato for its effects on character. Hahn thought along similar lines and referred to the Latin expression Mens sana in corpore sano as a misleading statement. With Plato, Hahn believed that the evils of his time were due to self-seeking and ignorance on the part of the ruling classes (Boyd and King, 1972, p. 33). This belief was directly linked to Hahns Wartime experience, the failure of German political and military leadership as well as the continuing crisis of leadership in the Weimar Republic10. But Hahns disappointment with the German elites even predates World War I, which intellectuals such as Thomas Mann actually welcomed as a great cleansing of a decaying civilization (Mann, 2002, p. 32).11 Hahn and Prince Max founded Salem to serve the regeneration of the German Nation. Salem was to train leaders who would not shy from taking independent decisions and who would be responsible, active and courageous (Mann, 1991, p. 141). Hahn believed that right action by the right man at the right time can alter the course of history (Brereton, 1968, p. 138). In line with the prevailing zeitgeist the atmosphere at the school was decidedly Deutschnational (Mosse, 2000, p. 65). When Hahn fled to England he must have had to throw this German-nationalist side overboard at the Channel crossing. However, he could rely on his cosmopolitan self in order to advance his goals. In many ways, Britain was to become even more receptive to his ideas than Germany had been and the country became an ideal base for Hahns educational endeavours.

Hahn and Britain

Correlli Barnett describes Britains system of public education in the 1930s as
Or in the words of Gary McCulloch: His ambitious plans to cultivate a moral leadership that would not give way to corruption or to popular demands were forged first in Germanys military defeat in the Great War and, no less importantly, in the social uprising that followed. (McCulloch, 1991, p. 25) 11 For one of the references to this criticism see for example Hahns Address at the Annual Meeting of the Outward Bound Trust (1960, p. 2). 18
10

backward with the potential talent of working class children neglected (Barnett, 1985, p. 202) at a large scale12. There was undoubtedly a desperate need for change and friends of Hahn like the The Times editor, Barrington Ward, and Archbishop Temple were actively supporting a popular call for reform (Barber, 1994, p. 8). The White Paper of educational reconstruction the Norwood Report pre-empted the legislative changes of RAB Butler and the 1944 Education Act (Board of Education, 1943). The latter however, fell short of a real overhaul of the system. The new grammar schools were fashioned on the dominant Arnoldian model of liberal education (Barnett, 1986, p. 221) and the public schools as well as the dual system (church schools) were left unchallenged. Hahns arrival in Britain thus coincided with a time of great public interest in education and he was also welcomed by the growing progressive school movement. The chairman of the New Schools Association, Clifford Allen, invited Hahn to speak at a meeting and defended Hahn against criticism by the headmaster of Dartington Hall, who accused him and his ideas of being incompatible with Britains liberal tradition. Interestingly, Allen also joined the first board of trustees of the newly founded Gordonstoun School under Geoffrey Winthrop Young (Marwick, 1964, 143/44). Britains value system with firm roots in the Victorian era also facilitated the translation of Hahns ideas onto new ground. The turn of the century had seen a widespread fear of physical deterioration coupled with an equally prevalent horror of moral degeneracy (Jeal, 2001, p. 358). The hero of Mafeking, BadenPowell had built on this sentiment and founded his boy scouts in order to keep up manliness in our race instead of lapsing into a nation of soft, sloppy, cigarette suckers (Baden-Powell, 1922, p. 25). By the 1930s Baden-Powell had convinced the

12

According to Barnett only 1/10th of the age group were entering secondary education in 1939. Technical education was the most neglected field with only 20,000 pupils as compared to 1,8 mio in Germany at the time (Barnett, 1986, p. 202). 19

public that engaging with youth through scouting adventure activities could help to halt the imminent decline of civilization. Besides preparing the ground for Hahn, Baden-Powells use of non-competitive badges, awarded for personal achievement something which Baden-Powell took over from Ernest Thompson Seton and his Woodcraft Indians (Jeal, 2001 p. 378) and the use of exploring expeditions (Jeal, 2001, p. 395) clearly left their mark on Hahns programmes. The welfare of young people continued to remain a concern throughout the ensuing decade and saw the emergence of the Duke of Yorks camp schools. With their aim of preparing voluntary leaders in all areas of society with personality, sympathy, and, above all, idealism, (McCulloch, 1991, p. 19) they were a precursor of Outward Bound (Hopkins and Putnam, 1993, p. 26). Importantly for Hahn also the appeal of Platos typology remained explicit and important and at least until the second world war, it was commonly employed to support arguments in favour of enlightened leadership (McCulloch, 1991, p. 22). It has been argued that in Britain with its emphasis on training character, the ideal of a gentleman serene in moral certitude and uprightness () has never lost its vitality (Bereday, 1964, p. 119). Particularly in the Victorian age, the idea of character had an unrivalled dominance in public consciousness and it was notoriously, the favoured explanatory element in the analysis of different human fates (Collini, 1991, p. 98). Character, in essence, was the sum of all qualities needed for life and public schools up and down the country professed to be best suited to teach those qualities through their hierarchies, their games and their classical scholarship. This education made them excellent administrators of a far-flung empire (Wiener, 2004, p. 21) and Whitehall Mandarins, but it failed in other aspects. Hahn criticised the public schools over-emphasis on competitive games and their neglect for the sensitive, athletically less gifted child (Hahn, 1947, p. 4). As I have already illustrated in the case of Reddie, intellectuals of all types subscribed to the decline and decay motif of the time. Martin Wiener argues that
20

Britains elites also embraced a strong suspicion of economic enterprise and industrial growth, even though the country had invented the industrial revolution. The influential intellectuals John Ruskin and Matthew Arnold and Oxford academics like Richard Tawney and Arnold Toynbee looked to classical Greece and Rome: preindustrial societies, materially poor and technologically unprogressive as an inspiration (Wiener, 2004, p. 85). The ideal of rural England and the countryside were exalted versus the decadent rustling of industrial towns. In England and Scotland, Hahn relied on a wide network of influential supporters. There is no room to go into detail on each and everyone, but perhaps the case of the popular and influential historian G. M. Trevelyan (Wiener, 2004, p. 87) best illustrates the type of intellectual atmosphere that Hahns ideas seemed to chimed with most successfully. Trevelyan - whose brother was twice minister of education under Labour in the 1920s (Morris, 2004) became a board member of the newly founded Gordonstoun school in 1934 and later a champion of the Outward Bound Trust, which was founded in his rooms at Trinity College Cambridge in 1948. Hahn and other supporters frequently cited from Trevelyans 1943 speech at the re-naming of a refitted Outward Bound training boat to The Garibaldi. His call there for qualities of endurance, promptitude and love of adventure became a cri de ceur for the whole Outward Bound Movement and so did his warning that without the instinct for adventure in young men, any civilisation, however enlightened, any state, however well ordered, must wilt and wither (Hogan, 1968, P. 67). In a wider context Trevelyan represents the class of late Victorians that Martin Wiener describes. In his bestselling English Social History, Trevelyan bemoans the loss of a more natural way of life and the decline of the aristocracy in industrial Britain (Wiener, 2004, p. 87). His biographer David Cannadine argues that in light of such sentiments most of Trevelyans public work may best be seen as an attempt to find, and to nurture, institutional substitutes for the traditional aristocracy (Cannadine, 1992, p. 178). Hahn went further than that and wanted to see the youth
21

of his day exposed to the healing experiences found in challenging adventure and service.

The Declines - Hahn's Critique of Society

As I have shown, Hahn shares a critique of contemporary culture with the Reformpdagogik in Germany and the New Schools Movement in England (Rhrs, 1966, p. 21). On a detailed level, his critique is closest related to the intellectual climate described in the preceding paragraphs, where youth was seen at the mercy of social diseases which sap their humanity (Hahn, 1943, p. 17). Hahn put the blame on the adult world and called on educators to assume responsibility instead of putting the blame on the lack of parental control or leniency of the law. His diagnosis is worth a lengthy quotation (Hahn, 1965, p. 3): There is no doubt today that you are surrounded by what I call tempting declines - declines in the basic human qualities. I will mention five of them: the decline of physical fitness due to modern methods of locomotion; the decline of skill and care due to the weakened tradition of craftsmanship; the decline of imagination and memory due to the confused restlessness of modern life; the decline of self-discipline owing to the ever-present availability of pills which tranquilize or stimulate; and the worst decline of all, the decline of compassion, which William Temple, the later Archbishop of Canterbury, called spiritual death. Occasionally he also added other decays like the decay of enterprise due to the widespread disease of spectatoritis (Hahn, 1959, p. 4). The latter decay fitted societys preoccupation with the problem of leisure in the 1940s and 1950s (Freeman, 2011, p. 29); spectatoritis standing for an unhealthy obsession with the consumption of new media such as the cinema and the radio. Just as Baden-Powell had introduced his species of loafers and wasters (Jeal, 2001, p. 359), Hahn warned of the lawless and the listless. The latter being potentially more dangerous because they represented according to Hahn a majority whose

22

natural inclination to be challenged is stifled by an unimaginative education system (Hahn, 1959, p. 5).

The Remedies Hahns Pedagogy

In response to his diagnosis Hahn proposed a number of remedies, all combined under the general theme of Character building. Perhaps the most succinct summary of Hahns Visions are the Seven Laws of Salem which merit a mention here and should become clearer in the following analysis: (1) Give the children opportunities for self-discovery (2) Make the children meet with triumph and defeat (3) Give the children the opportunity of self-effacement in the common cause (4) Provide periods of silence (5) Train the imagination (6) Make games important but not predominant (7) Free the sons of the wealthy and powerful from the enervating sense of privilege Hahns favourite story was that of the Good Samaritan (James, 1990, p. 8) and it provided a metaphor for the service element, which became an outstanding feature of Hahns educational programs. Hahn regarded life saving as the most potent form of service and one which could manage to challenge the young in peacetime. At Salem and Gordonstoun it was and still is the coastguard service and the fire brigade respectively, which are the most prominent emanations of this service ethic. At the Outward Bound schools it was the mountain rescue teams, whilst at Atlantic College, pupils man the rescue services boats on the dangerous Bristol Channel coastline. Hahn often made references to William Jamess concept of the Moral Equivalent of War (Richards, 1981, p. 25) and idea of finding a substitute for wars disciplinary function (James, 1987, P.1288). In Hahns own words it meant (Hahn, 1944, P. 28): One of the mysterious currents making of war is the longing of the young to probe their reserves of human endurance, daring and resourcefulness. This current can be driven underground, but there will remain an unconscious
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readiness for a false prophet or an international crisis, when it will burst forth, turning public opinion in favour of war ()if education changes the habits of the young so as to contain risks, supreme tests, and a glamour that will make the romance of war fade. This concept of service expanded and evolved considerably in the later foundations of Hahn and continues to be an essential feature of all of them; except in the Outward Bound Movement, where service projects are harder to implement due to the short length of courses. Hahn created a form of student co-responsibility modelled on Platonic hierarchies to train those worthy for leadership. These were hierarchies of responsibility instituted with an educational purpose. At Salem it meant that there was a student appointed Wchter (guardian) and a few others as Helfer (helpers) who had the most senior posts. These were chosen by the headmaster, from the Farbentragenden (colour bearers) which was a self selecting group (about a quarter of the school) with noted honourable behaviour. Colour bearers all held clear responsibilities within the running of the school republic and the helpers were in charge of parts of the estate work, such as sport or service like the fire brigade (Flavin, 1996, p. 58). In the sense that duties also bring rights and status, they were allowed to advise on school rules and met regularly with the head of the boarding school. Through their experience of taking on responsibility, students gained practical exposure to political life. Hahn was not only a critic of the general state education system, but also of the public schools. The latter he accused of failing to protect their young pupils in adolescence, leading to deformities. Salem and Gordonstoun also attracted attention for their dethroning of competitive games, which played such an important role in public schools, with the intention of leaving time for developing the capacity for other and more creative uses of leisure (Barnard, 1930). Every child in Hahns eyes had a Grandes Passion which had to be discovered by exposing students to a variety of activities and projects. At Salem in the 1920s, students collaborated to build a glider and a mountain lodge in the alps (Barnard,
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1930, p. 55). They also wrote plays and prepared exhibitions (Hahn, 1934). All students were involved in guilds where they were able to deepen their understanding of crafts, the arts or nature. In all this Hahn was an advocate for the recognition of non-academic skills and achievements of the young. More importantly Hahn also emphasized athletics as a method of overcoming ones own defeatism and outdoor expeditions to teach the power to overcome fear, which in his eyes was the true meaning of courage (Hahn, 1947, p. 4). The aspect of judging the young by the improvement in their own achievements and confronting them with challenging trials in the outdoors later became an important feature of Outward Bound and the Duke of Edinburghs Award. For Hahn another important value to acquire by habit was self-discipline. Students after a period of probation were given the training plan, both in Salem and Gordonstoun. Students were asked every evening to tick off a list of duties, for example having practiced track and field or refrained from snacks, truthfully and for their own self control, without the interference of teachers (Dargel et. al., 2010, p. 70). The training plan has since been discontinued in Salem and Gordonstoun, but at the time, many saw it as an effective educational tool (Mosse, 2000, p. 61). The manner in which, the school and the landscape related to each other, was another theme of great importance to Hahn. He envisaged his schools and short courses to provide islands of healing (Gesundheitsherde) (Hahn, 1948, p. 4) and a boarding school like Salem or Gordonstoun was only justified if it gives health to the district (Hahn, 1938, p. 14). The service ethic, the raising of scholarships for the economically disadvantaged and the experimental Moray Badge achievement awards were embodiments of this belief. The schools should also be healing in the sense that they physically and spiritually removed the young from the corrupting influences of civilisation. In all ventures, Hahn contained this aspect of being removed from society, whether it was the fairly remote location of Salem, Gordonstoun, Atlantic College and the Outward Bound Schools or the temporary removal through
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expeditions in the Awards Programme. It does not come as a surprise that Hahn draws on Platos Republic where Socrates, speaking of the beneficent effect of true art in education concludes then will our youth dwell in a land of health amid fair sights and sounds, and receive the good in everything; and beauty, the effluence of fair works, shall flow into the eye and ear, like a health giving breeze from a purer region. (Plato, 2007) Experiential learning is the central underlying feature of Hahns educational practice and the manner by which Hahn believed his values could be best transmitted through the acquiring of habit. With Rousseau Hahn shared the belief in innate goodness of man and with Pestalozzi the emphasis on the role of the teacher as well as the relationship between discipline and freedom. But he was not a systematic thinker, rather doer drawn to philosophies that suited his convictions. Above all he was an optimistic believer in the young and had faith that every student had a capacity or talent, which could be developed. For this reason I have aimed to analyse specifically the most central elements and the references Hahn himself provided; to Reddie and Lietz, to Plato, to James and to the public schools system and Oxford. Some aspects of his pedagogy might seem anachronistic today but they had a context and a reason. Progressives like Thomas Mann and Mies van der Rohe sent their children to Salem; for them Hahn was an innovator. It should also be remembered that whilst Hahn was aiming to provide the moral equivalent of war, other more famous thinkers where exalting an aristocracy of warriors13.

13

I am thinking here specifically of the German author and intellectual Ernst Jnger who in 1920 the same year that Kurt Hahn founded Salem published In Stahlgewittern Ein Kriegstagebuch which became a bestseller in the German war literature boom of the late 1920s (Denham, 1992, p. 123). Jnger refers to the Frsten des Grabens (princes of the trenches) (Jnger, 1941, p. 240). 26

Kurt Hahns Achievements

Besides a network of influential individuals and families in Britain, Hahn could rely on his consensual and charismatic style of leadership to rally support for his projects. Hahn saw himself as a midwife of educational ideas. Uniquely, he inspired ideas for new endeavours and then allowed others to take over the development and establishment (Richards, 1981; James, 1990). Perhaps this unwillingness to attach himself emerged out of the traumatic experience of having to leave his beloved Salem in 1933. Whatever the reason; before I continue with a discussion and analysis of the interviews with heads and board members of the five Hahnian organisations, these organisations should be briefly introduced. Where this has not been covered in the previous chapter, I also refer briefly to aspects of each organisations history. Besides tracing their origins to Hahn, these organisations all employ a methodology of experienced based learning, which involves the whole person intellect, feeling, senses (Andresen et al, 1995, p. 225), place a strong emphasis on outdoor adventure learning and service, and are either charities or have a strong fundraising component.

Salem
Boarding schools where never as influential in Germany as in England (Mosse, 2000, p. 58), nevertheless Salems foundation in Baden - the heartland of German liberalism (Weber, 2008, p. 24) - represents an important effort to reform German secondary education by example. Many of the pedagogical features of the school and its history were already presented in the previous chapters, and need not be repeated here. The system of Schlermitverantwortung (student co-responsibility) has changed considerably since Hahns days and is now basically democratic. Like Gordonstoun, Salem today has an international student population and participates in overseas
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service projects, organized through the Round Square Association. In recent years, specifically under the headmaster Bernhard Bueb the scholarship fund providing bursaries based on academic merit was enlarged.

Gordonstoun
Gordonstoun boarding school began its operation in autumn 1933 under difficult circumstances, with just three students (Arnold-Brown, p. 18). Nevertheless, thanks to Hahns positive reception in Britain, it grew quickly. Hahn brought with him from Salem the training plan based on the trust system. Gordonstouns report card was modelled on Salems and focused on achievements other than the academic. Very soon after its foundation, service to the community became part of the school ethos (Arnold-Brown, 1962, p. 40). In World War II, Gordonstoun was evacuated to Llandinam in Wales and played an important role in inspiring the first Outward Bound Sea School. After the war, Gordonstoun continued to grow and developed its training through the sea as a distinct feature. Today all students take part in an educational programme of expeditions and seamanship, including term-time voyages on the School's 80 foot sail training vessel Ocean Spirit (Gordonstoun, 2011). In Britain, Gordonstoun rose to prominence when Prince Charles attended the school, instead of Eton College. The members of the royal family seem to have differing opinions about the school however; Prince Charles loathed his time there (Dimbleby, 1995, p. 69), whereas Princess Anne is a warden of the school and sent both her children Peter and Zara to attend Gordonstoun14. The fire brigade and student services continue as in Hahns days. Since the foundation of the Round Square network of schools, which are committed to the ideals of Kurt Hahn, Gordonstoun plays an active role in this association. Today the

14

Princess Anne however did not attend the school as Gordonstoun was unlike Salem was a boys only school until 1972. 28

school is comprised of a junior school (8-13 years) and a senior school (13-18) with a student population of about 600. According to a recent school inspection report, the schools curriculum provides outstanding opportunities for all young people to achieve success and develop strong moral values (HMIE, 2009, p. 5). Gordonstoun boasts an active community life and the tradition of colour bearers still continues, although the mode of election has been made more democratic.

Outward Bound
The origins of Outward Bound actually stem from Hahns intent to impact the wider communities around Morayshire in Scotland. Modelled around the Deutsches Sportabzeichen (German Sports Badge - Huxley, 1942) the experimental Moray Badge was founded in 1936. This awards programme initially was comprised of expedition training, athletics, and a project to be completed by the participant, whilst service to the community was added shortly afterwards. Although some counties adopted the programme for a while, Hahn blamed attacks on its German origin as responsible for the fact that the programme never really took off (Hahn, 1948 p. 23). Hahn redirected his energies to the foundation of a short course programme comprising similar elements. During its evacuation to Wales, Gordonstoun established its nautical training at the coast and out of which grew the first Outward Bound School at Aberdovey, founded in August 1940 (Arnold-Brown, 1962, p.118). The term Outward Bound was actually invented by Lawrence Holt, a shipping magnate, who put up the finances for the first sea school (Skidelsky, 1969, p. 221). After the war the organisation was given a clearer structure under the leadership of Spencer Summers, an MP and steel business owner. The Outward Bound Trust was founded in 1946 with the objective to open adolescent boys and girls [aged 15 - 19 ] the means to a fuller life for themselves and one that will be of greater value to the community (Arnold-Brown, 1962, P. 120). In 1949 the first mountain school of
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Eskdale in the Lake District was purchased and in the 1950s and 1960s Outward Bound expanded in Britain and internationally to Europe, Australia and Africa. Originally, courses lasting 26 days were judged to be the minimum necessary to achieve lasting impact (Arnold-Brown, 1962, p.123). In the 1970s and 1980s Outward Bound in the UK hit difficult times, went into debt and came close to insolvency. According to Nick Barrett, the current chief executive, the organisation was offering something not enough people wanted to buy. Consequently the organisation redesigned its courses and now seems to have fresh wind in its sails (Douglas, 2007). Key areas of personal development offered at those outdoor courses are: self-knowledge, craftsmanship, tenacity, physical fitness, teamwork, leadership, self-reliance, acceptance of responsibility and the ability to transcend self-imposed limits (Outward Bound, 2011b). Currently about 25,000 young people participate in Outward Bound courses in the UK each year; 80 percent are from schools and the rest individuals or groups of apprentices from industry. About 13,000 participants received financial support from Outward Bound to help with the cost of their course (Outward Bound, 2009, p. 6). The organisations vision is still a social one as it aims at helping to create 'better people, better communities, a better world by unlocking the potential in young people through discovery and adventure in the wild (Outward Bound, 2011a). Internationally Outward Bound has 40 schools in over 30 countries worldwide. The organisations in the USA, UK and Singapore where interestingly programs are government sponsored are the three largest of all.

The Duke of Edinburghs Award

Whilst the Moray and County Badge Programme of the 1930s was developed into the Outward Bound short courses, the original idea of an award programme stayed with Hahn and in 1954 he began its resurrection. With the foundation of the Duke of Edinburghs Award he once again demonstrated his forte of approaching the right
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individuals to implement his ideas at the right time. He recruited his former pupil Prince Philip - then already husband to the Queen of England - to lead the overall development of the Award. At the same time, Sir John Hunt famous for his involvement in Hilarys Everest Expedition - was put in charge of running the Award organisation (Hunt, 1978). From the beginning the guiding principles of the programme were that it had to be non-competitive, achievable by all and voluntary (today it is, among other attributes, also meant to be enjoyable - DofE, 2011). The Award was intended to teach a wise use of leisure and to prepare young people for life in a working environment, both societal concerns of the post-war era (Hopkins & Puntnam, 1993, p. 50). Today the DofE Award is open to 14 - 24 year olds and the programme has progressive levels from Bronze, Silver to Gold. Ever since its foundation, participants must complete four sections with individually set objectives in the areas of volunteering, physical (sport, dance or fitness), skills and expedition. An impact analysis of the DofE Award commissioned by the Pears Foundation concluded that the programme had several benefits on the well-being of its participants, which included building of confidence and self-esteem and improving resilience and the ability to overcome challenges (DofE, 2010b, p. 7). Annually 275,000 young people participate in the Award in the UK and the DofE has 62 national sister organisations worldwide under the umbrella of the International Award founded in 1988. A relatively small part of participants in the UK about 10 percent - are from disadvantaged backgrounds and DofE has experimented with engaging restorative justice programmes (DofE, 2009) as well as youth at risk of disengagement defined as educational underachievers, young people in care, young parents and carers, people with disabilities and young people who truant (DofE, 2010a).

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The United World Colleges

Kurt Hahn founded the first Atlantic College with the commandant of the NATO Defence College in Paris, Air Marshall Sir Lawrance Darvall. Whilst visiting Darvall in Paris, Hahn had been impressed by the way officers of former enemy nations were cooperating and had developed a strong sense of shared commitment, such a short time after World War II (Sutcliffe, 1985 p. 9). The Atlantic Colleges were from their inception rooted in an international, peace-building mission and at the same time linked to the education for leadership ideal. Together with Lord Mountbatten, Hahn dreamt of a world in which leaders fostered by Atlantic Colleges would come to power in a score of countries, creating an international freemasonry based on trust and good will.(Ziegler, 1986, p. 663). Apart from taking the active role of the first president of the United World Colleges, Mountbatten also insisted on the name change to United World Colleges. Today there are 13 UWCs around the World, educating about 2000 students a year from 130 nations between the age of 16 to 18. Most students are selected on merit by voluntary national associations in their country of origin. At the colleges they engage in active community service and outdoor adventure. Whereas for Hahn the colleges were to train a selected minority, setting a fashion of conduct to influence the masses (Hahn, 1960, p. 12), UWCs today aim to produce graduates who, through their own action and personal example, can become leaders in their communities and demonstrate their commitment to making a positive difference in the world (UWC, 2010, p. 4).

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Findings - Discussion and Analysis

Background to Interviews
The interviews for this qualitative research were conducted in May and June 2011 at the organisations and schools concerned, except for two interviews conducted via a video-phone conference. As was the case when analysing historical documents in the original, my fluency in German was beneficial in conducting interviews at the boarding school Salem in Germany. I aimed at conducting all interviews in a conversational style, allowing interviewees to cover topics, which they felt deserving and also allowing them to dwell on additional aspects relating to the research question. As all interview partners took time out from their busy schedules, I also aimed at keeping the interview conversation as engaging and interesting for them as possible. The clustering of topics loosely relies on an original structure based on my prior research, however this was amended significantly through the ongoing iterative process of analysing the interview content. Questions and formulations underwent a similar process of adaptation. The final clustering consequently emerged from the coding process, it is one of the results of the analysis and that is why I quote it here in full. I also have tried to follow this structure in the subsequent discussion.

Interview structure and content

Kurt Hahns Mission in Education o How important is providing access, through scholarships and bursaries, for pupils and participants from disadvantaged backgrounds for you and what function does this have? o Hahn intended his schools to have a healing effect on the communities around them. How important or relevant is this to your mission?

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o The Platonic concept of removing the young from lifes corrupting influences was important to Hahn. Is this justified today? o Hahn has been described as moving spirit or midwife of educational ideas. How important is innovation in your organisation? Kurt Hahn and Society o Hahn argues that his education aims at combating social declines. What is your aim and does Hahns critical stance still hold for you today? o Hahn was a strong advocate for more societal recognition of achievements attained in non-formal education. Do you find your pedagogy more widely recognized today? o Much of Kurt Hahns appeal was based on anecdotal evidence and the power of his beliefs. Is this approach helpful to you? Hahns Pedagogy o Hahn stands within the tradition of education for character building. How relevant is such terminology for you today? o In light of Hahns aim of providing a moral equivalent of war, how has concept of service evolved in your organisation and how is it manifested today? o Hahn throughout his life maintained his belief in educating leaders. How far is training for leadership still part of your educational mission? The main themes of leadership, service, Hahns critique of society, character building and societal attitudes towards experiential learning outcomes were covered in all interviews. However I took a more flexible approach in regards to other topics, which differed in relevance to individual interview partners and their organisations. To illustrate: The ideal of islands of healing for Hahn concerned boarding schools like Gordonstoun and Salem and it is less relevant for organisations like Outward Bound. Two questions were dropped entirely from the repertoire after initial trials and the first two real interviews, although they had emerged as themes important to Hahn in
34

the earlier historical research: The first was his attitude to sexuality as well as adolescence and the second was his view on athletics. In the case of the first question, societal attitudes and what we know from research have progressed so much that people in the Western World simply see no validity in Hahns arguments on this topic at all. Those consulted, came to the unanimous conclusion which I mentioned in the introduction: Hahn was simply caught up within the dominant attitudes of his time and day. On the question of athletics, again it seems that the dethroning of games from the pedestal, public schools had erected for them, was a contemporary issue with little significance today where many elements of progressive schooling have been integrated into both public and state school curricula. Before I begin the analysis I need to point out that the quotations in the following sections are referenced by the last name of the individual interlocutors and not, as is the case with all other sources, by date and last name. To assure some balance whilst having to manage the quantity of data due to the constraints of time and space I decided to interview two representatives from each organisation. In the case of Salem, the headmistress invited a knowledgeable colleague to the conversation, but the interview was coded and analysed as one. Interestingly there is widespread agreement among interview partners on the main issues and interpretations on the main themes concord. There are nuanced differences on side themes and I will aim to delineate these in the subsequent sections.

Kurt Hahns Mission in Education

Based on how interview partners refer to Kurt Hahn, he does not seem cast a very long shadow over their current work. That is to say his philosophy is not dominant in the sense that the organisations work and activities are constantly checked against

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Hahns system of beliefs. Interviewees see Hahn however as founding inspiration and identify with his work:

Well I think the heartbeat with Outward Bound in the UK chimes completely with what I understand Hahn espoused. In the sense that an individual has more in them then they realize and that it is the job of a good educator to help as it were to discover what that talent might be and to get the young person to believe in themselves and to have confidence. (Barrett) In terms of overall legacy of Kurt Hahn, what matters most, is that all organisations were endowed by him with a vision and mission. The vision and mission were both important for all interview partners on a personal and institutional level:

Many schools that have been established for a while then look for an ethos to use as a selling point. Gordonstoun started with an ethos and three pupils and its the ethos that has driven the school. All the staff are here because they believe in that ethos and I am here for that reason. (Gabb) Hahns philosophy stands for clear moral values like Samaritan service and taking active responsibility in society. The overall value and purpose of aiming to contribute to positive change in the world was implicitly acknowledged by all interview partners implicitly or explicitly by referring to: helping people to reach their potential (Barrett), alumni making a positive impact in the world (Clark), to help people turn around their lives (Shirazi). Scholarships and Access

All organisations share a common social mission based on the aforementioned ethos linked to their founder. This becomes most apparent in the interviewees personal emphasis on the ideal of assuring access to their schools and programmes to a wide a range of young people as possible. There is no scope to assess the validity of these

36

claims in practice within this research. In any case, Hahns insistence on opening his schools and widening the impact of his programmes is important to all. Even more so, issues related to socio-economic background appear to be more relevant to interview partners today, then in Hahns writings:

There is a real desire to make the award available to all young people, regardless of their circumstances and thats really part of the thing that underpins it. Its not just about going and getting numbers. (Shirazi) Or in the context of a school:

I regard it as very, very important that we provide scholarships, because this avoids that Salem becomes a school of a milieu one could then say, we are the outer reaches of wealthy Munich and Stuttgart with a few internationals added on. The students on scholarship counterbalance this. And further through them the ideal of achievement (Leistungsgedanke) is introduced to the school and this benefits all here. (Meister)

Community Engagement Hahn had envisaged his schools to operate in tradition of monastic orders, like the Cistercians the builders of Schloss Salem - and today the schools still believe in the importance of having a wider impact. But their frame of reference has grown and interactions happen on a broader scale. For instance Outward Bound does not necessarily engage in service activities around its centres, but instead cooperates with state schools to introduce adventure learning in curricula. The institutions see themselves as part of a global community instead of just a county or region:

And I think that sort of resonates well with our children that they go on these international service projects. They know that they are not going to solve the problems of the world by going away on a project for a month. But it installs in them an ideal, it installs within them a thought process to say: what am I going to do with my life now. And its interesting, if you were to question some of our students that have left some years ago: what was the single
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greatest impact in Gordonstoun? I bet you they would say their international service project. (Ince) It is almost self-evident that the concept of remoteness based on Hahns intention to remove the young from societys corruption is questioned in light of the availability of modern communication facilities and the internet. However, location is seen as beneficial in Hahns terms when relating to nature and community:

I think the physical isolation is really important. () Because things become volatile, the community has to deal with that, you have to deal with that and issues that really in some sense are trivial, in an isolated community become very important and it gives you the opportunity as an individual and as a community to deal with them. () It teaches you all kinds of diplomatic, negotiating skills, that I dont think you can learn so quickly and so intensely if you are part of a broader community. (Wise)

The role of innovation

Hahn was incredibly prolific in his life and his diverse foundations are witness to a spirit of innovation. It is in this point that the organisations have clearly diverged from their origins. They see it as more important to follow their core mission and refrain from groundbreaking innovations. Nevertheless, one interview partner was critical of this stance in regards to his particular organisation:

This innovation is not happening because organisations over time become self-sustaining and self-fulfilling. They create a bureaucracy and a reason which simply keeps on extending itself, without occasionally sitting back and thinking the radical thought: should there be any UWC colleges. Should we say: we have played our role? Or if they are going to exist, maybe they should be so radically different that thats their beacon. Whereas of course a bureaucracy says: you know, lets keep on having more, because then we have more to run and control. (Wise)

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Hahns Pedagogy and Society

Critique of Society Upon closer analysis, the pessimistic view Hahn had of society, exemplified in his theory of declines, still holds some significance for interview partners today, although one has to account for a change in terminology. There is however a stronger focus on the benefits of the different programmes:

The theory of declines is pertinent but we would choose to couch this in different terms these days: not as a deficit or problem-oriented issue, but as one that needs to be about promoting opportunities and experience so that young people get the chance to engage in this repertoire of activities. A more positive outlook if you wish. (Williamson)

One aspect specifically relating to the declines which a number of respondents commented on in more detail or mentioned in different contexts, was the concern with what Hahn would have termed spectatoritis:

We have just produced our second social impact report. On the back of that we are going to do some press releases and we are going to concentrate on the fact that social networking (facebook, twitter) is turning kids in on themselves. We offer a chance for authentic face to face relationships, rather then online relationships. And I suppose thats an example of us pointing to something that is going on in society that is maybe not entirely good and saying we offer in part of it a kind of antidote to that. (Barrett) Another aspect receiving significant attention in interviews was the issue of living in a risk-averse society and therefore young people being denied the opportunity to take risks. This is a perspective, which Hahn did not take as such. There were several

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mentions of the cotton-wool kids, especially with those interview partners in Britain, where health and safety concerns seem even more dominant than in Germany:

Thoughtful people are quite aghast at the extent to which young people today are discouraged from taking risk or learning through experience or facing up to the consequences of their action. So whenever we talk publicly about the importance to manage risk, as opposed to eliminating risk that always finds a very receptive audience. (Barrett)

Recognition Whereas the 1970s or 1980s were apparently different in their attitude towards Hahns philosophy, respondents felt that they witnessed a circular or wave-like development and the values they stand for are getting back in fashion. In Britain comments related to government policies like the national citizen service or educational policies are an indicator for this development: But what is interesting now, is the way in which the current government in Britain under Goves guidance, is now talking about a style of education and a value system which Gordonstoun has had for all these years. (Ince) Similarly in Germany progressive school ideals have been integrated into the mainstream and in a way vindicated some of Hahns ideals:

Basically cognitive learning is the ideal of the German school and Hahn fought against that. His position finds more acceptance today. You see that in Germany and perhaps even Austria, through the fact that the day school concept (Ganztagsschule) for the first time is actually valued at all. (Bueb)

Evidence and Impact Kurt Hahn was a moralist and his pedagogy aimed had high ideals. His education was a cure of societal ills. As already mentioned, Hahns meta-narrative seems to have less relevance today for the interview partners. Similarly there is a stronger
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emphasis on the seemingly more tangible and individually more marketable effects of their pedagogical practice:

I think one of the things we have got particularly in the UK now is that Astars are relatively common. So Universities need some way of differentiating and the Award and other things like Scouting and Guiding and getting involved in your local communities and youth council and all that broad sector of things is another indicator. So I think its not a hard a sell as it used to be. (Shirazi) There is not only the perceived benefit in job applications or when gaining access to university and concrete life skills acquired; there is also a beneficial social component:

I am simply saying that participation in the DofE, at whatever level and to whatever degree, provides a platform for a positive connection, and conversation, with 'others' who are not known to the individual. If all you have to reveal about yourself is your history of trouble, anti-social behaviour and disengagement, then productive discussion is likely to dry up immediately. (Williamson) There is also a shared perception that organisations, in contrast to Hahns time, now operate in a competitive market environment. This does not only refer to increased competition among charities, which generally operate by pointing to their positive contributions to fundraise, it also refers to the fact that the young have more choice and voice in choosing which programme to engage with. This could explain why respondents provided additional, tangible value tags to their programmes. Respondents also felt that Hahns thinking and ideas provide little guidance when confronting a particular modern challenge which concerns especially those organisations that have to fundraise the need to provide evidence of impact:

We have a small group, its called the alliance of youth CEOs the world guides, world scouts, YWCA, YMCA, the Red Cross and ourselves. We meet just among ourselves, just as a small group because we all doing much the same thing in just slightly different ways and we have been meeting for the last
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15 years. And in our last meeting in March everybody was saying the same thing: We all need this impact reporting, we all need the evidence. So it's something that is happening around the world. (Shirazi)

Most interview partners accept this trend as a given and aim to respond to it through an increased focus on providing scientific evidence for impact of their organisation. But there was a critical comment, interestingly coming from an accomplished academic and board member of DofE:

Youth work is an act of faith, not an act of science and I am very hostile to this obsession with demonstrable science, we are dealing with different cohorts of kids, even if we could research all of this: would we really know that the intervention, the personal growth was a product of the DofE experience or getting a girlfriend or getting a job? We really dont know, but what we do know is that people like yourself can draw out that list of things that you have had, that has turned you into you () And what we need to do is to extend an offer and my view is that one of those positive offers that could be made, would be the DofE Award. (Williamson)

The Remedies Hahns Pedagogy

Hahn defined a number of practices to directly impact on young people and as consequence change society. All of this was based on a strong belief in character building, in turn inspired by Victorian ideals. With the term going out of fashion, one could assume the increasing irrelevance of the concept. Interviewees agreed indeed unanimously that the Hahns terminology is not relevant to them as such. But they believe that they understand his underlying concept of character building and provide something similarly transformational. Interviewees are aware that this pedagogical process is effective, but outcomes are seen in a more individualized manner. We are not talking about one single, dominant ideal of an individual anymore:

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I think the term we use a lot, but which since incorporated it in the branding exercise and at times not because of the branding exercise, but because it reflects realities, is transformational. So transformational meaning taking the individual UWC student through their UWC experience from one point to a completely different point and also seeing that still only the start, because that continues beyond the years in the college. (Clark) Or similarly: There is no doubt that by exposing young people to a range of different activities and challenges you can change the way they react with others, the way they involve themselves with others, their outlook on life. You can change that for the good and if thats character building, then yes, this is what we are trying to do. (Gabb)

Challenge One element of Hahns philosophy that is perceived as very relevant and central to all interview partners is the need to challenge the young in order to foster personal growth. Challenge became a theme that appeared in reference to diverse aspects of discussing Hahns pedagogy and practice:

I think the philosophy is for me pushing people beyond their comfort zones and using the mechanism of adventure. And the idea of service, reaching out to somebody who is in need; I think that sort of idea of going beyond your comfort zone is what appeals to me. That seems to be the unique thing about Hahns educational philosophy: using adventure and service to motivate people to do more than they thought possible. (Wade) But Hahns definition of challenge is seen as less valid. The definition of the concept was considerably widened by all respondents:

I think some of the things that seem to excite our students, as much as say an activity of physical risk is that taking them outside of their comfort zones whether that be resolving conflict at their dorm or having come out of an enormously emotional debate on international issues when you have got the
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kids in the room from those countries. I havent really thought this one through, but if you look at Atlantic College in the 1960s and the sort of exposure to risk that they were given, in a way that was layered on top of what was actually quite a traditional structure to the education, there was a certain rigor to the day: cold showers, dips in the swimming pool, that sort of stuff which doesnt happen today. But today it is much more an individual challenge to survive in that environment. I think some of the really exciting stuff that people get into, boys and girls alike, revolves around that sense of personal risk, that isnt anything to do with physical risk. (Clark)

This widened notion of challenge is seen in contrast to what is perceived as Hahns narrower focus on outdoor adventure and life-rescue service:

When I came 30 years ago, challenge was seen as synonymous with outdoor education. Now we do see challenge as everything, from standing up in chapel and reading the notices, having to walk out and light the candle, the dance and drama programme - which all youngsters, the year nine and tens, are rotated and have to participate in. All this is excellent for developing their selfconfidence. They start by performing in front of their peers, and go further to be performing in front of larger groups. So all of those are challenging experiences and just as valid as the challenge of the outdoors. (Gabb) This does not mean however that the interview partners do not value Hahns focus on outdoor adventure learning. All are keen to make references to outdoor learning and outdoor challenge through expeditions, which represent the need to 'impel' students into formative experiences. Challenging the student to overcome his/her own apprehension towards the challenge is regarded as very worthwhile in such situations.

Service Hahn recognized that it was wrong to force the young to volunteer but equally thought that it would be neglect, not to impel them into certain experiences. Interview partners are aware of this tension between compulsion and full freedom of
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choice15. In some instances individual benefits as well as excitement and joy (terms that Hahn did not use) are cited as motivators in order to attract young people to service:

And all service is voluntary, thats also a problem, when you are trying to teach someone who is still basically a selfish youngster how to be of service. How do you get someone to give up their own time for no reward to themselves? We do it by putting on some quite fun and exciting activities that they have to do. (Gabb) On the other hand the interview partners position themselves clearly in opposition to a culture where everything is down to personal choice. This stance is seen as what makes the institutions unique and connects them to the Hahnian tradition:

In relation to Hahn, different words describe about the same. And actually if you look at our practices: we still at our centres, every course, when the kids arrive and get off the coach, we get them to go and jump into the lake, pretty much within half an hour after of arriving. Now that on one level looks unbelievably old fashioned, but we still unapologetically do that, because we think there is a message behind that which is probably exactly the same as existed 70 years ago. Which is: here at Outward Bound we are going to make you do something, which you probably dont want to do. At least initially, very probably you feel you cant do it. And actually not only you are going to enjoy yourself, but you are going to learn from it. The whole jog and dip upon arrival is a kind of symbol of that: You going to do something that you dont really want to do. (Barrett) For Hahn service meant primarily Samaritan service, directly linked to immediate and dramatic life saving in order to provide for a moral equivalent to war. The latter concept and its reasoning based on James thought held little relevance for interview partners, at least it was not elaborated on. As with the concept of challenge, also the

Hahn in relation to this makes a noteworthy statement: There are three ways of trying to win the young. There is persuasion, there is compulsion and there is attraction. You can preach at them, that is a hook without a worm; you can say You must volunteer that is of the devil; and you can tell them, You are needed. That appeal hardly ever fails. (Hahn, 1960, p. 6) 45

15

concept of service while remaining central to all interviewees has been also considerably widened:

I believe that caring for others is as challenging as life rescue. Hahn was of course a man of the dramatic and he believed in the team. Actually his objection to social services was that they were too individualistic. However I believe that a young person is equally affected by supporting for example a disabled child during a service activity than by engaging in dramatic rescue operations. (Bueb)

Leadership

Hahn aimed at an education for leadership and specifically his school foundations stand in this historical tradition. This is why Hahn in the past was criticised for his elitism. Pre-empting such criticism, interview partners place less emphasis on hierarchies of leadership and more on the numerous ways in which people can lead, take initiative and show responsibility. The term elite only appears once in this context in a comment referring to the elite of responsibility (Bueb). Because the leadership component was so central to Hahn I will outline a number of shared perceptions on the theme:

We want our students to realize that yes they do have rights, but they have responsibilities, and those responsibilities are to use their talents and skills to the full to the benefit of others. So we do have structure that encourages as many students as possible to be exposed to responsibility situations, where they do have to take charge or be responsible for something. (Gabb) Again in relation to Hahn the concept is widened and opened: And so whereas perhaps Hahns leadership concept was more a more muscular on, I think today, that still applies in some way, but also we are looking at a more sensitive, a more understanding approach to leadership. (Ince)

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More importantly, what is valued is teaching experientially situational leadership and emphasizing that taking the lead is something that everyone will need in certain stages in life. There is also wide agreement that one should prepare young people for a wide variety of professions and not just positions of top leadership:

The leadership part is important, but its about being able to succeed in life whatever success means to you. So that could be leading an expedition to somewhere or could just be that you lead your family. (Shirazi) More specifically there is the idea of leadership and context: There is the hierarchical leadership that was envisaged in the 1950s, whereas its much more about collegiate or charismatic leadership that is needed now. So what I would like to see the DofE do today is to say to kids, that leadership is an important characteristic and different types of people can lead in different types of ways, according to the different challenge. () We call it contextual leadership and I believe the first challenge for learning in the 21st century is for young people to recognize contextual situations in order to decide whether their best strategy is to show initiative or to show compliance. (Williamson) Responses also represent in a way a change in public perception that moved from a traditional concept of leadership associated with Hahn, via a critical reception in the 1970s and 1980s, on to a reappraisal and even rediscovery of elements of Hahns concept:

I have seen this come full circle in a relatively short time. There was great opposition to the use of the word, particularly from the Nordic countries, when I joined UWC. That gradually softened over the years and now everyone seems to be talking about leadership. So as long as you characterize leadership appropriately, it becomes an important concept for us. And by leadership I mean, leadership in any capacity. Leadership in very local environment, a work place, place of study, all the way through to leadership on a big stage. But actually I think one of our challenges is how to attach value to the concept of leadership, rather that attaching value to the place in which that is exercised. (Clark)

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Final Reflections
The title of this dissertation The aristocracy of service the legacy of Kurt Hahn in the 21st century alludes to several important aspects covered in this study. In this context aristocracy refers to Hahns belief in the importance of leadership by example:

Aristocracy is the salt wherewith democracy shall be salted. Not the aristocracy of birth or of position or of culture. I have a vision of an aristocracy of Service which could set a fashion of conduct throughout the Western world (Hahn, 1965, p. 9). The term refers to a set of codes and references which place Hahn in a tradition of education for leadership and the idea of character building. Through this historical tradition Britain was particularly suited for Hahns ventures and this is why he launched every major initiative after Salem there. This research cannot pretend to discuss critically such concepts and the Platonic vision of education they are based on. Luckily for the interested reader numerous prominent thinkers have done so with a range of conclusions. Because it reflects my personal opinion, I would like to quote the classical scholar Richard Livingstone on the question of what Plato would have made of our modern condition: If every citizens shares in government of your state, that does not mean that the need to educate them for the task disappears, it only means that you have more people to educate. Service in turn refers to the unique contribution Hahn made to progressive education, apart from outdoor adventure learning. Even if others, like Reddie and Lietz, were school reformers in their own right, Hahn can be credited with the innovation of bringing a collective ethic into schools. The community, public service, citizenship
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and political and social participation all mattered to him. In this sense he is part of a humanist, Christian tradition that values commitment to others above commitment to oneself. Thirdly there is the question of the legacy of a historical figure and his thought. Such a question can be approached from several methodological angles. Surely I could have tried to trail through a number of contemporary issues which might offer interesting justifications for, criticism of or perspectives on Hahns philosophy. I could have moved from referencing Louvs bestselling treatise on the nature deficit disorder describing the human costs of alienation from nature (Louv, 2010, p. 36), to modern research that links city living to increased mental health problems (Abbott, 2011) or research that analyses our modern risk aversion in relation to our childrens education and upbringing (Gill, 2007). Similar references could be found to discredit Hahns theories. Consequently an academic study of Hahns pedagogy would require a much wider expertise than mine, more time and a different format. Nevertheless it should be considered as an option for further research on Hahns relevance. Hahn was a humanist and firm believer in human capacity in times of great turmoil. His rhetoric was effectively geared towards his contemporaries and therefore we need to analyse his ideas within their historical context in order to gain a better understanding of their underlying elements. Only then we can fully appreciate Hahn as a firm believer in the power of education and in our worlds most sacred treasure that is the human nature of its citizens16, forgiving in turn, his all too human errors of judgement. The innovator Kurt Hahn was a prominent advocate for changing the ways by which to educate and transmit values. If Hahn were alive today, I believe he would have spoken out after the recent riots in London. He would call upon society to assume the responsibility of serving the young through education instead of hiding behind political platitudes.

16

Slightly adapting a quote by Kurt Hahn: There is no more sacred treasure of a nation than the human nature of its citizens. (1957, p. 462) 49

Conclusion
The aim of this interdisciplinary study was to assess the attitudes and perspectives of decision makers towards the relevance and legacy of Hahns pedagogical principles, through qualitative interviews and their analysis. It succeeded in doing so by shedding light on a set of interrelated concepts and ideas, which had emerged out of historical analysis. This contextual analysis, places his thought within two broad traditions. One of them was considered progressive even at its time and the other, from todays standpoint, reflects a dominant, negative reaction to the unsettling forces of modernity in the late 19th and early 20th century. Hahns work was debated within this polarity at his time, as the references in the available literature show. Again today, he is either lauded for being a main influence on the development of experiential education and outdoor adventure learning or criticised for an outdated emphasis on character building and his elitist tendencies. Those most directly affected by Hahns legacy come to closer to a synthesis when judging Hahns relevance today. On basis of the qualitative analysis we can infer that Hahns social commitment and mission remain strongly appreciated within organisations that relate to him. They also refer to this mission as a means of stressing their uniqueness in an increasingly competitive market environment. The studys research draws attention to changing attitudes towards the nature of leadership and challenge as well as accompanying changes of emphasis in pedagogical practice. The commitment to Hahns idea of creating situations where young people could acquire experientially leadership skills and grow by being challenged remains intact. Similarly Hahns innovative approach to service is seen as a great legacy, but the definition of what counts as worthwhile service is expanded both in definition and practice. Such results also point to the adaptability of Hahns ideas and their flexibility in allowing following generations to reinterpret them.
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Hahns example seems to be less relevant in terms of his political advocacy for reform of the education sector and his drive to innovate. That is to say that the organisations focus lies with their core mission and there is little thought of venturing beyond that. In contrast to Hahn, interviewees also see themselves in a longer tradition of experiential learning and perceive more societal recognition of their work. Their programmes today are much more part of a mainstream than they were when Hahn founded them. Finally there is Hahns underlying belief in the capacity of personal development and transformation of young people which is shared by all interviewed. This points to the historical continuity of the idea of character building in education and merits further scholarly attention. Directly related to Hahn, the aforementioned investigation on the legacy and relevance of Hahns pedagogy today would be while being a truly challenging task a worthwhile endeavour.

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