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-
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11
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CHAPTER
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-
-

Weld and ase Metal

Discontinuities

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 224

Types of Discontinuities ................................................................................................................................................ 224

Size of Discontinuity ..........................

....................................................
....................................................
....................................................
.....................................................
..............................................
................... 244

Location of Discontinuity .............................................................................................................................................. 244

Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................ 244

Review-Chapter 11-
11-Weld
Weld and Base Metal Discontinuities ................................................................................... 245

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CHAPTER 1 1-WE
1-WELD
LD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

Ch apte r 11- Weld and Base M etal Discontinuities

Discontinuities

Introduction (3) Underfill

(4) Incomplete fusi
fusion
on
Discontinuities areare imperfections in welds or base (5) Incomplete oint penetration
metals. Ideally, a sound weld should have nnoo discontinui- 6) Overlap
ties; however, welds are not perfect and imperfections
(7) Undercut
exist in varying degrees.
(8) Lam ination and delamination
delamination
There is a tem ptation ttoo call discontinui
discontinuities
ties defects
defects,,
9) Seams and laps
but as a matter of terminology the terms discontinuity
(10) Lam ellar tearing
and defect sho uld be carefully distinguished bbyy all in-
spectors.. A defect is rejectable.
spectors rejectable. Som e discontinui
discontinuitiesties are
are (1 i ) Crack
acceptable. A discontinuity becomes a defe defectct when it ex- (12) Arc strike
ceeds acceptable limits imposed by acceptance stan- (1 3) Porosity
dards. An im perfection ooff lesser magnitude than that is
still a discontinuity,
discontinuity, but it is not a d efect.
Porosity
The welding inspector’s primary job is to inspect the
fabricator’s work
work to see that it m eets the requirements of Porosity results when gas is trapped in solidifying
the contract. To be ab le to do this, the inspector must be metal. Poros ity will be discussed only as it relates to welds
familiar with the acceptance standards tthat hat spell out the (although porosity is also commonly seen in castings). The
accep table limits for discontinuities. IIff a particular type trapped gas com es from either thethe gas used in the welding
ef discontinui
discontinuityty is pernissih ~. n the welds to be inspected. process or the gas released from chem ical re reactions
actions tha
thatt
the acceptance standard, code, or specification must spec- occurred during the welding process. Faulty or dirty mate-
ify the criteria
criteria used to discriminate between acceptable rials may also produce gas. The gas becomes trapped in
imperfections and defects. the form of porous discontinuities in the weld. Proper
The criteria used to discrimin ate between accepta ble welding technique avoids gas formation and entrapment.
imperfections and defects are described in in the following Porosity usually occurs in the form of rounded dis-
terms: continuities, but in a severe cas e the porosity is cylindri-
cylindri-
-
-
cal. The se large cylindri
cylindrical
cal pores are referred to as piping
Type of discontinuity
` 
` 
  ,

porosity or “w ormholes” (see Figure 11.1). The presence

` 
` 
-
` 

Size of discontinuity
-
` 
  ,

of porosity indicates that the welding process is not being

  ,
` 
  ,
  ,

Location of discontinuity
` 
  ,

properly controlled or that the base metal and welding

` 
  ,
  ,
` 
-
-
-

All three criteria must be considered to judge whether fluxes are con tamin ated with gas producing elem ents. In
a discontinuity is severe enough to be considered a defect. general, porosity in small am ounts does not significantly
intensify stress, therefore, in com parison it is less critical
than those discon tinuities with
with sharp ends.
The distribution of porosity can help determine the
Qpes of Discontinuities type of fault that caused the porosity. A cluster of poros-
Disc ontinu ities have been categorized as listed below, ity is likely to result from improper initiation or terrni-
and shown i n Tables 11.1
1 1.1 and 1 1.2. nation of the weld (see Figure 11.2). If the porosity is
uniformly scattered, the cau se could be either faulty ma-
i ) Porosity terials
teri als or poo r technique used throughout the weld (see
(2) Inclusions, both metallic and nonm etallic
etallic F i gu r e I l 3).
gu re

224

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  ~ _ ~ ~ _
 CHAPTER 11-W
1-WELD
ELD AND BAS E METAL DISCO NTINU ITIES

Table 11 l
C o m m o n Types o f D i s c onti nui ti es

Type of D iscontinuity
iscontinuity

i ) Porosity
(a) Uniformly scattered
(b) Cluster

(c) Piping
(d) Aligned
(e) Elongated

(2) Inclusion
4 Slag
(b) Tungsten

(3) Incomplete fusion

(4) Incomplete joint penetration

(5) Undercut

(6) Underfill

(7) Overlap
Double-V-Gro ove Weld in Butt Joint
(8) Lamination

(9) Delamination

(10) Seam and lap

11) Lamellar tear

(12) Crack (includes hot cracks and cold

cracks described in text)
(a) Longitudinal
(b) Transverse
(c) Crater
(d) Throat
(e) Toe
0 Root
(g ) Underbead and HAZ

Single-Bevel-Groove and Fillet Welds in Corner Joint

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225
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 CHAPTER 11-WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

Table 11 2
Discontinuities Com m only Encountered with Welding
Welding Processes
Processes

Type of Discontinuity

Incomplete
Incomplete Joint
Welding
Welding Process Porosity Slag Fusion Penetration Undercut Overlap Cracks

Arc
SW-Stud welding X X X X
PAW-Pl
PAW-Plas
asma
ma arc weldin
we ldingg X X X X X
SAW-Submer
SAW-Su bmerged
ged arc weldin
weldingg X X X X X X X
GT AW -Ga s arc tung
tungst
sten
en wel
weldin
dingg X X X X X
EGW-Electrogas welding X X X X X X

GMAW-G
GMAW -Gas
as metal
me tal arc
ar c wel
weldin
dingg X X X X X X
FCAW-Flux
FCAW-Flux core
coredd arc
ar c weldin
we ldingg X X X X X X
SMAW-Shielded metal arc welding X X X X X X X
CA W-C arbon arc we
weldi
lding
ng X X X X X X

Resistance

RSW-Resistance spot weldin

weldingg X* X X X
RSEW-Resistance seam weldin
weldingg X* X X X
PW-Projection welding X X X

FW-Flash welding X X X
UW-Upsct welding X X X

Oxyfuel Gas

OAW-Oxyacetylene welding X X X X X X
OHW-Oxyhydrogen welding X X X
iW -Pressüïe gas we ding X x X

Solid-state**

CW-Cold welding X X
DFW-Diffusion welding X X
EXW-Explosion welding X

FOW-Forge welding X
FRW-Friction welding X
USW-Ultrasonic welding X

Other

EBW-Electron
EBW-Elect ron beam weldin
weldingg X X X X
ESW-Electroslag welding X X X X X X
IW-Induction welding X X

LBW-Laser beam weldin

LBW-Laser weldingg X X X X
PEW-Percussion welding X X
TW-Thermite welding X X X X

*Porosity in resistance
resistance welds is more properly called “voids.”
**Solid-state is not a fusion process, so incomplete joining is incomplete welding rather than incom plete fusion.

226
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 CHAPTER 1 -WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES
DISCONTINUITIES

-
-
` 
` 
  ,
` 
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-
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-
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  ,̀ 
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` 
-
-
-

LINEAR SCATTERED POROSITY

ALIGNED ALON
ALONG
G THE OINT)
- PIPING OR WORMHOLE POROSITY
EXTENDING FROMTHE ROOT)
-

~~~ ~

UNIFORML
UNIFORMLY
Y S CAlTE RED POROSI
POROSITY
TY

Figure 11.1-Porosity Illustrated

221

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 CHAP TER 11
11-WEL
-WELD
D AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

CLUSTER POROSITY
POROSITY

Du Pont (Conoco, inc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF CLUSTER POROSITY

Figure 11.2-Cluster Porosity

Porosi ty

etallic ( S lag and Oxides) Inclusions

N onm etallic
By tself, randomly scatîered porosity s not detrimental
These types of inclusions result from faulty welding
to the strength of the weld. When the porosity aiigns
or cleaning techni
techniques
ques and /or tthe
he failure of the designer
and becomes linear, clusters in a particular area, or
to provide proper access for welding within the joint.
develops a “tail.” the weld is usually rejectable.
Molten slag and oxides will f l o w to the top of the weld, if
allowed. Sharp notches in joint boundaries or between
passes often cause slag to become trapped
trapped under the mol-
Lin ear porosity aligned along a joint boundary s ug-
gests that contam ination triggered a chem ical rreaction,
eaction, ten weld m etal. Parallel lines of elongated slag inclusions,
sometime s cal
called
led “wagon tracks” because of their radio-
which produced unwanted gas. Such contamination could
graphic appearanc e, often resul
resultt if the welder produces a
have been e liminated bbyy proper joint preparation (see
convex root pass i n an open root pip e joint and fails to
igure 11.4).
1 1.4).
adeq uate ly clean the slag on either side of this weld pass
Piping porosity, an elongated gas discontinuity that
(see Figure
extends from the weld root toward the surf
surface,
ace, is also evi-
dence of the presence of surf
surface
ace contami
contaminatio
nationn (see Fig- Me tallic Inc lusio ns
Ure 11.5). The se inclusions are usually tungsten particles
trapped in w eld metal (see Figure 11.8). They m ost often
Inclusions occu r in gas tungste n ar
arcc welding, but may also result if
the plasma arc welding process is improperly applied.
Inclusions result when solid materials are trapped in These tun gsten inclu
inclusions
sions appear as ligh
lightt areas on radi
radio-
o-
solidifying metal. Because inclusions interrupt the
the co nti- graphs, because tungsten is highly opaq ue to radiation.
nuity of the weld, the presence of inclusions will result in T his is oppo site ffrom
rom mo st other discontinuit
discontinuities,
ies, which
some loss of structural integrity (see Figure 11.6). show up as dark regions
regions on the radiog raphic film

228
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~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~

 
 CHAPTER 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

G uide for Examination of Welds

the Visual Examination (AWS E I

SCATTERED SURFACE POROSITY

    -
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        `
  ,
        `
        `
    -
    -

~~

Du Pont Conoco, inc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF SCATTERED POROSI
POROSITY
TY

Figure 11.3-Scattered Porosity

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CHAPTER 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCON TINUITIES

Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds (AWS BI 1)

SCAlTE RED LINEAR

LINEAR POROSITY

Du Pont Conoco, nc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF LINEAR ALIGNE D) POROSITY

Figure 11.4-Linear Porosity

230
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 CHAPTER 11-WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

Guide for the Visual Examination

Examination o f Welds (AWS 61.11)

Figure 11.5-Su
11.5-Surface
rface Appearance of Piping Porosity
Porosity

Cop per incl

inclusions
usions result when copper backi
backing
ng bars o r to as inadequa
inadequatete joint pene tration, or joint penetrati
penetration
on
backing shoes are used, as in electroslag welding. Im- that is less than speci
specified.
fied. Many codes require the use of
proper application
application of the plasm a arc welding process can joint backing for single-groove welds or backgouging of
result in overheating of the
the copper constricting no zzle, double-groove welds
welds to ensure that com plete joint pene-
which can also cause copper inclusions in the weld. tration can be attained
attained (see Figure 1 1.13).

Underfill
Underfill is a depressi
Underfill depression
on on the face or root surface of
the weld below the surface plane of the adjacent base
metal. In other words, if if a w elder or welding operator
fails to comple tely fi
fill
ll the groove, the result is an under-
size weld (see Figure 1 1.9). On pipe w elds, underfi
underfill
ll at
the weld root may a lso be ref
referred
erred to as internal concaviq Overlap
o r suck-back.
Overlap is the protrus
protrusion
ion of weid metal beyond the toe
or weld root of the w eld joint without fusion. Th e resul
result-
t-
Incomplete Fusion ing discon tinuity is a ssevere
evere mechan ical notch
notch o n the sur-
Incom plete fu
fusion
sion is the failure of iquid weld metal to face. Th is discont
discontinuit
inuityy is similar to inc omp lete fus
fusion-
ion-
fuse into the groove face of the joint or to adjacent weld the difference is the location where the fusion failed to
beads. Incom plete fu
fusion
sion is usually ca used by insufficient take place (see Figure 11.14). Overlap is caused by the
applicatio n of heat to all faces of the joint. However, in- inability of the weld metal to fuse with the surface, espe-
complete fusion can also be caused by the presence of cially when tightly adhering oxides cover the base m etal.
oxides, which inhibit fusion
fusion by remaining tightly secure d Overlap results from lack of control of the welding pro-
to the b ase metal (see Figures 11.1
11.10-11.
0-11.12).
12). cess in the form of insufficient heat (current too low),
inadequa te travel speed, improp er selection of welding
Incomplete Joint Penetration materials (lack of deoxidizers), or improper preparation
of the joint (failure to remove mill scale or other surface
Incomplete joint penetration results when the weld coatings). Excessive weld metal buildup on a groove
metal fails to extend completely through the joint thick- referred to as excess weld reinforcement.
weld is referred
ness. Th e amount of ioint uenuenetrat
etration
_
ion rew ire d in any ioint
l i

should be specified on drawings. Wheth er that amount of

joint penetration can be obtained depends upon the accessi-
bilityy of the heat sou rce and filler rrod
bilit od to the face are a. This
discontinuity can also result from imprope r joint designs.
The presence of incomplete oint penetr penetrati
ation
on in a jjoint
oint     -
    -
    -
        `
  ,

requiring complete joint

joint penetration can also be referred
  ,
        `
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
    -
        `
    -
        `
        `
  ,
        `
        `

23
    -
    -

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 CHAPTER 1 I-WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES
DISCONTINUITIES

G u i d e for the Visual Examination of Welds (AWS 61 11)

SURFACE SLAG INCLUSIONS

-
-
` 
` 
  ,
` 
` 
-
` 
-
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
-
-
-

Du Pont Conoco, inc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF INTERPASS SLAG INCLUSIONS

Figure 11.6-Slag
11.6-Slag Inclusions

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CHAPTER 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCO NTINU ITIES

-
-
` 
` 
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` 
` 
-
` 
-
` 
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  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
-
-
-

Du Pont Conoco, inc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF ELONGATED SLAG LINES WAGON TRACKS)

Figure 11.7-Elongated Slag Lines

Du Pont Conoco, inc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS

Figure 11.8-Tungsten Inclusions

Inclusio ns

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CHAPT ER 1
11-
1-WELD
WELD AND EASE METAL DISCONTINUITI
DISCONTINUITIES
ES

UNDERFiLL

Guide for the Visual Examination o Welds (AWS B I . 11)

UNDER FILL AFT

AFTER
ER USING FLUX CORED ARC WELDING IN STEEL

Figure 11.9-Underfill

-
-
` 
` 
  ,
` 
` 
-
` 
-
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
-
-
-

Figure 11.10-Vario
11.10-Various
us Location s of Incomplete Fusion
Locations

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CHAPTER 11-WE
11-WELD
LD AND BASE METAL DISCO NTINU ITIES

Guid e ffor
or the Visu al Examination of Welds (AWS B I .I 1)

Figure 11.11-Incomplete Fusion at Weld

Weld Face

-
-
` 
` 
  ,
` 
` 
-
` 
-
` 
  ,

(AWS .I 1)
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
Guid e for
for the Visual Examination of Welds BI
` 
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
-
-
-

Figure 11.12-Incomplete Fusion

Fusi on Between Individual We
Weld
ld Beads

Undercut shrinkage cavity in the ingot are rolled flat, but are not
subsequently welded under the pressure of hot rolling.
Undercut is a surface discontinuity that results from They g enerally run paral parallel
lel to the surface of the rolled
melting of the base metal at either the weld toe or weld p ro d u c t a n d a re mo st c o mmo n l y fo u n d i n st ru c t u ra l
root (see Figures 11.14 and 1 1.15). It takes the form of a shapes and plates (see Figures
Figures 11.1
11.166 and 11.17).
mechanical notch at the these locations. Unde rcut is Lam inations most ofte oftenn app ear near the ce nterline of
caused by the application of excessive heat (e xcessive the material thickn
thickness.
ess. Be cause it would
would op en as a sand-
weld current) or impro per electrode manipulation, which wich, m etal containing laminations cannot reliably carry
m e l t s a w a y t h e b a s e m e t a l . U s e of e x c e s s i v e t r a v e l stress in the through-thicknes
through-thicknesss directio n.
speeds w ill also cause under undercut.
cut. A delamination is the separation of a lam ination under
stress. Th e stress may be a result ooff distortion during flam e
cutting, resid
residual
ual stress from
from welding, or a pplied stress.
Lamination and Delamination
Ultrasonic testing is the the only effecti
effective
ve means of locat-
Lam inations are flat, ge
general
nerally
ly elongated, planar base ing lam inations, unless they they ex tend to an exp osed edge of

me t a l d i sc o n t i n u i t i e s fo u n d n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f ro l l e d the material. Laminations will not be revealed by radio-

products. Lam inations are formed when gas voids in the
products. graphic testing.

35

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CHAPTE R 11-WELD
11-WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINU ITIES

uide for he sual Examination of Welds (AWS B1.i

INCOMPLETE JOINT
JOINT P ENETRATION

    -
    -
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        `
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        `
    -
        `
    -
        `
        `
  ,
        `
        `
    -
    -

Du Pont Conoco, nc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION

Figure 11.13-Incompl
11.13-Incomplete
ete Joint Pen
Penetr
etrati
ation
on

236

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CHAPTER 1 -WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

WELD FLAWS

~ ~ ~

G uide for the Visual Examination of W elds (AWS 61 I 1)

OVERLAP

Figure 11.14-Undercut
11.14-Undercut and Overla
Overlapp

Seams and Laps
Seams and laps are linear base metal discontinuities
found in rolled
rolled products that result from im proper steel-
making practices.
practices. Seam s and laps differ from lamina-
tions in that they
they always appear on the rolled surfaces.
When they are parallel to the principal
principal stress, seams and
laps are generally not considered to be a critical defect.
When perpendicular
perpendicular to the applied or residual stress, they
will often propagate as a crack. Weldin
Weldingg ove r seam s and
laps can cause cracking.
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar tearing is a fracture separation in heavy
weldments, found w ithin or just be neath the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) of thick plates that were not adeq uately re-
fined by the steel mill. From their ingot stage to the final
thickness, heavy plates and structur al shapes receive lim-
ited working, which may not remove all traces of ingo-
tism. Rolling
Rolling an d forging impart good properties in the
d i r e c t i o n of m e t a l f l o w ( t h e “X” d i re c t i o n ) b u t t h e
strength and ductility perpendicular to the rolled surface
through-thickness or “Z” irection) remain poor (see
(the through-thickness
Figure 11.18).
Ma ssive welds that are poorly located (i.e., adjac ent to
a thick plate) transmit weid shrinkage stresses into the
plate in its weakest direction. This creates tears pa rallel
to the surface, which then are linked together by shear
fractures, to form steps connected by risers perpendicular
to the surface. The phenomenon
phenomenon is called lam ellar tearing,

237
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CHAPTER 11-WEL
11-WELD
D AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

G uide for the Visual Examination of Welds (AWS BI .1 I )

Figure 11.15-Undercut at Weld Toe

-
-
` 
` 
  ,
` 
` 
-
` 
-
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,

Lam ellar tea

tears
rs may extend over long distance s and are
  ,
` 
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,

located more deeply than underbead cracks, which differ

` 
-
-
-

in sha pe, cause, and location.

LAMINATION
LAMINATI ON
Figure 11 1ó-Lamination
and Delamination
because the plate ope ns up as though it were made of
stacked sheets or lamellae. The engineer should change
the joint d esign to bring the shrinka ge stresses more i n
direction (see F igure 1.19).
line with the rolling direction
Cracks
Cracks may occur in the weld or base metal, or both,
when localized stresses exceed the strength of the mate-
rial. Crac king is generally associate d wit
withh disc
discontinu
ontinuiti
ities
es
in welds and base m etals, witwithh no tches, with high resi
resid-
d-
ual stresses, and
and often with h ydrogen emb nttlement (see
Figure I i .20). Welding-relat
Welding-related ed cracks often appear as
though the metal w ere brittle. There is little
little evide nce at
the crack boundaries that the metal deformed before it
cracked. Cracks can be classifi
classified
ed as either “hot” cracks
or “cold” cracks.
Hot cracks develop at high temperatures. They com-
monly fo rm on pre ferential solidification of alloys ooff the
metal near the me lting point. Hot cracks propaga te bebetween
tween
the grains when the prefere ntial solidification occurs. Cold
cracks develop after solidification
solidification s comp lete and are oft
often
en
service-related.
service-r elated. Delayed cracks are comm only caused by
the presence of hydrogen in a crac k-susce ptible microstruc-

reduction
A ce
redu in theforamount
the tendency of of
this type weld required will also
discontinuity. ture
may that is subjected to
propag to someorappli
ate either through applied
ed stress
betweenstress.
. Cold cracks
grains.

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CHAPTER 11-WEL
11-WELD
D AND BASE METAL DISCONTINU ITIES

G uide for the Visual Examination

Examination of Welds (AWS BI .i )

Figure 11.17-Laminations

-
-
` 
` 
  ,
` 
` 
-
` 
-
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,

Figure 11.18-Weld
11.18-Weld Configuratio
Config uration
n Which May Cause Lamellar
Lamella r Tearing
  ,
` 
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
-
-
-

Figure 11.19-Redesigned Corner Joint to Prevent Lamellar Tearing

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CHAPTE R 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES
DISCONTINUITIES

LEGEND:
1 Crater crack
2 Facecrack
3 Heat-affected zone crack
4 Lamellar tear
5 Longitudinal crack
Rootcrack
7 Root surface crack
Throat crack
9 Toecrack
    -

1 Transverse crack
    -
    -
        `
  ,
  ,

11 Underbead crack
        `
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `

12 Weld interface ccrack

rack
  ,
  ,
        `
    -
        `

13 Weld metal cr
crack
ack
    -
        `
        `
  ,
        `
        `
    -
    -

Figure 11.20-Crack Vpes

Longitudinal cracks are aligned parallel to the weld hot crack s and are sometimes referred to as stur cracks
axis. They are called longitudinal c racks, whether th
they
ey because they often radiate in several directions from the
are centerline cracks in the weld metal or toe cracks in cen ter of the crater. However, they also have other shapes.
the HAZ of the base metal (see Figure 11.21). Crat er cracks are usually shallow, which allows for their
removal with minimal grinding (see Figure 11.22).
Cracks are the most seve re dis
discontinuity.
continuity. They have a A throat crack is a longitudinal crack in the weld face
very sharp end condition and are likely to propagate. weld (see Figure .23).
of either a groove or fillet weld
Most weldin
weldingg cod es disallow cracks. Toe crac ks are generally cold cra cks. They begin and
grow from the weld toe w here residual stresses are high,
especially when the weld exhibits excessi
excessive
ve reinf
reinforce-
orce-
Transverse crack s are perpen dicu lar to the weld axis.
ment or convexity (see Figure 11.24). Toe cracks initiat
initiatee
They may rem ain within the weld m etal oorr exte
extend
nd from
approximately perpendicular to the metal surf surface,
ace, but
the weld metal into the adjacent HAZ and the remainder
may tend to curv e and follow the we
weld
ld HAZ .
of the base metal. In some w eldments, ttransv
ransverse
erse cracks
can form in the HA Z of the base m etal and not in the Root cracks are lon gitudinal cracks in the wel
weldd root.
weld. They are generally a form ooff hot cracking.

Crat er
proper crack s occur
termination in the crater that is formed by im-
of a weld pass. They are considered thatUnderbead and
form in the HAHAZ
Z of cracks aremetal.
the base usually cold
They arecracks
most

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CHAPTER 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCO NTINU ITIES

G uide for th Examination of W elds (AWS B1.11)

Visual Examination

LONGITUDINAL CRACK AND LINEAR POROSITY

Du Pont Conoco, Inc.)

RADIOGRAPH OF LONGITUDINAL CRACK

Figure 11.21-Longitudinal Cracks

--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
24 1

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CHAPTER 11-WELD
11-WELD AND BASE METAL DISCO NTINUITIES

G uide for he Visual Examination of Welds AWS B I . i

CRATER CRACK

    -
    -
    -
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
    -
        `
    -
        `
        `
  ,
        `
        `
    -
    -

Guide for Examinatio n of Welds

he Visual Examinatio AWS BI .I 1)

LONGITUDINAL CRACK PROPAGATING FROM CRATER CRACK

Figure 11.22- Cracks

Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds AWS BI .I 1 )

Figure 11.23-Throat Crack

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CHAPTER 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCO NTINUITIES

Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds (AWS BI .i )

Figure
Figu re 11.
11.24-
24-Toe
Toe Cra
Cracks
cks

often short, but the theyy may join to form a con tinuous crack,
e s p e c i a l l y w h en
en t h r e e s i m u l t a n e o u s c o n d i t i o n s a r e
present: (1) hydrogen, 2 ) high-str high-strengthength m aterial (Rock-
well “C” hardness of 30 or higher), and (3) high residual
stress. Underbead and HA Z cracks can be either longitu-
dinal or transverse
transverse (se e Figure 11.25).
Fissures are small or moderate size separations along
grain boundaries. This discontinuity is easiest to se e in
electroslag
electrosl ag weld
weldss because of the large grains com monly
present. The separations may be either hot or cold crack s.
The term “m icrofissure” is used if the fissures are so small
that magnificatio
magnificationn must be used to detec t the separation. Figure 11.25-Underbea
11.25-Underbead
d Cracks
Crack s
Fissures are termed “macrofissure” if the separation is
large enough to be seen with
with the unaided eye (see Figure
11.26).
an improperly secured work connection d uring welding.
Arc strikes can also result from im proper contact of the
Arc Strike
prods used for magnetic particle testing.
Arc strikes represe
represent
nt unintentiona l melting or heating The result is a small, remelted area that can be the
outside the
the intended weld depo sit area. They are usually source of undercutting,
undercutting, harden ing, or localized crackin g,
caused by the welding arc, but can be produced beneath depending upon the metal composition. For that reason,

--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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CHAPTER I-WELD AND BASE METAL DISCONTINUITIES

DISCONTINUITIES

Some discontinuities are acceptable, as long as their

size does n ot exceed spec ified limits. However, other
other
types such as cracks are normally unacceptable, regard-
less of length. In general, nonlinear discontinuities are
permitted to be larger than linear types.

Location of Discontinuity
The location
location of a discontinuity may suggest the cause
of the problem and its serious ness. The location of poros-
ity can identify where contamin ation exists. The welding
inspector mu st consid er the location and orientation of
some discontinuities to determine how m uch the load-
carrying capacity of the structure will be degraded.
For structu res that
that w ill be subjected to fatigue (or cy-
clic) types of loads, those discontinuities exposed to the
surface are generally considered to be more severe. In
fact, small surface discontinuities may be m ore damag-
MICROFISSURE
ing than subsurface one s, even though the size of those
those
subsurface discontinuities is much greater.

Figure
Figur e 11.26-Underbead Cracks
and Microfissure Summary
The w elding inspector will be asked to examine welds     -
    -
    -
        `

to determine their acceptability in accordance with vari-

  ,
  ,
        `
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,

ous codes and specifications. One of the aspects ooff this

        `
  ,
  ,

arc strikes represent a dangerous co ndition that can result

        `
    -
        `
    -

activity will be the visual identification

identification of w eld disconti-
        `
        `
  ,

in catastrophic failure
failure of the weldm ent.
        `
        `
    -

nuities. Th e inspector must be capa ble of identifying the

    -

type of disc ontinuity, because different types of disconti-

nuities have different levels of permissibility.
Size of Discontinuity
In addition to identifving the types of weld discon-
The size of the discontinuity must be considered
considered when tinuities present, the inspector should also know what
evaluating the structural integrity of the en tire weld.
evaluating weld. A c- conditions might have lead to the creati
creation
on of those dis-

ceptance standards
nuity in terms of itsspecify the allow able size of disconti-
linear dimensions. continuities. That
preventt further
preven way,
occu corrective action can be taken to
rrence.

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CHAPTER 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCO NTINU ITIES

Review-Chapter 11-We
11-Weld
ld and B ase M etal Discontin uities
Qll-1 A discontinuity
discontinuity is:
a. always a defect
b. always a reject
c. always acceptable
d. rejectable if it exceeds code limits
e. none of the above

Qll-2 Of the following,

following, which is com monly caused by the presence of hydrogen
hydrogen in a crack susceptible microstructure
subjected
subjected to app lied stress?
a. lam ellar tearing
b. delamination
c. porosity
d. delayed cracking
e. none of the above
    -

Qll-3 Porosity, occu mn g in the form of large cylindrical pores is called:

Porosity,
    -
    -
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
  ,

a. cluste red porosity

        `
  ,
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `

b. linear scatte red porosity

    -
        `
    -
        `
        `
  ,

c. uniformly scattered poros ity

        `
        `
    -
    -

d. elong ated porosity

e. none of the above
Qll-4 Which of the follow ing discontinuities is least likely to be detected visually?
a. toe crack
b. undercut
c. lamellar tear
d. overlap
e. none of the above'
Qll-5 Underbead cracks can result from which of the following
Underbead following w elding
elding prac tices?
a. use of wet electrodes
b. weldin
weldingg on contaminated steels
c. welding
welding over paint
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
Qll-6 The we ld discontinuity that results
results from im proper termination of the w eldi
elding
ng arc is referre
referredd to as:
a. undercut
b. overlap

c.
d. crater crack fusion
incomplete
e. all of the above
Qll-7 All but which of the following processes may result in the presence
presence of slag incl
inclusion
usionss in the comp leted weld?
a. SMAW
b. PAW
c. FCAW
d. SAW
e. none of the above
Qll-8 That discontinuity that results from the entrapment of gas within the weld cross section is referred to as:
a. crack
b. slag inclusion
c. incomplete fusion
d. porosity
e. none of the above

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 CHAPTE R 11-
11-WELD
WELD AND BASE METAL DISCON TINUITIES

Qll-9 Wha t base metal discontinuity, lo

located
cated at the weld toe, is caused by the welder traveling too rapidly?
a. underfill
b. undercut
c. incomp lete fusion
d. overlap
e. none of the above

Q l l - 1 0 Wha t weld discontinuity results when the welder travels too slowly, which cau ses excess weld metal to pour out
of the joint and lay on the base metal surface without fusing?
a. undercut
b. underfill
c . overlap
d. incomp lete fusion
e. none of the above

Q l l - 1 1 Wha t weld metal discontinuity resul

results
ts when the we lder fails to completely fill tthe
he weld groove?
a. underfill
b. undercut
c. overlap
d. incomplete fusion
e. none of the above

Q l l - 1 2 Excessive weld m etal buildup on a groove weld is referred to as:

a. excess convexity
b. excess weld reinforce men t
c. overfill
d. all of the above
e. none of the above

Q i i - 1 3 Th e weld discontinui
discontinuity
ty that resuiis [rom the initiation of the weiding arc o u ts i, tine wei
weill ioint is referred to as:
a. incom plete fusion
b. undercut
c. overlap
d. scratch start
e. arc strike
-
-
` 
` 
  ,
` 

Q l l - 1 4 Of the following, which w eld discontinuit

discontinuityy show s up as a light region o n a radiograph?
` 
-
` 
-
` 
  ,
  ,

a. porosity
` 
  ,
  ,
` 
  ,
` 
  ,
  ,

b. incomplete joint penetration

` 
-
-
-

c. a and b above
d. tungsten inclusion
e. none of the above

Q l l - 1 5 What b ase metal discontinuity results from improper steelmaking practice and is associated with the rolled surface?
a. lamination
b. delamination
c. seam
d. crack

e. none of the above

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 CHAPTER 11-WELD
11-WELD AND BASE METAL DISCON TINUITIES

Questions Q l l - 1 6 through Q l l - 2 0 refer to the figure belo

below:
w:

    -
    -
    -

        `
  ,
  ,
        `
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
  ,
  ,
        `
    -
        `
    -
        `
        `
  ,
        `
        `
    -
    -

4 1 1 - 1 6 What discon tinuity is shown by #12b?

a. longitudinal crack
b. transverse crack
c. facecrack
d. toe crack
e. root crack
Q l l - 1 7 What discontinuity is shown by 1 l ?
a. lamination
b. base metal crack
c. lamellar tear
d. seam
e. lap
Q l l - 1 8 Wha t disc
discontin
ontinuity
uity is shown by #12g?
a. toe crack
b. incomp lete fusion
c. root crack
d. lamellar tear
e. underbead crack

Q l l - 1 9 What discontinuity is shown by #5?

a. undercut
b. underfill
c. overlap
d. incomp lete fusion
e. toe crack
4 1 1 - 2 0 Wha t discontinuity is shown by l o?
a. lamination
b. seam
c. delamination
d. base metal crack

e. incomplete fusion

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