Depositional Model for Understanding Geometry of

Cretaceous Coal: Major Coal Seams, Rock Springs

Formation, Green River Basin, Wyoming
RAYMOND A. LEVEY

Abstract
The upper cretaceous rock springs formation of the green rivers basin
ranges from marine srata of prodelta origin to marginal marine and
nonmarine equivalents of delta-front and delta-plain-fluvial strata. Coal
exploration drill holes, measure sactions, and underground mmine data
have been analyzed to reconstruct the depositional setting of the rock
springs formation. Extensive sheet sandstones are inferred to be
deltadeposits reflectingthe cuspate to arcuate geometry of wave-
dominated delta deposits.

Extensive coal deposits up to 22 ft (6,7 m) thick that developed on top of

delta-front sandstones extend for 15 mi (24.1 km) along depositional dip,
and 36 mi (58 km) olang dopositonal strike. These coal deposits are
referred to as type a coal seams. Coal deposits 1-17 ft (0.3-5.2 m) thick
that developed in upper delta-plain-fluvial environments are less than 20
mi (32.2 km) in length. These deposits era to referred to type B coal seam.
Type C seam are persistent, thin coal deposits 1-8 ft (0.3-2.4 m) thick,
developed on top of delta-plain-fluvial deposist less than 25 mi (40.2 km)
in length. A proximately 15 major coal zone exist in the rock springs
formation.

The geometry of type A, B and C reflects a genetic relationship to both

deltaic and flufial units in the marginal marine and nonmarine component
of the rock springs formation. A model predicting coal-seam thickness and
continuity is believed to be applicable to additional exploration in the green
river basin and in oder cretaceous coal bearing basins in the west interior

Geometry of minable coal seam in the eastern ang western U.S coal
basins(Horne et al, 1978; vaninetti,1979; Ryer,1981) the value of
paleogeographic approachon a regional scale has been demonstrated for
the appalachian region by Ferm (1977) and Horne et al (1978).
Depositional models have been applied on an exploration or mine plan
scale by Mathew (1977), pedlow (1977), and baganz (1979). Similar
studies of western coal basin on both a regional and mine plan scale have
been published by Vaninetti (1979), Horne et al (1980), Kauffman (1980)
and Ryer (1980).

This paper discusse a depositional model for the upper cretaceous rock
springs formation along the rock springs uplift. The geometry of major rock
springs formation coal deposits was controlled by several phases of
deltaic and flufial sedimentation. Characterizing rock springs formation
coal deposits into three major type is important for understading lateral
continuity and thickness variation of coal developed in this portion of green
river basin. Such characterization of cretaceous coal deposits may be
applicable in other basin in the western interior.

ROCK SPRINGS COALFIELD: GREEN RIVER REGION

The green river region of southwestern Wyoming includes 15,400 mi 2
(39,886)and has original estimated resources of approximately 15,95
billion short tons (14,4billion short MT) (Glass, 1976)The Rock Springs
coalfield (figure 1) is one of six coalfield within the Green River region of
Wyoming. Approximately 9.88 billion short tons (8.96 billion short MT) are
bituminous coals within the Rock springs uplift (Barryh ill et al, 1950;Glass,
1976)

Stratigraphic and Tectonic Setting

The rock springs formation is one of four formationsin the Maseverde
group in southwestern Wyoming (Weimer, 1960). In ascending order these
are Blair, Rock Springs, Ericson, and Almond. The Baxter Shale underlies
the Maservede Group and is gradational with the overlying Blair Formation
(figure 1)

The rock springs formation was deposited during the Campanian along the
western shoreline of the interior Cretaceous seaway (figure 3). Erosion of
the Sevier orogenic belt to the west provided clastic sediments that formed
athick section of Upper Cretaceous rock. These sediments accumulated in
the foreland basin that is most pronouncedin southwestern Wyoming
(Weimer, 1960; Mc Gookey, 1972)the sevier orogenic belt was tectonically
active pulse of terrgenous clastic sediments that prograded eastward into
the western part of interior Cretaceous seaway

A comparison distribution and region geology of western basins indicates

that most large reserves of bituminous-quality Cretaceous coal were
formed during major regressive phase in the western interior seaway
(Kauffman, 1980) and that five marine megacyclothems are associated
with major deposits of Cretaceous coal. The Blair-Rock Springs-Lower
Ericson sequence Thick section of Upper Cretaceous rocks. These
sediments accumulated in the foreland basin that is most pronounced in
southwestern Wyoming (Weimer, 1960; McGookey, 1972). The Sevier
orogenic belt was tectonically active throughout the Cretaceous, and
periodic uplift produced pulses of terrigenous classtic sediments that
prograded eastward into the western part of the Interior Cretaceous
seaway.

A comparison of coal distribution and regional geology of western basins

indicates that most large reserves of bituminous-quality Cretaceous coals
were formed during major regressive phases in the Western Interior
seaway (Kauffman, 1980) and that five marine megacyclothems are
associated with major deposits of Cretaceous coals. The Blair-Rock
Springs-lower Ericson sequence accumulated during the regressive phase
of the Claggett cyclothem during the early late Campanian (Figure 4). An
embayment in the Rock Springs area was the site of a series of wave-
dominated deltas that prograded in a southeastward direction.

Green River basin is one of many synclinal basins in the Rocky Mountain
province affected by Laramide orogeny. The Rock Springs uplift is a
breached, doubly plunging north-south-oriented anticline in Green River
basin, Wyoming. Rock Springs coal field is exposed as a series of
concentric outcrops surrounding the Rock Springs uplift. Dips in the Rock
Springs Formation range from 3 0 in the southeast and northeast to 15 0
along the west flank of the uplift.

Coal-Seam Nomenclature
Major coal seams within the Rock Springs Formation are referred to by an
Arabic number. Coal-seam numbers are not arranged consecutively. In a
stratigraphically descending order, the major coal zones in the Rock
Springs Formation are numbered 5, 3, 1, 7 1/2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19,
21, and 23, with several local seams interspersed in various parts of the
uplift. The nonsequential order of the stratigraphy arose because
extensive mining for the railroad began in coal seam I and later mines
opened both stratigraphically above and below this seam. The seam
nomenclature initiated by the Union Pacific Railroad has been followed by
government, industry, and academic organizations. Although the same
numbers are used across the Rock Springs uplift, all coal seams are not
necessarily laterally continuous across the entire basin.

Several coal seams are split into two or more benches. When one split is
present, the two separate beds are referred to as an upper and lower
bench (e.g., I upper bench and I lower bench). When three beds are
present, the terms upper, middle, and lower bench are used (e.g., 7 1/2
upper, 7 1/2 middle, and 71/2 lower bench).

We used 1,896 coal exploration drill holes during this study. First, we
created a completely unified data base by logging all available cores
following a systematic procedure, described by Ferm and Melton (1977).
This technique uses a numerical code system for storing data and
retrieving lithologic information.

Then we examined 807 drill holes with spot cores or geophysical logs
(42% of the data base). We calibrated all cores to available wire line logs,
which consisted of combinations of gamma-ray, resistivity, density, and
sonic response. The characteristic signature of various rock types
permitted lithologic interpretation of drill holes in concored intervals.

Records from 502 diamond drill holes (27 % of the data base) provided
driller descriptions from continuous cores. We calibrated these data by
recognizing five or six lithologic variables that were consistently recorded
from each continuous core.

A total of 587 drill holes (31 % of the data base) represented shallow
penetrations less than 100 ft (30 m) drilled for estimating the strip reserve
potential of specific coal seams in the Rock Springs Formation. These
records contained poor rock descriptions and often ignored major rock-
type breaks between the coal seams. Their value stems from accurate
thickness measurements for individual coal seams and between major
seams.

Cumulative drill-hole footage is approximately 470,000 ft (143,256 m). A

PDP II computer was used to plot graphic logs for correlation. Major coal
seams were tagged on graphic logs and correlated using two techniques:
a single-datum technique (marker bed) and a best fit approach.

The single-datum technique uses a common reference point such as

elevation or the base or top of a laterally continuous rock type or coal
seam. The best-fit technique uses a visual system of pattern recognition
between graphic logs where seams are correlated by thickness of intervals
between major seams, considering changes in structural dip and
elevation, or by sequence of rock types and possible lateral faces
equivalents (Pedlow, 1977; Baganz, 1979). The effects of postdepositional
tectonics are removed using a best-fit technique. Cross sections were
constructed to document the lateral variability and thickness continuity of
each major zone.

Underground Mine Data

More than 90 underground mines operated in Rock Springs Formation.
Maps of mine workings contain information on coal-seam thickness and
sediment splits within coal beds. Access to underground workings was
provided. by Rocky Mountain Energy Company. Approximately 6,720 ft
(2,048 m) of mine workings were examined for lithologic variations above
and within major coal seams. All available mine map data for a given coal
seam were transferred to a series of exploration drill-hole base maps and
incorporated into the data set for this study.

Measured Sections
The breached dome of the Rock Springs uplift provides a north-south
ellipsoid-shaped outcrop belt for 75 mi (120 km). A total of 21 measured
sections of the upper Blair Rock Springs-lower Ericson was recorded
along an outcrop arc that extends 51 mi (82 km). This nearly continuous
sequence of natural exposures is oriented at various angles of structural
strike to depositional strike for different parts of the uplift. Measured
section spacing ranged between 0.38 and 4.5 mi (0.61 and 7.3 km).
Roadcuts and abandoned strip-mine highwalls provided additional artificial
exposures. Color aerial photographs were used to correlate major
stratigraphic units and coal seams between measured sections.

ROCK SPRINGS FORMATION

Stratigraphy
The Rock Springs Formation was originally referred to as the Rock
Springs coal group (Schultz, 1907). Schultz (1920) gave this sequence of
prolifically coal-bearing I strata, containing sand stones, shales, and coals,
formational status in 1920.

Along the southeastern flank of the Rock Springs uplift, a series of

sandstone and shale tongues were first described by Keith (1965),
Roehler (1965), and Smith (1965). In descending stratigraphic order, these
tongues are referred to as the transition zone or Gottsche Tongue,
McCourt Sandstone Tongue, Black Butte Shale Tongue, and Chimney
Rock Tongue (Figure 2). Hendricks (1983) has extended correlation of
these tongues along the northeast and east flank of the uplift.

Ericson Sandstone overlying the Rock Springs Formation was first

referred to as a coal-barren zone of white massive sandstone (Schultz,
1907). Because of its widespread area extent, Ericson Sandstone was
given formational status by Hale (1950). The Ericson-Rock Springs
Formation boundary has been a zone of repeated controversy concerning
a conformable versus unconformable contact. Law et al (1983) suggested
that the basal portion of Ericson is conformable with underlying units
throughout Green River basin. This conclusion conflicts with previous
studies by Gill and Cobban (1966), who reported as much as 3,600 ft
(1,097 m) of strata may have been removed from the west flank of Rock
Springs uplift prior to Ericson Sandstone deposition. Biostratigraphic
studies by Miller (1977) proposed that a widespread unconformity existed
over most of southwestern Wyoming immediately prior to Ericson
Sandstone deposition.

Cursory examination of this contact suggested a conformable relationship

between the Ericson and Rock Springs Formations. Measured sections
south of Rock Springs, Wyoming, indicate that the Rock Springs and
Ericson Formation contact may represent a facies transition from an upper
delta-plain to fluvial environment. Well-exposed contacts adjacent to
measured sections indicated facies change as a possible factor, rather
than a regional unconformity.
 Paleoenvironments
Reading (1978) noted an important limitation in comparing modern deltas
with their ancient counterparts: most delta models are based on the
process and sedimentologic responses occurring at the delta front, which
may or may not reflect the conditions and sedimentologic style of the
delta-plain area.

Burger (1%5), Keith (1965), and Roehler (1965) recognized that the Rock
Springs Formation contained marine and nonmarine units. Well-developed
cyclothems within Rock Springs Formation indicated numerous shoreline
changes exposed along the uplift. Although previous stratigraphic work in
Rock Spring Formation recognized America probable deltaic setting, no
information concerning the type of delta system has been published. This
study concluded the Rock Springs Formation in Rock Springs tnWaflects a
southeastward progradation of arcuate to cuspate wave-dominated deltas.
Rock Springs delta systems are believed to decomposed of four
components that will be discussed in ascending order along depositional
dip. Figure 3 illustrates the lateral arrangement of these major component
in a wave-dominated delta system. The marine prodelta component is
defined as the sloping area from the basin floor landward to the lower
delta-front environment (Fisher et al, 1996; Coleman, 1976). The delta
front is area extending from the top of the prodelta environment landward,
to and including the shoreline or foreshore environment (Coleman, 1976).
The lower delta plain is that area landward of the delta front to the updip
limit of marine or brackish waters, and the upper delta-plain-fluvial
component consisting of freshwater deposits extends updip or lateral to
the lower delta-plain component.

The process response mechanisms of modern wave-dominated deltas

have been discussed by Fisher et al (1969), Coleman and Wright (1975),
Galloway (1975), and Heward (1981). Outcrop exposures in conjunction
with drill-hole data indicate that Rock Springs Formation is composed of
depositional sequences analogous to wave-dominated deltas. The
following sections briefly describe the sedimentologic features of major
facies recognized in Rock Springs Formation.

Marine prodelta.-Rock Springs Formation prodelta deposits are composed

of dark-gray siltstones and mudstones with abundant carbonaceous
detritus along bedding planes. Figure 6 illustrates the gray prodelta
deposits of Blair Formation overlain by delta-front deposits in lower Rock
Springs Formation. Along eastern and southwestern flanks of the uplift,
Baxter Shale tongues occur between major deltaic sandstone bodies in
Rock Springs Formation. The dominant primary structure in these prodelta
sediments is horizontal parallel lamination. Tops of beds are occasionally
rippled but usually exhibit burrowing. Bed thicknesses are several inches
and increase toward the top of each sequence. Occasional scoured bases
with tool and prod marks are interpreted to represent density f lows on the
prodelta slope. Bioturbation ranges from rare to abundant. Distinct burrow
morphologies were not identifiable and, in many instances, destroyed the
primary structures. Worm and crustacean burrows have been the only
trace fossils found in prodelta sediments of Blair Formation (Roehler,
1978a, b).

Evidence of subaqueous slump and channel activity is exposed on

Interstate 80 along the east flank of the uplift (Figure 7). The distribution of
these features is relatively unknown because they have not been studied
in detail and are best exposed in roadcuts.

Prodelta deposits of upper Blair and lower Rock Springs Formations

represent the first evidence of a significant pulse of terrigenous clastic
sediments that are part of the major regressive phase of the Claggett
cyclothem. Black Butte and Coulson marine-shale tongues, in the upper
Rock Spring Formation. Probably represent prodelta sediments from
transgressive phases caused by delta-lobe switching

Marginal marine,- in Rock Springs Formation the marginal marine facies in

composed of laterally continuous standstone units exposed in outcrop and
common in drill-hole data. The delta front is composed of two genetic units
coaless to from America widespread sheet geometry that is generally
more extensive along depositional dip in areas of extensive progradation.

Delta-front sheet sandstones represent the major deltaic sandstone bodies

that outcrop and are penetrated in drill holes through Rock Springs
Formation. Delta-front sandstones are most abundant in the delta system.

These units range from 50 to 140 ft (15.2 to 42.7 m) thick. Grain size is
very fine to medium, and they contain occasional mudstone interbeds.
Because a distinct vertical succession of primary sedimentary structures
can be identified, the delta-front sandstones are divided into three
subfacies: lower delta front, upper delta front, and foreshore units. These
subfacies are analogous to lower shoreface, upper shoreface, and
foreshore deposits associated with modern barrier island deposits.

Lower delta-front sandstones are generally tan, compared to the white

upper shoreface and foreshore deposits. In outcrop a complete regressive
deltaic cycle consists of a basal tan zone with a white upper zone
commonly referred to as the "white cap" unit. A transitional zone of
interbedded fine-grained sandstone and siltstone often separated the
lower delta-front and prodelta siltstones. Transitional sandstone beds
exhibit both horizontal and hummocky cross-stratification. Occasional
straight, crested wave ripples and minor amounts of ripple-drift lamination
were found on the upper surfaces of transitional sandstones, but these
primary structures were often disturbed by burrow structures.

The lower delta front is commonly a tan silica and calcite cemented
quartzose sandstone. Grain size is usually in the lower to upper limits of
fine sand. Many exposures of the lower delta front appeared to be
massive, but when examined closely, stratification type was principally
horizontal parallel lamination or hummocky cross-stratification. A vertical
profile within the lower delta front indicates bed sets of parallel lamination
and hummocky cross-stratification ranging from several inches to several
feet, with a genera thickening of bed sets upward. Tops and bottoms of
bed sets were generally erossional, indicating that deposition was followed
by erosion of the upper bed set and subsequent deposition of additional
lower delta-front sediments. The measured sections, cored intervals, and
gamma-ray log responses indicate a general coarsening-upward grain-
size profile. A similar assemblage of sedimentary structures was described
for exposures in the Blackhawk Formation in the Book Cliffs region of
east-central Utah (Balsley, 1980). Within the Rock Springs Formation, the
lower delta-front thickness ranged from 10 to 100 ft (3 to 30 m), with
maximum lateral extents of tens of miles:

Biogenic activity of the lower delta front is represented by the trace fossil
Ophiomorpha (both horizontal and vertical forms) and polychaete annelid
burrows. Similar lower delta-front sandstones in the Blackhawk Formation
of eastcentral Utah have a more varied assemblage of trace fossils, which
include Ophioniorpha, Asterosoma, Helinthoida, Teichichnus, Chondrites,
Thalassinoides, Gyrochorte, Aulichnites, Terebellina, and annelid burrows
(Balsley, 1980). A repetitive bioturbation pattern is common in lower delta-
front and transition sandstones where the upper part of a couplet is
burrowed and overlies a horizontal parallellaminated zone.

No macrofossils were found during this study. However, the U.S.

Geological Survey identified cephalopodsincluding Bactifiles sp. (weakly
ribbed), Baculites haresi, Scaphites hippocrepis, Placenticeras syriale,
Placenticeras meeki, Eutrephoceras alcesense, and Glyptoxoceras rube-
peleeypods (including oysters), and gastropods associated with delta-front
sands in the lower Rock Springs Formation (Roehler, 1978a). Ammonite-
sequence index fossil data indicate that Rock Springs Formation is part of
the Campanian stage during Eagle to Claggett time.

With gradational contacts, lower delta-front sandstones overlie prodelta

deposits and are overlain by upper deltafront sandstones. The upper
delta-front sandstones are generally laterally extensive and are
occasionally replaced by distributary channels or channel mouth-bar
deposits.
In Rock Springs Formation, the upper delta front is a white, silica-
cemented, medium-grained quartzose sandstone. Grain size is more
variable and coarser than the lower delta front, probably because
winnowing of finer grained material resulted from increased wave activity
in upper delta-front sandstones. Stratification type is principally-angle
trough or planar cross-stratification with inter of horizontal lamination. Set
thickness of trough strata ranges from several inches to 2.5 ft (0.75 m).
The base of bed sets is characterized by tangential relation ships to
underlying cross-stratification.

Approximately 450 measurements of cross-set axis orientations from

upper delta-front sandstones were recorded to determine paleocurrent
patterns. Paleocurrent information for the upper delta front generally
indicates a polymodal distribution with a major southwest to southeast
mode and a minor northeast component. The major southwest to
southeast component indicates the major longshore sediment transport
direction along the delta front, while the northeast component indicates
possible reversals in longshore current activity. Occasionally, a northwest
to southeast transport direction existed as a minor component compared
to the dominant southwest mode, which suggests that an offshore to
onshore pattern developed while major longshore transport related to
possible oblique wave strike was to the southwest.

Bioturbation is not common in the upper delta front due to relatively

intense wave and current activity as compared to the lower delta front. The
upper delta front is commonly overlain abruptly by foreshore subfacies,
and it gradetionally overlies the lower delta front. Laterally, it may be
replaced by distributary mouth-bar deposits or incised by distributary
channel deposits. The upper delta front is equivalent to the upper
shoreface of barrier island sequences.

Upper delta-front sandstone thickness ranges from 10 to 30 ft (3 to 9.1 m)

and is generally about 21 ft (6.4 m), with maximum lateral extents of tens
of miles. Evidence of biogenic activity is restricted to an occasional
Ophiomorpha burrow (mostly vertical type). The sparse occurrence of
burrowing is interpreted as evidence of increased energy conditions
associated with upper delta-front deposits. A salt-and-pepper appearance
occurred locally and is attributed to chart grains and carbonaceous
material, possibly derived from source rocks and swamp areas,
respectively.

Contact between upper delta-front (tan) sandstones and the foreshore

subfacies (white) ranges from gradetional with an interbedded zone of
horizontal laminations and trough cross-stratified sandstone to sharp along
a single surface. The white color of sandstones associated with western
coal-bearing strata has been noted for many years (Schultz, 1907;
Speiker, 1931). Various hypotheses to explain the white color have been
discussed elsewhere (Balstey, 1980; Horne et at, 1980). Briefly, the major
hypotheses are: (1) contemporaneous leaching by acidic 1 waters from
overlying coal swamps of iron-bearing minerals; (2) sediment bypassing of
iron-bearing minerals such, As biotite from upper delta-front and foreshore
deposits; (3) recent ground-water movement through coal-bearing, strata-
producing, acidic conditions and subsequent leaching below the coals.
Because exceptions to each of the hypotheses exist, no single theory can
account for all white-cap units.

Foreshore sediments in Rock Springs Formation form the top part of

complete white-cap units. Foreshore deposits are white to light-gray, fine-
grained quartzose sandstones. Grains are usually well sorted and
silicacemented. Stratification consists of parallel lamination within large-
scale sets approximately 1-2 ft (0.3-0.61 m) with seaward dips of 20 to C.
Neither tabular planar sets oriented landward or bioturbation were
observed. Foreshore sandstone thickness ranges from 3 to 6 ft (1 to 1.8
m) and generally is 4 ft (1.2 m).

The lower contact between foreshore and upper deltafront sandstones

ranges from gradational to sharp. Gradational contacts contain an
interbedded sequence of both planar and trough cross-stratified
sandstones to parallel-laminated foreshore sandstone. This sharp to
gradational contact is interpreted as reflecting a low tidal range (micro-
tidal) associated with delta-front foreshore sandstones of the Rock Springs
Formation.

Studies of modern coastlines identified a relationship between tidal range

and the type of contact established at the foreshore to upper shoreface
(upper delta-front equivalent) boundary. A sharp contact between the
swash zone and nearshore indicates a low tidal range (microtidal, less
than 6 ft or 1.8 m), whereas a diffuse contact suggests a higher tidal range
(Hayes and Kana, 1976).

In areas of complete regressive delta cycles, upper delta-front sandstones

are usually overlain by foreshore sand stones and overlie lower delta-front
sandstones. Although M upper delta-front sandstones have a high degree
of lateral re continuity along depositional strike as well as depositional dip
they may be scoured locally by distributary channels or completely
replaced by a distributary mouth-bar on complex.

In the Rock Springs Formation major distributary its mouth bars (DMB)
represent less than 10% of delta-front deposits. Figure 8 illustrates a
section oblique to the depositional dip with a DMB complex across (lie
middle. The lower portion contains medium-grained sandstone with a-
parallel lamination, graded beds, and zones of extensive a- burrow
structures along bedding planes with carbonaceous detritus. The upper
portion of DMB contains coarse sandstone with lenticular scour and fill
features that truncate the to parallel-laminated and graded-bed sequence
below. Coal W spars and shale clasts are incorporated into large trough
not cross-stratified sets of the fill features. Bed sets of trough cross-strata
are more that 3 ft (0.91) thick, and orientations range from southwest to
southeast.

The DMB complex is 100 ft (30 m) thick and at least 2,500 ft (762 m) wide
with scour and fill sedimentation units oriented radially out from the
direction of depositional dip. This DMB channel complex contains a thin
burrowed sandstone at the base that directly overlies a thin coal
associated with an earlier deltaic cycle. The burrowed sandstone
represents a transgressive sandstone that precedes progradation of the
overlying DM B sandstone. The DM B channel complexes adjacent to
delta-front sandstones along depositional strike. It is overlain by a tan,
massive sandstone deposit of delta-front sandstones, and the bar-channel
complex does not appear to be subserially exposed.

Nonmarine delta-plain fluvial.-Delta-plain-fluvial deposits occur updip of

the landward pinch-out of deltafront sheet sandstones and accumulate by
lateral unfilling and vertical aggredation above complete regressive delta
cycles. Delta-plain deposits are characterized by rapid lateral and vertical
variation of terrigenous clastic sediments. Both measured sections and
subsurface data (drill holes and mine maps) indicate that coal seams are
the most laterally continuous sediment type of delta-plain deposits.
Detailed examination of major seams is discussed separately, but first, we
focus on recognizing clastic sediments of tower delta-plain to upper delta-
plain-fluvial components in the Rock Springs Formation.

Distributary channel deposits were recognized at several exposures in

outcrop and in surface mine highwalls. Distributary channels in outcrop
were generally sand-filled, compared to finer grained material in those
channels exposed in abandoned highwalls.

Other exposed channels indicated multiple or multistory channel

arrangements with one channel directly on top of another. In general,
paleocurrent orientations of distributary channels indicated south to
southeast transport directions. Finer grained filled channels in highwall
exposures indicate that some distributary channels have been abandoned
and are subject to filling processes associated with over bank
sedimentation.

Channel depths ranged from 20 to 55 ft (6.1 to 16.7 m) with widths of 200

to 800 ft (61 to 244 m). Channels were observed locally as cutting into
coeval delta-plain and deltafront deposits. Channels directly on top of coal
seams rarely removed the entire coal bed but did decrease the coal height
by scour or compaction. Similar channel base to coal-seam relationships
have been observed in Carboniferous deltaics of eastern Kentucky (Horne
and Ferm, 1978) and in Upper Cretaceous Ferron deltaic deposits of Utah
(Ryer, 1980).

Fine to medium-grained sandstones, 2-15 ft (0.614.6 m) thick, are

interpreted as crevasse channel sandstones, levees, and bay-fill deposits.
Outcrop exposures of these sandstones are commonly silica-cemented
with abundant small-scale ripple cross-lamination. A detailed examination
combining in-mine mapping and drill-hole data indicates that these splay
deposits thin away from a main channel with a digitate plan-view pattern
(Petranoff et at, 1980). Climbing ripple lamination is sometimes observed
with these sandstone deposits.

Fine-grained siltstone deposits with brackish-water fauna are commonly

observed on outcrop and in cores. These gray siltstones are interpreted as
bay-rill sequences on the lower delta plain. indicating accumulation at or
slightly below sea level. The faunal assemblage indicated limited diversity
and consisted of the brackish-water genera, Corbula, Anomia,
Brachidonles, and Ursirivus (identified by J. Balsley, 1979, personal
communication). Similar faunal assemblages from Cretaceous deposits
include the Coal ville area, north-central Utah (Ryer, 1976, 1977), and
Blackhawk Formation, east-central Utah (Balsicy, 1980).

Distinct coarsening-upward sequences, 5-30 ft (1.5-9.1 in) thick, are

common both in outcrop and core-hole data. At the base, dark-gray
brackish-water siltstones are overlain by light-gray carbonaceous siltstone
with finely disseminated plant fragments along bedding planes, which
grade upward into light-brown or reddish fine-grained sandstones with
wave or current ripple lamination. These sequences arc generally capped
by less than 0.5 ft (0.15 in) of carbonaceous shale and less than 3 ft (0.91
m) of thin coal beds.

The updip extent of the lower delta-plain environment is considered as

inter onguing or gradational with the upper delta plain. Interpretation of
lower delta-plain limits is based primarily on the occurrence of brackish-
water faunas. Downdip limits of the lower delta plain are the landward
pinch-out of delta-front sheet sandstones to which they are equivalent.

Fluvial channels were identified in several parts of the uplift. These

channels are considered part of the upper delta-plain component.
Channels are up to 35 ft (10.7 m) thick and have similar vertical
sequences as the distributary channels previously discussed, but they
show a higher degree of sinuosity and lack of brackish-water fauna in
adjacent overbank or flood-basin siltstone. Dark-gray siltstones contain
plant debris and coarsen upward to root penetrated sandstones with
relatively thin coals on top. These coals ranged from less than I to 5 ft (0.3
to 1.5 m) thick.

Gob piles (mine refuse) 10 mi (16 km) north of Rock Springs indicate
stands of large trees existed within coal seams 3 and 1. These silicified
stumps were identified as conifers that probably existed in a lower delta-
plain setting. Faunal identification of leaf flora observed in volcanic ash,
which splits coal seam 71/2, indicated an assemblage that contains
conifers, ferns, and broad-leaf dicots. Conifers included Sequoia cuneata,
which is commonly developed in landward delta-plain settings, and
Araucaria, which is abundant in coal swamps developed at and near the
shoreline (L. Parker, 1979, personal communication). Parker's
interpretation indicated that the climate was warm temperate to subtropical
and seasonally dry.

Within the Rock Springs Formation, transgressive deposits represent a

small percentage of sandstone and siltstone rock types. Maximum
thickness of transgressive sandstones is 6 ft (1.8 m), and average
thickness is less than 3 ft (0.91 in). Transgressive sandstone deposits are
found along the distal margin of delta-front sheet sandstones, where wave
energy was high and upper delta-front foreshore sandstones were
reworked. Transgressive sandstone units commonly contain less than I ft
(0.3 m) at the base of coarse sand or pebbles with scattered pelecypod
valves and log or plant detritus. The upper part is several inches to 6 ft
(1.8 m) of medium to coarse-grained, poorly sorted sandstone. Both
Ophiomorpha and annelid burrows, when encoundisrupt trough sets and
horizontal parallel lamination. These sandstones are variable in thickness
but can be trace along the seaward margin of delta-front sandstones.

Fine-grained transgressive deposits are composed of Ark-gray to black

carbonaceous siltstones and shales that contain- low-diversity, brackish-
water fauna. Within the. Rock Springs Formation, this assemblage usually
consists of Corbuld, Brachidontes, Anoinia, Ursirivus, and occasionally
Crassostrea, similar to faunal assemblages found in Blackhawk Formation
(Balsley, 1980). These siltstones are usually less than 3 ft (0.91 m) thick
and overlie coal seams on the lower to upper delta-plain-fluvial
environment. Similar to those fine-grained transgressive deposits
described for the Blackhawk Formation, Rock Springs Formation siltstones
are considered to be evidence of shoreline encroachment during periods
of nondeposition or low sediment influx.

Complete and Incomplete Delta Cycles

Both delta-front and distributary mouth-bar deposits result in extensive
sheet sandstones that can be traced on the surface and in the subsurface
for tens of miles across RockSprings uplift. A complete delta cycle starts
with prodelta siltstones that grade vertically into a lower basal tan
sandstone overlain by a light-gray to white interval composed of upper
delta-front foreshore sandstone deposits. With continued progradation the
prodelta and delta-front deposits are overlain by carbonaceous shales,
coals, sandy shales, and sandstones associated with the delta-plain-fluvial
setting.

Figure 9 shows two complete delta cycles representing Rock Springs coal
seams 3 and I and associated delta-front sandstones. Tan sandstones
represent the lower delta front, while white sandstones overlying the tan
represent upper delta-front foreshore deposits. Lower delta-plain coals
associated with the 3 and I delta-front sheet sandstones can be traced
more than 40 mi (64.4 km) from south of Rock Springs, along the west
flank, north rim, and northeast flank, toward the southeast near Superior,
Wyoming. The Interstate 80 roadcut at Rock Springs (Figure 10a) permits
a three-dimensional view of the delta-front sequence from the top of delta-
front sandstone I to the coal associated with seam 3. Figure 10b is a
diagrammatic sketch of the lower to upper delta-front foreshore sandstone
below coal seam 3.

Incomplete regressive delta cycles were commonly exposed on outcrop or

inferred from drill-hole data. Figure 11 shows a series of tan and white
sandstones exposed in outcrop. This sequence contains four white-cap
units with delta-plain deposits, indicating that four partial regress silve-
deltaic sequences have developed. In outcrop, repetition of lower delta-
front facies was indicated by deposition of transitional sandstones or other
lower delta-front sandstones directly overlying lower delta-front
sandstones of the preceding cycle. Outcrop data indicated nearly
complete regressive cycles where the tan lower delta-front facies was
directly overlying a white sandstone interpreted as upper delta front.

Drill holes penetrating coal seams 3, 1, and 7 indicated an anomalously

thick sandstone sequence interpreted as a repetition of delta-front
sandstone units. The greatest sandstone thickening occurs along the west
flank near Rock Springs and along the northeast flank near, Superior,
Wyoming. These thickened intervals, which show partial repetition of lower
delta-front sequences display younger sequences probably deposited in
deeper water than the underlying sediments of the previous delta cycle.

Studies of Blackhawk Formation by Balsley (1980) indicated two distinct

patterns of deltaic sedimentation that are inferred to have existed in the
Rock Springs Formation. These two patterns, which primarily affect delta-
front foreshore deposits, are principally controlled by variations in the
subsidence rate. An imbricate series of deltas, with younger units
displaced farther seaward, reflects continuous regional regression. This
pattern differs from a vertical stacking pattern, which results from higher
subsidence rates caused by compaction of underlying finer grained
prodeltadeposits. Balsley (1980) reported that compactive equilibrium
resulted after five or six delta-front deposits were stacked. He inferred that
this process of differential subsident is identical to that associated with
growth faulting but without shear failure of the sediments.

Paleocurrent directions and isopatch data of delta-front stones indicate a

general shoreline trend of northeast to west for major regressive episodes
of the 3, 1, and 7 delta-front deposits. Lateral changes of depositional
environment and associated with shoreline progradation. Along the west
flank of Rock Springs uplift, in a southward direction, delta-plain deposits
decrease in thickness as the underlying delta- front sandstone platform
increases in thickness. The foreshore and upper delta- front deposits,
characterized by white-cap sandstone units, pinch out farther south, as the
tan lower delta-front sandstone eventually does. Prodelta deposits that
intertongue with the delta front increase in thickness farther south. This
pattern is observed along (field outcrop in a depositional dip-oriented
direction for coal seams 5,3, 1, 7, and 15, along (he west flank of the uplift.
A similar transition of depositional environments is observed in the
northeast flank, from northwest (landward) for coal seams 3, 1, and 7.

In summary, the deposits in a seaward direction along depositional dip

show thinning of coals and delta-plainsequences, foreshore, and upper to
lower delta-front sandstones as prodelta deposits increase in thickness.
Conversely, deposits in landward direction along depositional dip display a
thickening of delta-front foreshore to deltaplain sequences at the expense
of prodelta deposits.

GEOMETRY OF MAJOR ROCK SPRINGS COALS SEAMS

A major premise of this paper is that geometry-the variability of coal-seam
thickness and extent-is controlled by paleotopography of the underlying
platform and final position within the delta plain on which the coal zones
dveloped. A coal zone contains at least one major scam, plus related
sediment splits and coal benches.

Of the 15 major coal searns numbered in the Rock Springs Formation, 12

benches in 9 different seanis have been mined in the Rock Springs uplift.
A total of 91 underground mines and several surface mines have been
located in 9 seams. Figures 12 and 13 illustrate the position oft hese coal
seams in relation to the stratigraphy of Rock Springs Formation.

A series of minable seam is opach maps for types A and B coal seams
was constructed using proprietary subsurface data from drill holes and
mine maps. Selected isopachs of minable coal tickness are illustrated to
demonstrate the geometry of specific coal-scam types and the genetic
relationship to their position in the delta sequence. A minable earn isopach
map is a hybrid of a total coal-zone map (coal plus noncoal intervals), a
total coal map, and a noncoal percentage map.

Type A Coal Seams

Coal seam 3.-One of tile three most extensive coal seams in Rock Springs
Formation is seam 3. It can be traced for more than 30 mi (48 km) in a
north to along the west flank, and for 14 mi (22.5 km) along thenorth rim
and northeast flank of the uplift. Measured sections indicate that coal
seam 3 can be traced for 4.5 mi (7.2km) southeast of Superior, Wyoming,
where it is not found beyond a major southwest to northeast -trending
fault. Along the west flank of the uplift, measured sections indicate that it
thins depositionally to a carbonaceous sandy shale and rooted shale zone
in Dry Canyon, south of RockSprings. The seam ranges in thickness from
a streak to 9 ft (2.7 m). It attains its maximum thickness north of Rock
Springs, where it has been extensively mined. Figure 14 shows the coal
seam approximately 8 ft (2.4 m) thick directly overlying the white
sandstone, which is interpreted as the upper delta-front foreshore deposit
of delta-front sandstone 3. The minable seam thickness map (Figure 15)
indicates that coal seam 3 consists of approximately eight major pods. A
pod is defined as a portion of the coal seam exceeding a minable seam
height of 4 ft (1.2 m). The southernmost pod was extensively mined
beneath the town of Rock Springs. Coal seam 3 is split into two benches
several miles north of Rock Springs. Variable thickness of both benches
precluded accurate seam correlation; therefore, this area is not contoured.
Fourth and fifth pods located farther north have been mined in the past,
and.sixth and seventh pods are located in the north rim of the uplift. This
area is north of a major graben that displaces Ericson Sandstone into fault
contact with Rock Springs Formation. The sixth pod is to the northwest;
the seventh pod is northeast of the graben. These pods are separated by
an 8,000-ft (2,438m) wide zone where the coal seam is split into several
benches by sandstone and sandy shale rock types. These splits reflect
deposition by channels and overbank deposits oriented north to south.

A thick pod of coal that parallels the outcrop just south of the graben is
related to the seventh pod along the northeast side of the graben, as this
thick coal trend displays a similar orientation. The eighth pod of coal
possibly connects to the Superior mine district where underground mines
have operated previously in coal seam 3. Only nine drill holes in this area
penetrate the seam, so accurate seam delineation is difficult.

Drill-hole and outcrop data indicate that the rock sequence below this
seam is a tan to white silica- and calcitecemented quartzose sandstone,
referred to as delta-front sandstone 3. Along the west flank, this delta-front
sandstone thickens to 140 ft (42.6 m) approximately 15 mi (24.1 km) south
of Rock Springs, and thins gradually to a landward pinch-out
approximately 18 mi (29 km) north of Rock .Springs. Paleocurrent
measurements of trough cross-bed axes indicate a strong south to
southeast component in the delta-front complex south of Rock Springs.

Along the north rim and northeast flank of the uplift, outcrops in
conjunction with drill holes indicate a similar sandstone developed beneath
the seam. This sandstone is the continuation of delta-front sandstone 3
along depositional strike. The sandstone has a landward pinch-out in
thenorth rim of Rock Springs uplift (Figure 15). Because vegetation cover,
burn, and intense faulting occur in this area, the exact location of the
landward pinch-out cannot be traced on the surface. Therefore,
subsurface data were used to approximate the landward pinch-out shown
for deltafront sandstone 3 in this area.

Stratigraphic studies by Hendricks (1983) indicate this sandstone, which

thickens in a southeast direction along the northeast flank of the uplift, is
the McCourt Sandstone Tongue. This study conflicts with previous
stratigraphic studies by Roehler (I 978a), which positioned coal scam 3 at
Superior, below the McCourt Sandstone Tongue. A similar discrepancy
occurs along the west flank where Roehler (1978b) positions the coal
seam on top of Brooks Sandstone.

The sequence of rock types above coal seam 3 is extremely variable. Roof
rock types range from gray sandstone with shale streaks, to dark-gray
sandy shale, carbonaceous shale zones, and rider coals. Geologic
evaluation of the most recent coal-mining operations in the Rock Springs
Formation has delineated the existence of splay deposits and rider coals,
which have a definite effect on roof conditions (Petranoff et al, 1980).

In other areas, coal seam 3 indicates similar features of rider coals, and
possible splay sequences occur above this seam throughout the uplift.
The variable character of these rock sequences examined in cores,
wireline logs, underground mines, and in outcrop suggests an upper delta-
plain-fluvial setting for rocks above the seam.

Coal seam 3 represents an extensive peat swamp on the lower delta plain
the overlies a platform provided by progradation of number 3 delta-front
sheet sandstone. It is laterally persistent and shows little variation in seam
height over wide areas.

Coalseam 7.-Along with seams 3 and 1, coal seam 7 is one of the three
most extensive seams in the Rock Springs Formation. Previous
stratigraphic studies by Roehler (1978b) have mistakenly correlated this
seam at Superior, Wyoming, along the northeast flank with the Van Dyke
15 coal seam at Rock Springs along the west flank. Roehler also
correlated the Rock Springs 7 coal seam with the Superior I coal seam.
Based on analysis of closely spaced subsurface data in conjunction with
outcrop information, coal seam 7 can be traced continuously along the
west flank, through the north rim, and into the northeast flank of the uplift a
distance of approximately 55 mi (88.5 km).

Measured sections by Hendricks (1983) along the east flank of the uplift
indicate that this seam can be traced for 14 mi (22.5 km) southeast of
Superior, Wyoming. Combining the east flank, northeast flank, and north
rim, coal seam 7 is continuous for approximately 24 mi (38.6 km) along
depositional dip on the east side of Rock Springs uplift. Prior to the Rock
Springs Formation breaching by the Rock Springs anticline, the coal seam
could have covered a 600-mi2 (1,560-km2) area.

Along the west flank, the seam thins depositionally toward the south and is
replaced by a burrowed dark shale with sandstone streaks. Figure 16
shows a strip-mine highwall in coal seam 7. Down structural dip from the
outcrop, three deep mines continue beyond the highwall into the seam.
These mines represent the most southerly mining operations in this seam.
The white sandstone traceable beneath the strip pit represents the delta-
front sandstone below the coal seam 7.

Generally, this coal seam is merged into one coal bed along the west flank
of the uplift (Figure 17). Several miles north of Rock Springs, the upper
bench is locally referred to as the Dines 7 and Winton 7 coals seams. The
seam has beenmined extensively around the Rock Springs mine district;
the largest, continuously mined interval occurs in an area north of Rock
Springs where six mines were contiguous. Where the seam is split into
upper and lower benches, the upper bench was partially mined.

Along the west flank of Rock Springs uplift, a maximum minable seam
thickness of 13 ft (4 m) developed north of Rock Springs. The minable
seam isopach map indicates that approximately three coal pods decrease
in thickness from south to north, along the west flank of the uplift, from
Rock Springs. The pod of greatest areal extent in the Rock Springs area
was extensively mined, while pods farther north are relatively untouched.

North of a major graben in the north rim of Rock Springs uplift, coal seam
7 is badly split. Analysis of surface and subsurface data indicates that the
split area, which separates two relatively thick pods, corresponds closely
to the surface expression of northeast to southwest faults, suggesting that
these faults probably occur at depth. Maximum minable seam thickness in
any of the merged pods reaches 13.75 ft (4-2 m) and is generally over 8 ft
(2.4 m). Thickness of both the upper and lower benches is generally less
than 6 ft (1.8 m) each.

North and south of this graben, where the seam is split, the upper bench is
typically thicker (greater than 4 ft or 1.2m) than the lower bench; therefore,
it is shown on the minable seam thickness map. South of the graben area,
the parting interval between the upper and lower benches indicated
sediment influx from the northeast and southwest. No obvious relationship
to the thickness of the benches is found because this parting interval
varies. Maximum parting thickness between the upper and lowercoal
benches was 40 ft (12 m) and diminishes rapidly as the merged coal pods
are approached.

Extensive mining of coal seam 7 occurred in the Superiormining district.

Mine maps show that faults affected mining by splitting the coal seam and
displacing the benches of the merged seam. Rock splits in the Superior 7
coal seam occuradjacent to a syndepositional fault and indicate that
peataccumulation was interrupted by sediment influx contemporaneous
with fault movement.

Drill-hole and outcrop data indicate that the rocksequence below this seam
is a tan to white silica- and calcitecemented quartzose sandstone similar
to the sandstones below seams 3 and 1. This widespread sandstone is
calleddelta-front sandstone 7.

Along the west flank of the uplift, this delta-front sandstone attains a
maximum thickness of 120 ft (37 m), approximately 14 mi (23 km) south of
Rock Springs, but is generally less that 60 ft (18 m) thick.. The delta-front
sandstone thins gradually to a landward pinch-out approximately I I mi
(17.7 km) north of Rock Springs. Paleocurrent measurements of trough
cross-bed axes indicate a southwest component, with possible minor
modes northeast and northwest in the delta-front sandstone south of Rock
Springs.

Outcrop and drill-hole data along the northeast flank indicate an identical
sandstone developed beneath coal scam 7. This sandstone is the
continuation of delta-front sandstone 7 along depositional strike. The
landward pinchout of the sandstone occurs in the northeast flank of the
uplift.

The sequence of rock types above this seam along the west flank is
composed of shales, sandy shales, and thin sandstones. A thin but
persistent coal seam occurs 5-30 ft (1.5-9.1 m) above coal seam 7,
several miles north and south of Rock Springs. Above this coal, the
relatively thick, sandy shale sequence representing the Black Butte
Tongue occurs.

The rock sequence above seam 7 along the northeast flank is similar to
that observed in the west flank. Rock types consist mostly of shale and
sandstone with several thin seams between numbers 7 and 7 1/2.
Generally, the rock sequence above seam 7 represents a lower delta plain
and overlying marine embayment (Black Butte Tongue). This embayment,
along the southern part of the west flank of the uplift, changes
gradationally to upper delta-plain deposits along the north part of the west
flank, north rim, and northeast flank. Measured sections by Roehler
(1978b) and Hendricks (1983), along tile cast flank of the uplift, indicate
that the Black Butte Tongue thickens toward tile south and pinches out to
the north near Superior, Wyoming.

Coal seam 7 represents an extensive peat swamp oil the lower delta plain
that overlies a platform provided by tile progradation of delta-front sheet
sandstone 7. Although it is laterally persistem, it can occur as a merged
seam or can be split into tipper and lower benches. In some areas, coal
zone 7 is split into several benches. Coal seam 7 is relatively thick and
displays moderate variations in seam height across a large areal extent,
and it is classified as type A.

Type B Coal Seams

Coal seam 71/2. The 71/2 coal zone in Rock Springs Formation has a
variable geometry in its distribution within tile Rock Springs uplift. Drill-hole
spacing is not dense enough to determine if the seam along the west flank
is correlative to the seam along the north rim and northeast flank. There
fore, the coal seams along the west flank and north rim to tile northeast
flank are treated separately although they are illustrated on the same
isopachs.

Along the west flank, coal seam 71/2 is divided into upper, middle, and
lower benches as well as a merged seam. The upper and middle benches
are the most extensive and, including the merged seam, can be traced for
25 mi (40.2 km) from north to south along the west flank. Coal zone 7 1/2
thins depositionally to the south and is not present in Dugway Canyon.
North of Rock Springs, these coals show greater variation in seam
thickness. Figure 18 is a minable seam thickness isopach map for the
middle coal bench and merged seam; Figure 19 is an isopach for the
upper bench. Previous mining has occurred in the upper, middle, and
merged benches north of Rock Springs. The upper and lower benches
show depositional thinning in a seaward direction, south along the west
flank of the uplift.

The thickest area of this seam occurs north of Rock Springs. Maximum
minable seam thickness developed where the upper and lower benches
are merged and attain a thickness of 13 ft (4 m). The merged seam is
generally less than 5 ft (1.5 m) thick and trends west to northeast. The
upper bench attains a maximum minable thickness of 9 ft (2.7 m). It is
thickest adjacent to the merged seam and thins north and south, away
from the merged area.
The middle bench attains its maximum thickness of 9.1 ft (2.8 m) adjacent
to the merged seam and is generally greater than 6 ft (1.8 m) parallel to
the southern side of the merged seam. Similar to the upper bench, the
middle bench thins toward the north and south, away from the merged
seam. Lack of drill-hole information and poor outcrop exposure prevented
definite correlation of coal seams along the west flank to the seams along
the northeast flank. Subsurface data in the north rim of the uplift indicate
that two and possibly three pods coalesce, creating a merged coal bench
71/2 in that area.

A maximum minable coal-seam thickness of 10 ft (3 m) occurs toward the

northeast side of a major graben. Another pod occurs along the northern
margin of the graben, with a maximum minable seam height of 9.5 ft (2.9
m). South of the graben the coal seam reaches a maximum of 10 ft (3 m)
adjacent to the south side of the graben. This pod may be related to the
area of thick coal north of the graben along a northward trend for both
pods. Lack of deep drill-hole data precludes connecting these two areas.

In the Superior area, numerous drill holes penetrate coal seam 71/2. In
this area the seam is split into numerous thin benches. Mining has
occurred only where a merged seam exists. Maximum minable thickness
around Superior, Wyoming, is 6.25 ft (1.9 m).

Along the west flank of Rock -Springs uplift, the rock sequence below
seam 71/2 consists of fossiliferous shales, sandy shales, and thin
sandstones in a series of small coarsening-upward sequences. This 60-ft
(18.3-m) interval extends southward approximately 15 mi (24.1 km), and
represents a major restricted marine embayment above coalzone 7 and
below zone 71/2. This fossiliferous, coal-barren zone is the landward
tension of the Black Butte marine shale tongue along the west flank of
Rock Springs uplift. Faunal evidence suggests a restricted marine
(brackishwater) environment, which may have developed lateral to active
deltaic areas. North of Rock Springs this same interval is characterized by
thin lenticular coals interpreted as peat that developed on the delta plain
landward of the pinch-out of the restricted marine bay. This area of
interfingering represents the maximum landward transgression of Black
Butte Tongue.

Along the northeast flank of the uplift, the interval 30 ft (9 m) below coal
seam 71/2 is characterized by 10 to 15-ft (3 to 4.6-m) coarsening-upward
sequences, interpreted as splay deposits. The presence of several coal
beds and the lack of fossils suggest that this interyal is not representative
of any large embayment similar to that inferred along the southern part of
the west flank of the Rock Springs uplift.

Type C Coal Seams

Local coal seams. Several type C coal seams are present in Rock Springs
Formation (lower number 5. and local coals below coal seams 3, 1, and 7).
Along the west flank of Rock Springs uplift, the sequence of rock types
above coal seam 71/2 consists of sandstones ranging from less than 10 to
20 ft (3 to 6 m) thick. The thin sandstones are interpreted as splay
deposits, while the thicker sandstones are probably channel deposits. A
persistent but thin local coal seam occurs from 15 to 45 ft (4.6 to 13.7 m)
above the upper coal bench of seam 7 1/2. This local coal is generally less
than 2 ft (0.61 m) thick. Occasionally, the local seam is overlain directly by
delta-front sandstone associated with coal seam 1.

In tile northern rini ofthe uplift, tile local seam splits into two benches
referred to as local A and local B coal seams. Coal seam thickness is
consistently less than 4.5 ft (1.4 m) for each seam. South of tile major
graben, the local seam is persistent and reaches a maximum height of 8 ft
(2.4 ni). This coal seam can be traced into (lie Superior, Wyoming, area
along (lie northeast flank of Rock Springs uplift.

The interval above coal seam 71/2 is interpreted as delta-plain deposits

based on the lateral relationships, as compared to modern delta-plain
environments that display rapid lateral and vertical variation in rock types.
The local seam below delta-front sandstone I is laterally persistent, coals
below coal seams 3, 1, and 7). Along the west flank of Rock Springs uplift,
the sequence of rock types above coal seam 7 1/2 consists of sandstones
ranging from less than 10 to 20 ft (3 to 6 m) thick. The thin sandstones are
interpreted as splay deposits, while the thicker sandstones are probably
channel deposits. A persistent but thin local coal seam occurs from 15 to
45 ft (4.6 to 13.7 m) above the upper coal bench of seam 7 1/2. This local
coal is generally less than 2 ft (0.61 m) thick. Occasionally, the local seam
is overlain directly by delta-front sandstone associated with coal seam 1.

In tile northern rini ofthe uplift, tile local seam splits into two benches
referred to as local A and local B coal seams. ~oal seam thickness is
consistently less than 4.5 ft (1.4 m) for each seam. South of tile major
graben, the local seam is persistent and reaches a maximum height of 8 ft
(2.4 ni). This coal seam can be traced into (lie Superior, Wyoming, area
along (lie northeast flank of Rock Springs uplift.

The interval above coal seam 71/2 is interpreted as deltaplain deposits

based on the lateral relationships, as compared to modern delta-plain
environments that display rapid lateral and vertical variation in rock types.
The local seam below delta-front sandstone I is laterally persistent,
consistently thin, and probably represents the abandonment of deltation.
This pattern is characteristic of coal seams classified as type C.

COAL EXPLORATION MODEL

 Application to Rock Springs Formation
From examination of approximately 15 coal zones in the Rock Springs
Formation, a depositional model was developed to account for areas of
variation in coal thickness. Coal beds within Rock Springs Formation that
developed along (1) lower delta-plain or (2) upper delta-plain-fluvial lobes,
or (3) on abandoned deltaic lobes are referred to as types A, B, or C coal
seams, respectively (Figure 20).

Type A coal seams accumulated on the lower delta plain; they are the
most extensive coals in the Rock Springs Formation. Examples of type A
coals along the west and east flanks of Rock Springs uplift are numbers 5
upper, 3, 1, 7, and possibly 15. Seam thickness ranges from 3 to 22 ft (0.9
to 6.7 m) but generally is less than 15 ft (4.6 m). These seams are large in
areal extent, both perpendicular and parallel to the inferred regional
depositional strike (northeast to southwest). Seams 3, 1, 7, and possibly
15 can be correlated along the west and northeast flanks of the uplift. Coal
seam 3 extends a minimum of 25 mi (40.2 km) along depositional strike
and at least 15 ini (24.1 km) along depositional dip.

Type A coal seams are associated with a prograded deltafront sandstone

plat form. This sandstone plat form is a firecondition for widespread
accumulation of the most extensive minable coal seams in the Rock
Springs Formation because it providesa deltaic platform on which
vcgetation can establish. Previous studies of widespread coal seams in
eastern and western basins have recognized the importance
deltaic sandstone platforms (Baganz, 1979; Balsley, 1980). Detailed
examination of cores, measured sections, and other drill-hole data
indicates these sandstone platfornis, which developed in Rock Springs
Formation, are comprised ofa cuspate to arcuate geornetry most
coninionly associated with wave-dominated delta systems.

Type B coals accumulated in the tipper delta-plain-fluvial setting, landward

ofany associated delta-front sandstones. Examples oftype 13 coal seams
are numbers 71/2 8, 9, and 11. Seam thickness ranges from I to 17 ft (0.3 to
5.2 in) but generally is less than 9 ft (2.7 rn). These seams vary in
thickness and areal extent, and are not developed on extensive shect
sandstone platforin deposits ofa prograding delta systern. Examination of
outcrops, cores, and drill-hole data indicates these seams have developed
in interchannel areas in a fluvially dominated part of the delta plain.
Several of the seams that overlie strata associated with brackish-water
fauna are thought to be in a lower delta-plain ,citing adjacent to areas that
experienced rapid drowning by localized subsidence and encroachment by
bay environments.

Type C coal seams accumulated on abandoned deltaic lobes and

represent a marker zone reflecting slow sedimentation rates. These coal
zones may help define the areal extent of the abandoned lobes that they
overlie. Examples of type C coals are lower scarn 5, the local seam, and
other seams situated beneath delta-front sandstones 3, 1, and 7. Type C
coal seams range from I to 8 ft (0.3 to 2.4 m) thick and have a moderate
degree of areal extent, ranging frorn 10 to 20 mi (16.1 to 32.2 km).

Unlike types A and B, none of the type C coal seams were mined in Rock
Springs uplift. A type C coal, referred to as the "local seam," beneath
delta-front sandstone 7 in the north part of the uplift, attains a maximum
height of 8 ft (2.4 m). This type C seam may be mined in the future as
reserves of types A and 13 are depleted. In general, type C coal seams
are thin but persistent.

Application to Other Cretaceous Coal-Rearing Basins

The value of any geologic model is enhanced if it is applicable to other
areas. Detailed stratigraphic study of theBlackhawk Formation of central
Utah (Balsley, 1980) indicates a depositional setting similar to that inferred
for Rock Springs Formation. Xcellent outcrop exposures show continuous
sandstone units that represent delta-front deposits. Sunnyside coal bed is
a type A coal seam that developed ontop of a sandstone platform of
coalescing delta-front sandstones.

Additional type A . eams in the Book Cliff's are Kenilworth coal and
Aberdeen (Castlegate "A") coal. Type B coal seams of the Book Cliffs
would be Gilson and Rock Canyon coat beds. Type C coat seams also
occur in Blackhawk Formation. Castlegate "B" coal in the vicinity of
Deadman Canyon may represent a type C seam. This similarity of coal
types indicates that the deposifional model proposed for the Rock Springs
Formation is applicable to other basins that have coals of economic
impotance.

The geologic model presented here for major coat scarns in (lie Rock
Springs Formation may tie modified to account for other models developed
from Cretaccous coal-beaaring sequences. Stratigraphic studies in the
Upper Cretaccous Ferron Sandstone Meniher of central Utah (Ryer, 1981)
indicated thal (lie thickest accumulations ofcoal extended from the
landward pinch-out of associated delta-front sandstones, a distance of 6.2
mi (10 kill). However, the depositional setting inferred foy the Ferron
Menitier is a riverdominated lobate delta system. Ryer (198 1) repotted
that, in delta-front sandstones which prograded more than 12.4 mi (20
kiml) in a scaward direction. thick coat scarns developed aboves and
stones and are inferred to represent a wavedominated delta system..

CONCLUSIONS
Extensive analyses of drill holes, Outcrops, and underground mine clata
resulted in a geologic model to explain tile ~,conietry ot'niajor coal scanis
in Rock Sprin-gs uplift. More than 20 coal zones exist in the Rock Springs
Formation of Green River basin. These seanis accumulated in both tower
and upper delta-plain-fluvial environments.

A tripartite coal-searn classification relates coal-seam geometry (coal

thickness and lateral extent) to depositional environment. Coal scarlis of
the Rock Springs Formation are associated with a series of wave-
dorninated deltas (Figure 20). A minimum of five regressive cycles are
exposed in outcrop along the Rock Springs uplift. These delta cycles are
significant regressive phases that are part of the larger Clagggett
cyclothern ofthe early late Campanian.

Thick coal seams with large areal extent are classified as type A. These
lower delta-plain coal seams are associated with deltaic progradation.
Type A coal seams developed on top of extensive delta-front sandstone
units that were elongated parallel to depositional strike. In the Rock
Springs Formation type A coal seams range from 3 to 22 ft (0.91 to 6.7 ni)
thick and may have covered more than 500 rni 2 (1,300 km2) (Figures 15,
17).

Coal seams with variable thickness and areal extent are classified as type
B. These coals developed primarily in Lipper delta-plain-fluvial
environments. Type B coal scarns formed landward of the pinch-out of
major delta-front sandstones and are strongly influenced by adjacent
channel areas. Type B coal seams of the Rock Springs Formation range
froin I to 17.5 ft (0.3 to 5.3 m) thick and have a variable areal extent of 50
to 250 mi2 (130 to 650 kmi2) (Figures 18, 19).

Relatively thin coal seams of moderate areal extent are classified as type
C, These scams formed in the upper delta plain and are associated with
abandoned delta lobes. Type C coal seams of the Rock Springs
Formation range from I to 8 ft (0.3 to 2.4 m) thick and have an areal extent
of 50 mi2 (130 km2).

More than 90 underground coal mines and several surface mines in Rock
Springs Formation have extracted coal reserves classified as types A and
B. No mining for coal has occurred in scams classified as type C.

Detailed correlation of major coal zones and sandstone units within the
uplift have identified incorrect scarn correlatioils and have attempted to
extend the revised correlations. The McCourt and Brooks Sandstone
Tongues, and the top of Chininey Rock Tongue are examples of' delta
front sandstones that are interpreted to have formed in a wave-dominated
environment (Figures 12, 13). The general shoreline trend during Rock
Springs Formation deposition is northeast to southwest. The landward
pinch out of delta-front sandstones is north 30 0 cast.
In summary, Rock Springs Formation consists of a series of wave-
dominated deltaic deposits. Complete progradational delta cycles are
recognized by a vertical sequence of' prodelta, delta-front, and lower delta-
plain (type A); u pper delta-plain-fluvial (type B); and delta abandonment
(type C) phases. The depositional model presented for coal exploration in
Rock Springs Formation is believed to be applicable to other Cretaceous
coal-bearing regions in the Western Interior basin.

I Chapter A

Geologic Framework and Major

Coal-Bearing Formations of the
San Juan Basin

By MORRIS W. GREEN, JAMES W. MYTTON, DOROTHY T.

SANDBERG, and NANCY K. GARDNER

Geologic Framework and Major Coal-Bearing Formations of the San Juan

Basin

The San Juan basin, New Mexico's leading Coal producing area, is
a structural basin formed during the Laramide orogeny (80 to 40 million
years ago). The basin lies primarily in northwest New Mexico but extends
into southw Colorado and northeast Arizona and covers an area of ab
( 26,000 square miles on the southeast margin of the Colorai Plateau
physiographic province. Approximately 12,000 feet Paleozoic and
Mesozoic rocks are preserved in the basi Cretaceous rocks, covered by
Tertiary rocks in the central pi of the basin, account for approximately one-
half of the tol thickness. The sedimentary interval in the basin locally ho,
some of the Nation's most important deposits of coal, uranium oil, and gas.
Coal deposits occur in deltaic and coastal plain lithofacies throughout the
Upper Cretaceous interval over relatively wide areas of the basin. The
geographic location ar stratigraphic position of coal beds of Cretaceous
age in the Sa Juan basin were determined by the location of ancient
shorelines along the western border of an epicontinental se during Late
Cretaceous time. Coal deposits originated fror thick accumulations of
organic matter (peat) in paludi environments on deltaic and lower coastal
plains landward c shorelines. These environments formed as a result of
periodi transgression and regression of the sea. The coal beds teni
generally to be elongate to the northwest, parallel Jo tK shoreline of the
sea, which retreated progressively farthe northeast with each successive
major transgressive-regressivi cycle of Late Cretaceous time. By the end
of the Cretaceou Period, the sea had withdrawn from the region
completely.
The major Cretaceous coal-bearing units, in ascendinj order, are
the Crevasse Canyon and Menefee Formations of the Mesaverde Group
and the Fruitland Formation, which contains by far the largest coal
resources in the San Juan basin The thickness and distribution of coal in
the Fruitland are inversely related to increase in thickness and
stratigraphic rise of the underlying Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, especially
where the Fruitland Formation intertongues with the upper part of the
Pictured Cliffs. Typically, the coal beds are highly lenticular and difficult to
correlate between drill holes; they can be correlated with certainty only
where the holes are closely spaced. For these reasons, coal resource
calculations can only be made for coal zones, rather than individual beds.
Fields or areas in the San Juan basin where the Fruitland Formation is the
current or potential coal producer are the Navajo field and Bisti and Star
Lake areas. The remaining fields and areas are current or potential
producers of coal from the Mesaverde Group and its equivalents, the most
notable being the Gallup field.

INTRODUCTION

The San Juan basin of northwest New Mexico is the State's leading
producer of coal. The basin's coal and its other energy mineral deposits-
uranium, oil, and gas make it one of the Nation's most important energy-
rich sedimentary basins. The coal deposits, restricted in occurence to the
upper part of the basin sedimentary sequence in formations of
Cretaceous age, supply fuel for the electric power industry throughout the
southwestern United States.
This report contributes to the joint effort by the U.S. Geological
Survey and the New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources to
provide a current overview of the geology and coal resources for the State
of New Mexico.

LOCATION AND GEOGRAPHY

The San Juan basin is located primarily in northwest New Mexico.

The northern and western areas of the basin extend, respectively, into
neighboring southwest Colorado and northeast Arizona. The basin has
dimensions of approximately 200 miles north to south and 130 miles east
to west. The basin is irregularly circular and covers an area of about
26,000 square miles on the southeast margin of the Colorado Plateau
physiographic province.
The basin is bounded on all sides by mountain ranges: the Zuni
Mountains on the south, the Nacimiento Mountains on the east, the La
Plata and San Juan Mountains on the north in Colorado, and the Defiance
uplift and the Chuska and Carizzo Mountains on the west near the
Arizona-New Mexico border. The boundary of the basin is generally
placed where the contact between Cretaceous rocks and underlying older
rocks crops out near the flanks of the surrounding mountain ranges (fig.
Al).

GEOLOGIC SETTING

The San Juan basin, like other major present-day sedimentary

basins in the Westem Interior of the U.S., formed during the Laramide
orogeny, which spanned the time interval between the Late Cretaceous
and the middle Tertiary (80 to 40 million years ago). Approximately 12,000
feet of rocks ranging in age from Cambrian to Cretaceous are preserved in
the basin (fig. A2). Only Ordovician and Silurian age rocks are absent in
the sequence. Cretaceous rocks, covered by Tertiary rocks in the central
part of the basin, account for approximately one-half of the total thickness
of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sequence.
The sedimentary interval in the basin locally hosts some of the
Nation's most important deposits of coal, uranium, oil, and gas. Large
uranium deposits occur in fluviolacustrine sandstone lithofacies of the
Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation in the southern part of the basin. Oil,
gas, and coal deposits occur in marine and coakal plain litbofacies
throughout the Upper Cretaceous interval over much of the basin.

TERTIARY TECTONIC HISTORY AND STRUCTURE

The San Juan basin is a structural basin bounded by uplifts which

formed as a result of Laramide crustal movements. The basin is
asymmetrical north to south, having its deeper axial part in the north-
northeastern portion (fig. A3). Because the basal Upper Cretaceous
Dakota Sandstone is uniformly distributed and widespread in the basin, it
is frequently used in depicting Laramide deformation (fig. A4).
The San Juan basin apparently formed on an internally stable,
subsiding crustal block surrounded by crustal blocks which were uplifted to
form the cores of adjacent mountain ranges. Differential subsidence and
uplift of crustal blocks in the San Juan basin (as well as elsewhere in the
Westem Interior) apparently resulted from regional tectonic compression
(crustal shortening) attendant to activewestern plate margin tectonism
associated with westward motion of the North American plate during the
time of the Laramide orogeny.
Locally, pre-Tertiary sedimentary rocks are sharply upturned
against the flanks of surrounding uplifts. Structurally deformed
sedimentary units strike parallel to the flanks of marginal uplifts and dip
steeply basinwardlocally exceeding 80'~-across the hinge lines separating
the uplifted blocks and the subsided block. Basinward, the dip angle of the
units abruptly decreases to Y-5. Local structural features, generally
confined to the hinge areas of the basin, include normal faults and fault
zones, small anticlines and synclines, structural platforms, and
monoclines. With the exception of faults and fault zones, which trend
normal to the flanks of uplifts, local structural features trend parallel to the
basin margin. Relative to basin margin areas, the basin interior is
essentially structureless, indicating relative stability of the crustal block
flooring the basin.

PALEOZOIC AND MESOZOIC

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTOLOGY

Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks are exposed in laterally continuous

belts of outcrop around the margin of the San Juan basin. Underlying
metasedimentary and plutonic rocks of the Precambrian basement are
exposed in the cores of adjacent uplifts just outside the basin. The
Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations in the basin were depositionally
continuous with rocks of equivalent age contained in other Laramide
basins of the Colorado Plateau and the Western Interior. These formations
are products of sedimentary depositional systems that covered much
larger areas than the Tertiary San ban basin.
The Paleozoic: rocks in the basin were deposited on a relatively
stable, tectonically inactive continental platform which constituted the
western margin of the continent throughout the era. Westward, across the
Paleozoic continental margin, terrestrial red beds of conglomerate,
sandstone, and shale intertongue with marginal marine and marine
limestone, siltstone, claystone, and evaporite deposits of the Paleozoic
continental slope. Sediment source areas, including the ancestral Rocky
Mountains, lay within the area of the present Western Interior of the
continent.
Mesozoic sediments of the Western Interior apparently were
deposited differentially and sporadically through time from the Middle
Triassic to the Late Cretaceous in a north-south elongate geosynclinal
trough which spanned the entire Western Interior of the continent.
Maximum development of the trough occurred during the Cretaceous.
Sediment source areas lay west of the trough in the Cordilleran orogenic
belt, which formed along the tectonically active western edge of the North
American plate. Epeirogenic subsidence of the Western Interiorapparently
resulted from tectonic compression of the crust between the Cordilleran
region and the interior craton east of the trough as the western edge of the
plate collided with the developing Cordilleran magmatic arc of the orogenic
belt.
Western Interior trough sediments of Triassic age derived from
Cordilleran source areas consist dominantly of conglomerate, sand, silt,
and clay deposited in fluvial, lacustrine, and eolian depositional
environments. These sediments were deposited in a number of large
subbasins, which formed in the Western Interior as a result of differential
subsidence of individual crustal blocks within the geosynclinal trough. On
the northern and southern ends of the trough near the continental margins,
Triassic and Jurassic continental sediments locally intertongue with marine
sequences deposited during periodic marine invasions into the trough.
During the Cretaceous Period, maximum subsidence of the trough
and high sea levels, resulting from an increase in the rate of sea-floor
spreading east of the continent, caused marine waters to cyclically invade
the entire Western Interior from its northern and southern ends to form the
Rocky Mountain seaway. During this period the rate of sedimentary infill of
the trough was at its maximum. Sediments consisting of cobbles, sand,
carbonaceous silt, clay, and peat were deposited on deltas, coastal plains,
and offshore areas along the western margin of the seaway. Generally,
coarse-grained terrestrial lithofacies in the west change into or intertongue
with fine-grained, timeequivalent, marine lithofacies to the east across the
trough. During this cycle of sedimentation, the Cretaceous shoreline
underwent at least five major transgressions and regressions ,Molenawnr,
1993).
Climatic conditions during the period of Cretaceous deposition were
conducive to the luxuriant growth ofvegetation along margins of the
seaway, resulting in local thick accumulations of peat and organic debris.
These organic accumulations later compacted and altered to form the coal
deposits preserved today in the San Juan basin and other Laramide
basins of the Western Interior.

COAL GEOLOGY

The geographic locations and stratigraphic positions of coal beds of

Late Cretaceous age in the San Juan basin were determined by the
changing location of the shoreline along the western border of an
epicontinental sea of that time. The coal deposits originated from thick
accumulations of detrital organic matter (peat) in paludal environments on
deltas and lower coastal plains. These environments were present in the
San Juan basin as a result of periodic transgression and regression of the
Cretaceous sea. The coal beds tend generally to be elongate toward the
northwest, parallel to the shoreline.
With each successive major transgressive-regressive cycle, the
northwest-trending shoreline retreated progressively farther northeast
until, by the end of the Cretaceous Period, the sea had withdrawn from the
region completely (fig. A5). At times the shoreline remained in one position
long enough for thick coastal sandstone to be deposited and for adjacent
swamps to maintain the delicate balance necessary for thick deposits of
organic matter to accumulate and alter to coal. The sedimentary record of
each major transgressive-regressive cycle includes at least one coal-
bearing unit. Although nearly all Cretaceous rocks in the San Juan basin
contain some coal, the major coalbearing units of Cretaceous age in the
basin are, in ascending order, the Crevasse Canyon, Menefee, and
Fruitland Formations.
Coal beds in the Dilco and Gibson Coal Members of the Crevasse
Canyon Formation (fig. A5) have long been mined in the southwest part of
the San Juan basin. Where the Gibson Mernber.of the Crevasse Canyon
Formation and the Cleary Coal Member of the Menefee Formation merge,
several coal beds are currently being strip-mined at the McKinley Mine
(fig. A8, No. 6), northwest of Gallup (Wilson, 1977, p. 255).
The Menefee Formation, in general, contains coal beds at its base
and its top but is essentially barren in the middle part. In the northwestern
part of the basin, the coal-bearing units are called the lower and upper
coalbearing members (Hayes and Zapp, 1955). In the southern part of the
basin, the Menefee is divided into two members, a lower coal-bearing
member, called the Cleary Coal Member, and the overlying Allison
Member, which generally includes some coal at the top. Miller (1984) has
named the coal-bearing interval at the top of the formation the La Vida
Beds of the Allison Member. The upper coal-bearing unit generally
underlies, or intertongues with, the lower part of the overlying Cliff House
Sandstone. Along the east side of the San Juan basin the lower coal
member crops out and can be traced from the southeast northward, nearly
to the State line. Along outcrops on the west side of the basin the Menefee
Formation in most places includes only a few coal beds exce locally where
it intertongues with overlying or underlying sandstones (Beaumont, 1971,
p. 23). North of the San Juan River the number and thickness of coal beds
increase in both coalbearing members.
A distinctive marker bed, called the Huerfanito Bentonite Bed (fig.
A5) of the Lewis Shale, fell as volcanic ash into the Late Cretaceous
marine seaway between the time of deposition of Cliff House
transgressive sands and the final regression marked by the Pictured Cliffs
sands. The Huerfanito Bentonite Bed is a time-stratigraphic marker named
and traced in the subsurface throughout the San Juan basin by Fassett
and Hinds (1971). They used this stratigraphic marker to demonstrate the
stratigraphic rise of the Pictured Cliffs Sandstone as the sea retreated
northeastward, and the influence of this rise on coal beds in the overlying
Fruitland Formation. Figure A6 shows the lines of section constructed by
Fassett and Hinds (1971, plate 2) using the Huerfanito Bentonite Bed as a
datum to show the stratigraphic rise northeastward of the Pictured Cliffs
and the change in thickness of the overlying Kirtland Shale. Figures A6B
and C are computer-generated fence diagrams, based on cross sections
A-A' through E-E', to illustrate the concept of the stratigraphic rise. Panel
E-e in figure A6B and A-C in figure A6C parallel the Cretaceous shoreline
and suggest essentially no stratigraphic change. Figure A6B also shows
the general changes in thickness of members of the KirtlandShale. The
Kirtland is thickest in the northern part of the basin. (See fig. A6B, line A-
A~. The complicated changes in thickness of its members are discussed in
detail by Fassett and Hinds (1971, p. 23-28).
The Fruitland Formation, which overlies the Pictured Cliffs
Sandstone, contains by far the largest coal resources in the San Juan
basin. Most of the coal occurs in lenticular beds in the lower part of the
formation. Coal has been surface mined from the Fruitland near the San
Juan.River in the western part of the basin for many years. The thickness
and distribution of coal in the Fruitland is closely related to the increase in
thickness and stratigraphic rise of the Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, especially
where the lower part of the Fruitland Formation intertongues; with the
upper part of the Pictured Cliffs. Figure A7 is a computer-generated plot of
drill holes showing examples of Fruitland coal and the underlying Pictured
Cliffs in a line extending northeastward across the basin for about 40
miles. In the plot, the datum is the base of the Pictured Cliffs Sandstone,
and the data are interpreted from geophysical logs of oil and gas test
holes. Typically, the coal beds are highly lenticular and difficult to correlate
between drill holes. The thickest coal beds are generally near the base of
the Fruitland, but they can be correlated with certainty only where drill
holes are closely spaced. For these reasons, coal resource calculations
can only be made for coal zones rather than for individual beds. The coal
beds as shown in figure A7 are, in places, at least 20 feet thick, and there
is a suggestion of two coal zones between drill holes H-9 to H-35. The
thickest Fruitland coal in the basin is south of Durango, Colo., near Carbon
Junction, where one bed consists of 80 feet of interbedded coal and
partings (Zapp, 1949).
The San Juan basin is subdivided into 21 individual coalfields or
coal areas underlain by strippable low-sulfur coal (fig. A8). Those fields or
areas in which the Fruitland Formation is the current producer are the
Navajo field and the Fruitland, Bisti, and Star Lake areas. The remaining
fields or areas have coal resources-either developed or undeveloped-in
the Mesaverde Group and its equivalents, the most notable being the
Gallup field.

Coal Quality, Coal Rank Variation and its Relation to

Reconstructed Overburden, Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary Plains
Coals, Alberta, Canada'

JOHN R. NURKOWSK12

INTRODUCTION

The Geological Survey Department of the Alberta Research Council

is involved in studying the stratigraphic and sedimentologic characteristics
of coal-bearing rocks,e as well as the quality of the coals, within Upper
Cretaceous1 and Tertiary sediments in the plains area of Alberta. Thisf
study summarizes the accumulated coal-quality data and attempts to
explain the reason for the regional variations of coal rank throughout the
plains area.
Coal rank in the Alberta plains increases westward toward the
Rocky Mountains. This phenomenon, knownI for some time, was
described first by Stansfield and Lang5 (1944) and later by Campbell
(1972) and Steiner et al (1972). Stansfield and Lang (1944) attributed this
increase to "mountain-building pressures" and, to a lesser extent, to
geologic age and present depth of the coal seam. Fur thermore, Campbell
(1972) found that in addition to distance from the Rocky Mountains, coals
also increased in rank depending on their depth below the surface, at a
rate of 5.34 kJ /kg /m of depth (0.7 Btu/Ib/ft).
Considerable advancement in understanding the varia- tion of coal
rank in the Alberta plains was made when Hacquebard (1977) related the
decrease in moisture content of near-surface coals toward the Rocky
Mountains to progressively thicker amounts of overburden that have been
removed in that direction.
The writer's interpretation is that coal rank in the Alberta plains is
related to the original depth of burial of the coal and not, as previously
hypothesized, to heat and / or pressure generated during the building of
the Rocky Mountains.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The coal-bearing portion of Alberta can be divided intotwo

geographic areas: (1) the folded and faulted foothillsand mountain region
and (2) the f [at, gently dipping plainsregion (Figure 1). Coals of significant
thicknesses occur inboth areas in Lower Cretaceous, Upper Cretaceous,
and Tertiary rocks.
Four prolific coal-bearing zones are present within Upper
Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments in the plains of Alberta: Foremost and
Oldman Formations of the BellyRiver Group, Horseshoe Canyon
Formation, Wapiti Formation, and Scollard Member of the Paskapoo
Forma-tion (Figure 2). The outcrop extent of each of these units is shown
in Figure 1. Except in areas of present-day activeerosion (e.g., the banks
of major rivers), the entire plains area is covered by a thin layer of glacially
deposited Quaternary sediment. Regional dip of the strata in the plains is
west to southwest, toward the foothills and mountains region (Figure 1).
The Belly River Group (Figure 2), lowermost of the outcropping
coal-bearing units, is sand dominated, containing coals, siltstone, and
shales. Individual coal seams attain thicknesses up to 3 m (10 ft), with
cumulative coal thicknesses up to 6 m (20 ft) (Holter and Chu, 1978).
Deposition of the sediments and formation of the coals occurred in
continental and marginal marine environments.
 The Bearpaw Formation (Figure 2) is shale dominated and contains
minor amounts of sand. Thin coal seams of considerable lateral continuity
have been found in the upper portion of this formation. The Bearpaw
Formation was deposited in marine and marginal marine conditions.
The Horseshoe Canyon Formation (Figure 2), like the Belly River
Group. is a sand-dominated sequence enclosing coals, siltstones. and
shales. Coal scams up to 5 m (16 ft) thick and areas with cumulative coal
thicknesses up to 12 m (39 ft) occur within this formation (Holter et al,
1976). Sediment deposition is considered to have occurred in both
continental and marginal marine environments.
The Wapiti Formation (Figure 2) occurs in the northcentral portion
of the province (Figure 1) and is defined as containing sediments of the
Belly River Group and the Horseshoe Canyon Formation in areas where
the Bearpaw Formation is absent. The Wapiti Formation is sand
dominated, containing coals, siltstones, and shales. Coal seams up to 3 m
(10 ft) thick have been encountered within this formation (Chu, 1978). ure
2) is the uppermost of the major coal-bearing units and contains both the
thickest and the most continuous coal seams up to 3 cm (10 ft) thick have
been encoutered within this formation (Chu, 1978).
The Scollard Member is defined as the generally finer grained
section of sediments overlying the Battle Formation and containing the
thick coals traditionally named the Ardley coals. Coal occurrences in
Paskapoo Formation sediments other than within the Scollard Member are
sparse. Coal seams up to 5 m (16 ft) thick, as well as coal zones with
cumulative coal thicknesses up to 20 m (66 ft), occur in this member.
Paskapoo Formation sediments and coals are considered to have been
deposited within a continental environment.

SOURCE AND DESCRIPTION OF DATA

From 1974 to 1980, the Alberta Research Council drilled 427 test
holes, in a pattern paralleling the Rocky Mountains (Figure 1), to evaluate
the shallow coal resources within the previously mentioned coal-bearing
units. in total, these drilling programs accumulated information on 89.6 krn
(294,000 ft) of drilled sediment and 2.1 km (6,890 ft) of cored sediment.
Coal samples were taken periodically when coal seams were encountered
during conventional open-hole drilling. These samples were washed,
bagged, and sent for analysis. Portions of coal scams encountered during
coring were also bagged and sent for analysis. In total, 685 proximate
analyses, 621 calorific value determinations, and 104 ultimate analyses
were performed. All samples were analyzed following American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) procedures.
In 1980, a project was undertaken to computerize these data. The
data were stored on the Alberta Research Council's Digital Vax-I I
computer, using DATATRIEVE as the database management system.
Statistics on the analysis were performed by a statistical package known
as MIDAS on the University of Alberta's Amhdal 470V/9 computer.
Proximate analyses of coals include analysis for moisture, ash,
volatile matter, and fixed carbon, each expressed as a percentage of the
sample. Components of a proximate analysis can be expressed on various
bases, most commonly as-received, dry (D), dry ash free (DAF), and
moist. The moisture content of the as-received basis of reporting reflects
the moisture of the coal sample as it was received in the laboratory and
generally reflects the method of sample packing. The dry basis of
reporting removes the moisture component, and the remaining
components are recalculated to total 100016. The dry ash-free basis of
reporting removes both the moisture and ash components, and the
remaining components, volatile matter and fixed carbon, are recalculated
to total 1000 %. The moist basis of reporting is of importance in that it
takes into consideration the equilibrium or capacity moisture of the coal
sample. The equilibrium moisture content is determined after the coal
sample has been brought to saturation. This moisture content is taken to
represent the insitu moisture content of the coal seam at the point where
the sample was taken.
Calorific values can also be expressed on the foregoing bases. In
order to use the ASTM classification-of-coalsby-rank chart (Table 1),
however, calorific values must be calculated, using the Parr formulas, on a
moist mineral matter-free (MMMF) basis. This basis of reporting calo-. rific
value is taken to represent the theoretically occumag calorific value of a
coal sample containing the determined equilibrium moisture but not
containing the mineral matter portion of the sample.
Ultimate analysis of coal includes analysis for carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The component of most importance in an
ultimate analysis is the sulfur content, and only this component will be
discussed further. The results of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen
determinations, expressed on a dry ash-free basis, are summarized in
Table 2.
The methods of recalculating components of proximate and
ultimate analysis and calorific values to various basis, the laboratory
procedures used in determining the elements of these analyses, and
discussions on ash in coal versus mineral matter in coal can be found in
many coal handbooks (e.g., Stansfield and Lang, 1944; Berkowitz, 1979).

PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF DATA

The results of analysis of coals in this study are from coals that
were obtained from drilling programs. The depths, summarized for each
coal-bearing unit in Table 2, represent the top, or shallowest depth, of the
sampling interval. As is discussed later, quality characteristics of coals are
related to both depth and geographic location of the sample.
 Proximate Analysis

Moisture.-As previously mentioned, the moisture value of most

importance in a coal sample is the equilibrium moisture. as it is taken to
reDresent the in-situ moisture of the coal. Histograms showing the
distribution of equilibrium moisture values for each coal-bearing unit are
presented in Figure 3. Equilibrium moistures for the Wapiti Formation are
not available. Descriptive statistics of moisture content are presented in
Table 2. In some cases, the mean of equilibrium moisture does not occupy
the modal class of the respective histogram (Figure 3) because equilibrium
moistures are not normally distributed, in the statistical sense.
Ash.-As noted from the histograms of ash distribution (Figure 4),
the ash (D) content of coal samples varies considembly. Removing
samples containing greater than 25% ash as being samples of
argillaccous coals, partings, and carbonaccous shales, descriptive
statistics are calculated for all coal-bearing units and are presented in
Table 2.
Volatile matter and ~ carbon.-Owing to the wide distribution of ash
values (Figure 4), volatile matter and fixed carbon values should be
expressed on a dry ash-free basis for comparison. However, when
calculating high-ash samples on this basis, the ratio of these components
to each other can become distorted, therefore descriptive statistics for the
mentioned components, provided in Table 2, only include samples
containing less than 25% ash.

CAdorific Value

In order to use the ASTM classification chart of lowrank coal (Table

1), calorific values must be expressed on a moist mineral-matter-free
basis. The distributions of these calorific values, for all coal-bearing zones
where data are available, are presented in Figure 5. Descriptive statistics
for calorific value, expressed on both a moist mineralmatter-free and a dry
ash-free basis, are presented in Table 2. In the histograms and descriptive
statistics, only coal samples containing less than 25% ash were
considered.

Ultimate Analysis

Sulfur. -An analysis for sulfur content has been undertaken for a
significant number of the coal samples. The total sulfur content is reported:
sulfate, pyritic, and organic. Histograms of sulfur (D) distribution for each
of the coal-bearing units are presented in Figure 6. The distributions for
the Scollard Member, Horseshoe Canyon Formation, and the Wapiti
Formation are positively skewed with a nositivr kurtosis. The reason the
Bellv River Grourp does not have a similar distribution may be a function
of the number of samples. By transforming the percentages of sulfur to
their loglo values, the histograms appear to have a more normal.
distribution, on which statistical parameters can be calculated. The
minimums, maximums, means, and 95% confidence intervals, presented
in Table 2, are calculated from the transformed data.

DATA INTERRELATIONSHIPS

Calorific Value Versus Ash

As has long been realized, a very close relationship exists between

the calorific value of a coal sample and its corresponding ash content. A
crossplot of these variables, both expressed on a dry basis, is provided in
Figure 7. All available data are plotted, regardless of coal-bearing unit. A
least-squares regression analysis of calorific value (dry basis, in kj/kg) on
ash (dry basis, in %) yields the equation
The correlation coefficient (R) between these variables is -0.986
(with R' = 0.971), and the 95% confidence interval on calorific value
estimation, following the method described by Ezekiel and Fox (1959, their
Figure 2. 1), is ± 1,584 kJ/kg (68 1) Btu/lb).
The reader should be aware that the calorific value data shown in
the crossplot (Figure 7) and used in calculating the relationship between
calorific value and ash are from the entire plains area. The coefficient
shown in equation I (representing the calorific value at a theoretically
occurring zero-ash value) would represent an average calorific value for
near-surface coals throughout the area sampled,
The slope component of this equation indicates that dry calorific
value decreases by 315.17 kJ/kg (135 Btu/lb) per percent increase in ash
(dry basis) content. The calculated correlation coefficient (R) between
equilibrium moisture and ash (dry basis) is - 0.38, which indicates that
higher ash samples contain lower equilibrium moistures. This value of
correlation coefficient (R = 0.38) is statistically significant as 419 samples
were used in its calculation.
In a study by Dyck et al (1980) of Saskatchewan lignites, a
correlation coefficient of R = -0.90 was calculated between equilibrium
moisture and ash (dry basis) content, using 1, 176 samples. The
considerably higher correlation coefficient found in the Saskatchewan
study may be due either to the fact that more data were used in its
calculation, or that other controlling variables may affect equilibrium
moisture in this study.
Owing to the relationship between equilibrium moisture and ash,
calculating moist mineral-matter-free calorific value was limited to coal
samples containing less than 2507o ash.

Calorific Value Versus Equilibrium Moisture

 As stated previously, the calorific value of a coal sample, expressed
on a moist mineral-matter-free basis, considers the equilibrium moisture of
the sample, thus some porrelation of calorific value (moist mineral-matter-
free basis) and equilibrium moisture can be expected. A correlation
coefficient (R) of - 0.91 was calculated for the variables (with R' = 0.831)
for all data, regardless of coal-bearing unit. A crossplot of these variables
is presented in Figure 8. A least-squares regression analysis of calorific
value (moist mineral-matter-free basis, in U/kg) on equilibrium moisture
(MEQ, in %) yields:

CVMMF = 31,816 - 442.05MEQ. (2)

The 9507o confidence interval on calorific value estimation is ± 1,408

kJ/kg (605 Btu/1b).
This relationship (as shown in Figure 8 and equation 2) indicates
the significant degree to which moisture content in low-rank coals affects
the rank of the coal. The slope component of equation 2 indicates that
calorific value (moist mineral-matter-free basis) decreases by 442.05 KJ/
kg (190 Btu/Ib) per percent increase in moisture content.

Volatile Matter and Fixed Carbon Versus Calorific Value

The correlation coefficient (R) between volatile matter (dry ash-free

basis) and calorific value (dry ash-free basis) is -0.31, indicating that an
increase in calorific value is associated to a decrease in volatile matter.
The opposite is true for fixed carbon and calorific value, where R = 0.3 1.
These values of correlation coefficient (R. = 0.3 1) are statistically
significant with n = 402.

PREDICTIVE MODEL

The relationship between coal metamorphism, or rank increase,

and depth of burial has been discussed by many authors (e.g.,
Teichmuller and Teichmuller, 1968; Stach etal. 1975; Hacquebard 1977),
and the interested reader is referred to these and their references for
further reading.
Hilt's rule indicates that in undisturbed strata the rank of coal
increases with increasing depth of burial. Once a specific rank has been
attained, removal of overburden (or lowering of the surrounding
temperature) should not decrease the rank (Hacquebard, 1977). Using
equilibrium moisture content of near-surface coal from Steiner et al (1972),
Hacquebard (1977) calculated the amount of removed sediment over oil
and natural gas fields in the plains of Alberta. The relationship between
the equilibrium moisture content of coal and original depth of burial (Figure
9), used by Hacquebard (1977), was derived from European research.
This graph (Figure 9) indicates a logarithmic decrease in bed moisture
(equilibrium moisture MEQ, in %) with respect to depth of burial (DOB, in
m). By estimating values from both axis of the graph, this graph can be
translated to the formula

Log10 MEQ = 1.865 - 0.000416DOB. (3)

The coal rank indicated in Figure 9 does not correspond to the coal
rank found in the Alberta plains; equilibrium moisture versus depth of
burial and relation to coal rank for the Alberta plains coal are discussed
later.
By use of equation 3, the original depth of burial wa§ calculated for
all coal samples with both equilibrium moisture data available and ash
contents less than 2501o. A crossplot of calorific value (moist mineral-
matter-free basis) versus'the calculated depth of burial (Figure 10) follows
Hilt's rule, namely, that with an increase in depth of burial, coal increases
in rank. Hacquebard (1977) provided the logarithmic relationship between
equilibrium moisture and original depth of burial (Figure 9; equation 3),
and this study provided the linear relationship between equilibrium
moisture and calorific value. The relationship, therefore, between original
depth of burial and calorific value should not be linear. However, because
of the short range of depth of burial values calculated (1,2002,200 m,
3,900-7,200 ft), the appearance of the relationship between calorific value
and depth of burial, especially for the calorific value range 22,000-29,000
kJ/kg (9,50012,500 Btu/1b), is linear, on which a simple least-squares
regression analysis can be calculated. Results of this leastsquares
regression analysis of calorific value (moist mineral-matter-free basis, in
kJ/kg) on depth of burial (DOB, in m), yields:

CVMMMF = 14,748 + 6.25DOB. (4)

The slope component of this equation indicates that plains coals

increase in calorific value (moist mineral-matter-free basis) at a rate of
6.25 kJ/kg/m (0.82 Btu/Ib/ft) of depth (or overburden). This rate of increase
represents the coalification gradient. Caution should be used when
applying either equation 4 or the coalification gradient for coals with ranks
beyond the calorific value range of 22,00029,000 kJ/kg (9,500-12,500
Btu/Ib). Campbell (1972), using coal samples from deeper oil wells,
calculated a coalification gradient of 5.34 kJ/kg/m (0.7 Btu/Ib/ft) for the
plains area. The difference between these two coalification gradients may
be due to the range of calorific values over which the coalification gradient
applies. For example, in Campbell (1972). coal rank ranged from
subbituminous to low-volatile bituminous.
With the use of equation 4, the amount of overburden required to
produce various low-rank coals can be calculated (Table 3). This equation
can also be used to modify Hacquebard's (1977) diagram (Figure 9) to
include the coal ranks found in the Alberta plains (Figure 11).
 Once the original depth of burial of a coal sample has been
calculated, the amount of sediment removal from the surface of the earth
overlying the coal sample can be determined by subtracting the present
depth of the sample from its original depth of burial. To present this data in
map view and to remove some of the statistical variation in the data, the
coal-bearing portion of the plains (as defined in Figure 1) was divided into
blocks, each nine townships in area (840 k km 2 or 324 mi2), and an
average value of removed overburden was assigned to each block. These
values were then plotted and contoured (Figure 12).
As shown in Figure 12, the amount of removed overburden ranges
from approximately 900 m (3,000 ft) in the eastern part to approximately
1,900 m (6,200 ft) in the western part of the plains area.
Cross section AA' (Figure 13) is constructed through the plains,
from northeast to southwest, and indicates both ' the subsurface
stratigraphy, displaying the westward dip of the coal-bearing units, and the
reconstructed maximum palcotopographic surface. The maximum
palcotopographic surface was determined by adding the calculated
amount of removed overburden to the present land surface. During the
period of time when the calculated maximum palcotopographic surface
existed, plains coals would have reached their maximum (and current)
degree of metamorphism. As calculated in Table 3, high-volatile
bituminous C coals require at least 1,920 m (6,300 ft) of burial. A line
1,920 m (6,300 ft) below the maximum palcotopographic surface, shown in
cross section AA' (Figure 13), should therefore separate the occurrence of
bituminous coals from subbituminous coals in the subsurface. In cross
section AA' (Figure 13), bituminous coals occur nearer to the present land
surface in the western part of the plains (where calculations show that
greater amounts of sediment have been removed) than in the eastern part.
Cross section BB' (Figure 14) is constructed west to east through
southern Alberta, and indicates the present topographic surface, the
maximum palcotopographic surface, and the subsurface relationships of
coal ranks, as determined from information contained in Table 3.
To demonstrate that the amount of removed overburden shown in
Figu!es 12, 13, and 14 is realistic, a discussion of both Tertiary
stratigraphy and Tertiary tectonics is necessary.
Taylor et al (1964) indicated Paleocene sediments (lower Tertiary)
attain a thickness of over 1,500 m (5,000 ft) in portions of the westernmost
area of the interior plains, and it is very likely that equivalent sediments
extended eastward in the past. In addition to these sediments, sediments
derived from the uplift of the Rocky Mountains, during the Eocene and
Oligocene Epochs (Taylor et al, 1964), would have provided additional
sediment thickness. Taylor et al (1964) stated "only an insignificant portion
of the enormous amount of debris that moved eastward along drainage
channels in Eocene and Oligocene times remains on the Canadian
Plains."
 The thicknesses of sediment of Paleocene age as well as of
Eocene and Oligocene age would have been sufficient to make up the
difference between the present land surface and the maximum
paleotopographic surface shown in Figures 13 and 14.
Evidence that a sufficient thickness of sediment existed can be
further shown when the present elevation of the Cypress Hills, a nunatak
in southeastern Alberta (Figure 1), is taken into consideration. The east
portion of cross section BB' (Figure 14) shows both the present surface
elevation through Township 13 and the present elevation of the Cypress
Hills, through Township 8 (cross section CC', 50 km (31 mi) south of cross
section BB'). If the maximum paleotopographic surface in cross section
BB' is projected eastward, toward the Cypress Hills, the maximum
paleotopographic surface would occur approximately 180 m (600 ft) above
the Cypress Hills.
The Cypress Hills are capped with a coarse Oligocene
conglomerate. During the last 35 m.y., it is possible that at least 180 m
(600 ft) of sediment could have been eroded from the top of the these hills.
Hacquebard (1977), in his calculation of sediment removal in the
plains area of Alberta, similarly considered that a sufficient thickness of
Tertiary (and Upper Cretaceous) sediment may have existed to account
for the considerable thicknesses of removed sediment.
Magara (1978), using sonic transit times in shales, also calculated
the thickness of eroded sediment from the plains of Alberta. The thickness
of eroded sediment calculated, however, is considerably less than the
thicknesses presented here (Figures 12-14). Magara's (1978) cross
section III-Ill' (p. 44) trends approximately northeastsouthwest in the
southern part of Alberta. At a point on this cross section, approximately 14
km (9 mi) north of the city of Medicine Hat (point M in Figure 1), Magara
(1978) calculated approximately 176 m (577 ft) of sediment erosion. The
present surface elevation at this point is,732 m (2,402 ft), indicating a
maximum paleotopographic elevation of 908 m (2,979 ft). The Cypress
Hills, 68 km (42 mi) southeast of point M (Figure 1), have a present
elevation of 1,465 m (4,806 ft). A line joining point M and the Cypress Hills
trends approximately parallel with the foothills and mountains region. It is
expected that these twolocations would have had similar elevations during
the Oligocene, when sediments were actively being shed eastward from
the newly uplifted area in the west. Therefore, Magara's (1978) estimation
of maximum paleotopographic elevation at point M may be at least 557 m
(1,827 ft) less than the possible minimum, as suggested by the present
elevation of the Cypress Hills. Because of this discrepancy, Magara's
calculations of sediment erosion in the Alberta plains were not considered.
Coals equivalent in age to those present in the Scollard Member in
the plains area are being mined in the Coal Valley area (Figure 1) within
the foothills and mountains region. Equilibrium moisture contents of these
coals are approximately 8.5%, and calorific values (moist mineralmatter-
free basis) range from 27,905 to 28,424 kJ/kg (11,997 to 12,220 Btu/Ib)
according to Mervyn Rogan of Luscar Ltd.( personal communication,
1982). Coal samples from Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary coals in the
plains have both similar moisture contents and similar calorific values to
those coals found in the Coal Valley area (Table 2). If, as previously
thought, coal rank in the plains area of Alberta was related to heat and/or
pressure generated from the uplift of the Rocky Mountains, coals in the
foothills and mountains region should be considerably higher in rank than
those found in the plains; this is not the case.
The similarity of rank in coals found in the Coal Valley area to those
found in the subsurface of the central plains area can be explained by the
model for coal rank distribution presented in this paper. The coals
currently mined in the Coal Valley area were uplifted during early Eocene
time and would not have had the maturation benefit of the overburden
added during the Eocene and Oligocene. Undisturbed coals in the plains,
therefore, should increase in rank toward the Rocky Mountains, because
of increasing original overburden thicknesses, and then decrease in rank
in the foothills and mountains region, because of thinner, or nonexistent,
post-orogenic overburden thicknesses.
Last, a discussion is warranted on geothermal gradients and their
relationship to maturation of coals found in the plains area of Alberta. The
geothermal gradient, at the present, decreases in the plains from east to
west toward the mountain front (AAPG and U.S. Geological Survey, 1976),
and Hitchon (in press) suggests the present geothermal pattern existed
since the early Eocene. The reconstruction of original overburden
thicknesses (Figure 12) was made possible by use of a diagram provided
by Hacquebard (1977). However, critics may claim that to use this
diagram, the geothermal gradients of both the area from which the data for
the diagram were collected and the plains area of Alberta, where the
diagram was applied, would have to be the same. In the writer's opinion,
this does not have to be the case.
In the low-rank coals encountered in the plains area, pressure may
be the more significant factor in increasing coal rank. The close
relationship between the increase in coal rank and the respective
decrease in moisture content has beendocumented forthesecoals: with R 2
= 0.83, 8301o of the increase in calorific value (moist mineral-matterfree
basis) can be explained by the decrease in equilibrium moisture (Figure 8.
equation 2). Teichmuller and Teichmuller (1968, p. 261) stated, "The
decrease of porosity, and with it the moisture content, and the increase of
specific gravity in low-rank coals are caused mainly by influence of
pressure." In the case of the plains coals in Alberta, the writer is of the
opinion that overburden pressure is the dominant factor in lowering
moisture content and thus increasing coal rank.
It was previously mentioned that in Saskatchewan lignites
equilibrium moisture content and ash content (dry basis) had a correlation
coefficient of R = -0.90 (Dyck et al, 1980). This value of correlation
coefficient is considerably higher than the one calculated in this study
(where R = -0.38). What may have lowered the correlation coefficient in
this study is the relationship of equilibrium moisture not only to ash
content, but also to variation in original depth of coal seam burial.
Furthermore, because of the good correlation between equilibrium
moisture and ash content in the Saskatchewan lignite study, one can
assume that other factors affecting the equilibrium moisture in these coals,
such as variation in depth of burial, did not exist, or played a lesser role,
because it appears ash content is the main factor controlling equilibrium
moisture content.

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

With the use of the removed overburden map (Figure 12) and the
calculated thicknesses of overburden required to produce various ranks of
coal (Table 3), areas containing similar rank coals can be defined. As high
volatile bituminous C coals require at least 1,920 m (6,300 ft) of burial
(Table 3), these coals should be found at or near the surface where 1.920
m (6,300 ft) of overburden has been removed. Similarly, these coals would
be found at approximately 100 m (330 ft) depth, where 1,820 m (5,970 ft)
of overburden has been removed. Using this method, we can calculate the
theoretical depth to high-volatile bituminous C coal throughout the plains
(Figure 15). A similar method of calculation can be used to define the
occurrence of the subbituminous ranks of coal.
The results of this study indicate that a significant proportion of
Alberta's deeper coal resources may be within the bituminous ranks. Coals
within these ranks can possess swelling properties, and it is these
properties that define coals termed as "coking coals.” The swelling
properties of high-volatile bituminous coals from the plains area of Alberta
are largely unknown. Should these coals possess swelling properties, it
could significantly decrease the potential resources of coal exploitable by
conventional in-situ gasification, as the swelling of the coal at or near the
combustion front will inhibit the flow of either the combustion or product
gases. However, in areas where a considerable amount of overburden has
been removed (Figure 13) and Upper Cretaceous or Tertiary coals exist,
coal exploration may indicate reserves of coal that possess sufficient
swelling properties such that they may be used as coking coals or blends
for coking coals. Exploitation of these coal reserves would have to be by
underground mining.
CONCLUSIONS

Near-surface coals in the Alberta plains range in rank from

subbiturninous C to high-volatile bituminous C. Coal rank is highly
dependent on equilibrium moisture content. These coals are variable in
ash content and low in sulfur content.
Coal rank in the plains increases toward the Rocky Mountains
because thicker amounts of overburden have been removed in that
direction since the coal reached its maximum maturity. Coal rank also
increases with depth, at a rate equal to the coalification gradient (6.25
kJ/kg/m, or 0.82 Btu/Ib/ft).
The results of this study can assist coal exploration companies in
predicting the rank of both near-surface and deep coal before exploration
begins. Development of bituminous coal reserves, for a major portion of
the Alberta plains, would have to be by underground mining.