ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2020.1817185

Performance enhancement of photovoltaic module by integrating

eutectic inorganic phase change material
Ramanan Pichandia, Kalidasa Murugavel Kulandaivelu a, Karthick Alagar b
,
Hari Kishan Dhevaguru a, and Suriyanarayanan Ganesamoorthy a
a
Centre for Energy Studies, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Engineering College, Kovilpatti, India;
b
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology is an upcoming technology for harnes­ Received 9 October 2019
sing solar power. The performances of the PV modules are affected by Revised 14 August 2020
incident solar radiation and mainly due to the rise in surface temperature Accepted 15 August 2020
in the hot environmental conditions. To manage the PV module temperature, KEYWORDS
passive cooling technology is adopted in this work. The integration of phase Eutectic PCM; inorganic salt
change materials (PCMs) as a thermal regulating medium into the PV mod­ hydrate; DSC; TGA; PV-PCM
ule’s rear surface is intended. Two inorganic hydrated salts, Sodium system
Carbonate Decahydrate (SCD) -Na2CO3.10H2O and Magnesium Sulfate
Heptahydrate (MSH) – MgSO4.7H2O are used to form the binary eutectic
PCM. The binary eutectic PCM was integrated on the backside of the 25 W
polycrystalline silicon PV module and tested for temperature regulation
under the outdoor conditions of Kovilpatti (9°10′0′′N, 77°52′0′′E), Tamil
Nadu, south India. The thermophysical properties of the eutectic PCM,
including the latent heat of fusion and, temperature of phase change were
estimated using Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). The melting and
freezing point of the 70:30 SCD-MSH eutectic mixture was 35.6 °C and 31.1 °C,
respectively, with a latent heat value of 230.5 J/g. The PV-PCM system
showed an instantaneous temperature reduction up to 7°C with an increase
of 1.21% in the daily average efficiency. An increase in the daily DC power
output by 12.5% than the reference PV module is observed in the PV-PCM
system.

Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) technology is one of the promising and economically feasible technologies for
renewable energy generation. However, a majority of incident radiation is reflected and dissipated as
heat energy in the photovoltaic module while the minor fraction is converted into electricity. The
photovoltaic module temperature is increased by 1.8°C for every interval of 100 W/m2. The efficiency
of the PV module is reduced as the temperature of the PV cells rises (Skoplaki and Palyvos 2009). For
each 1°C raise in PV temperature, 0.5% drop in efficiency has been observed for the crystalline silicon
PV panel (Karthick et al. 2019). An effective cooling method needs to be adopted to sustain the
thermal management of PV panels and increase conversion efficiency. Numerous studies of active and
passive cooling methods for thermal management of the PV modules have been reported (Ali 2020;
Reddy et al. 2020). Temperature regulation of PV panel was facilitated by Parkunam et al. (2019) using
wick structure and heat sinks with copper and aluminum fins. An improvement in the efficiency and
power output of 4% and 6% was reported, respectively. The performance of a 75 W PV module was

CONTACT Kalidasa Murugavel Kulandaivelu kali_vel@rediffmail.com; kkmmech@nec.edu.in Centre for Energy Studies,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Engineering College, K.R. Nagar, Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu 628503, India
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

increased by 20.9% in summer and 18.32% in winter using water-cooling techniques by Sainthiya and
Beniwal (2019).
Several studies have been carried out for PV-PCM systems by integrating various types of PCMs
under different environmental conditions. The photovoltaic system performance for the domestic
buildings was analyzed by Ramanan et al. (2020). It was stated that the temperature rise in the PV
module needs to be managed to improve the efficiency and output power of the system. Park, Kim, and
Leigh (2014) determined the optimal thickness and temperature of the PCM for PV-PCM system in
buildings. Experimentally, PV-PCM was found to reduce the module temperature by 5 K than the
conventional panel with an increase of 1.5% output power and 3.5% energy efficiency. A simplified
mathematical model was proposed by Arici et al. (2018) to analyze the performance improvements of
a PV-PCM method in accordance with the economic aspects. A reduction in PV temperature by 10.26°
C was reported with an increase in efficiency of 3.73%. JianShe et al. (2018) carried out the thermal
analysis of expanded graphite (EG) composite with paraffin as PCM. Apparently, EG improved
thermal stability and reduced PCM leakage.
Sun et al. (2018a) intended a numerical method to decide the suitable thickness of the PCMs: RT55,
RT47, RT42, and RT35 for the PV-PCM systems in Thailand. The performance of the system with
RT42 was experimentally validated with a temperature reduction of 13°C. Nada, El-Nagar, and
Hussein (2018) investigated PV module temperature control by integrating PCM and a composite
of Al2O3 nanoparticles into PCM. A drop in the panel temperature by 8.1°C and 10.6°C was noted,
while the efficiency of the respective systems increased by 5.7% and 13.2%. Pork fat as novel PCM was
compared for its performance with organic PCMs when integrated with a PV module by Nizetic et al.
(2018) with a one-dimensional numerical model. It was reported that no significant difference was
noted in the performance of both the PV-PCM systems. The economic feasibility was also addressed
for the usage of pork fat as PCM. The fusion of SiO2 nanoparticles to the PCM on its thermal behavior
was investigated by Manoj Kumar, Mylsamy, and Saravanakumar (2019). The thermal conductivity of
the PCM was found to be improved up to 33.34%. Similar PV-PCM studies at various locations with
different configurations are reviewed and compared with the present study as shown in Table 1.
The above studies used organic PCMs such as paraffin as the latent heat storage medium for the
PV-PCM systems. Integrating inorganic salt hydrates with PV-PCM systems were seldom found
despite their high volumetric heat capacity when compared with organic PCMs. Hydrated salts have
high thermal conductivity, latent heat of fusion, density, and are cost-effective relative to organic
PCMs. In the ambient conditions of at 1000 W/m2 and 20°C, Hasan et al. (2010) studied the
performance of calcium chloride hexahydrate as PCM and have reported 18°C decrease in the module
temperature by analyzing five different PCMs. The PV-PCM module in Dublin and Vehari has
recorded a cumulative reduction of 10°C and 21.5°C, respectively, in PV module temperature, for
similar insolation conditions (Hasan et al. 2015). A BIPV module integrated with Na2SO4.10H2O,
Na2HPO4.10H2O, and 50–50 eutectic was investigated by Patricia et al. (2016). Sodium sulfate
decahydrate had recorded a maximum reduction in PV temperature of up to 10°C. The BIPV-PCM
system performance in facades was studied by Karthick, Kalidasa Murugavel, and Ramanan (2018a) by
integrating Na2SO4.10H2O (Glauber’s salt) as phase change material. There was a decrease of 8°C in
BIPV-PCM temperature and a 10% increase in electrical performance compared to the BIPV reference
module.
A eutectic PCM is a mixture of two or more organic and inorganic compounds with the
advantage of having desirable properties, such as melting point and latent fusion heat. Thermo-
physical properties were investigated for various PCMs by Hasan et al. (2014a) for their suitability in
the thermal regulation of photovoltaic systems. Paraffins, salt hydrate, and eutectic of fatty acids
were characterized using DSC and Temperature History Method. A eutectic of MgCl2 · 6H2O-Mg
(NO3)2 · 6H2O inorganic salt hydrate was analyzed for its suitability in solar water heating
applications (Ling et al. 2017). A eutectic mixture of the PCM was developed by Karthick et al.
(2020a) to improve the performance of copper indium diselenide PV system. A reduction in the
module temperature up to 9°C was noted in comparison to the reference module. A eutectic of
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 3

Table 1. Comparison of PV-PCM framework proposed with other literature studies.

PCM examined
Paraffin RT55 without and with
Al2O3 nanoparticles
Paraffinic hydrocarbon
Paraffin RT40
White petroleum jelly without and Flat plate PV Electrical efficiency increased by 3% and 5.8%
with copper & graphite
Paraffin and Pork fat
Calcium chloride hexahydrate
Calcium chloride hexahydrate and Flat plate PV Reduction in PV temperature by 10°C for Dublin and
Capric–palmitic acid eutectic
Sodium phosphate dodecahydrate, BIPV –
Sodium sulfate decahydrate, and
eutectic (50:50)
Sodium sulfate decahydrate
Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate
and Magnesium Sulfate
Heptahydrate (70–30 eutectic)
Configuration Findings Ref.
Flat plate PV PV temperature reduction by 8.1°C noted with Nada, El-Nagar, and
improvement in efficiency by 5.7% for PCM while Hussein (2018)
10.6°C and 13.2% respectively for PCM with Al2O3
nanoparticles
BIPV – 5 K reduction in the module temperature with an Park, Kim, and Leigh
vertical increase of 1.5% output power and 3.5% energy (2014)
orientation efficiency
Flat plate PV An increase in yearly energy yields by 5.9% in the hot Hasan et al. (2014b)
environmental conditions
Hachem et al. (2017)
respectively
Flat plate PV No specific difference was reported in the Nizetic et al. (2018)
performance point of view
Flat plate PV PV module temperature decrease of 18°C reported at Hasan et al. (2010)
1000 W/m2
Hasan et al. (2015)
21.5°C for Vehari noticed. A drop by 3–4°C in
module temperature for CaCl26H2O than capric–
palmitic acid eutectic
PV temperature decreases up to 10°C and 7.5°C in the Patricia et al. (2016)
vertical PV-PCM module with Glauber’s salt at Seville and
orientation Zaragoza respectively for 1.5 cm PCM layer
thickness
BIPV – A drop in the panel temperature by 8°C and 10% Karthick, Kalidasa
vertical improvement in efficiency Murugavel, and
orientation Ramanan (2018a)
Flat plate PV Average PV temperature reduction by 2.33°C before Present work
noon with an average increase of 1.21% in daily
efficiency. The power output improved by an
average of 17.63 W on days of experimentation

Na2SO4 · 10H2O-Na2HPO4 · 12H2O and Na2CO3.10H2O-Na2HPO4.12H2O hydrated salts has been

characterized by Liu and Yang (2017a) to find its application in thermal energy storage of various
solar systems. The eutectics showed no phase separation, and the super-cooling degree was con­
siderably reduced. An optimal fusion of salt hydrates and addition of Na2HPO4.12H2O for reducing
super-cooling were found by adopting a multi-objective fuzzy optimization model by adding 3%
Na2SiO3 · 9H2O (Zheng et al. 2019). Karthick et al. (2020b) analyzed the efficiency of the two
inorganic salts incorporated into the photovoltaic module integrated in the building. It was stated
that the incorporation of the eutectic PCM improved the performance by 12% and reduced the
module temperature by 12°C compared to the traditional PV module. The optimum ratio of
nucleating and thickening agents to lessen the super-cooling level and eradicate the separation of
phase in the binary eutectic mixture of Na2SO4 · 10H2O and Na2HPO4.12H2O was determined by
Xin et al. (2019).
Earlier studies reveal that the PV performance varies with the environmental conditions of the
location. Also, a rise in the PV module temperature affects the energy conversion efficiency and
output power. Numerous works had been reported to manage the temperature of the PV module
with organic PCMs, which comprise low thermal conductivity, low latent heat, and high melting
point compared to the inorganic PCM. On the other hand, inorganic PCMs have high latent
heat of fusion, suitable phase transition temperature, and high thermal conductivity. Despite
these advantages, the phase separation and super-cooling of the inorganic PCMs hamper its
application. For this study, inorganic salt hydrate Sodium carbonate decahydrate with suitable
thermo-physical properties and 33°C melting temperature, which is closer to the test location’s
average annual ambient temperature, is used to form a novel eutectic PCM with Magnesium
sulfate heptahydrate. The optimum binary eutectic point is examined using differential scanning
calorimetry to reduce the phase separation and super-cooling of the PCM significantly. The
4 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

prepared eutectic PCM is integrated into the PV system, and performance enhancement for the
hot outdoor conditions is analyzed.

Objectives and methodology

This study intends to examine the PV-PCM system efficiency in the hot environment of Tamil Nadu,
India. A review of the thermal and electrical performances of the PV-PCM system owing to the
integration of inorganic eutectic PCM is done. Appropriate instruments are offered for the retrieval of
the data from the setup. The study was carried out as detailed below:

(1) Two inorganic salt hydrates are used to form the binary eutectic PCM with no phase separa­
tion, suitable for the prevalent ambient conditions concerning the PCM properties.
(2) The newly prepared binary eutectic PCM was characterized to find out the temperature of
phase change and latent heat of fusion using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The
specific heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity were determined and the thermal
stability has been ensured using Thermo-Gravimetric Analyzer (TGA).
(3) Two p-Si PV panels are considered, one with containment to incorporate the layer of PCM in
the rear surface for the PV-PCM system, while other being the reference module.
(4) The atmospheric temperature and the solar radiations are measured during the experimenta­
tion using the meteorological measurement setups available at the test site.
(5) The temperature of the PV-PCM and normal PV module is acquired using the temperature
data logger to analyze their thermal performance.
(6) The electrical performances are compared with that of the reference PV by using the measured
power output and electrical efficiency.

Materials and methods

Experimental setup
The study used two Polycrystalline Silicon (p-Si) PV modules from the same manufacturer with
similar specifications. The specifications of the PV panels employed for the analysis are shown in
Table 2. The binary eutectic of two in-organic salt hydrates is considered as PCM for this study. The
experimental setup comprises reference PV panel without PCM, PV-PCM system, instrumentations
with data logger, and PC for data storage as shown in Figure 1a. The sufficient thickness of the PCM
layer is calculated as proposed by Klugmann and Kucharek (2017) using equation (1). The rear side
of the PV panel is facilitated to integrate the PCMs by amplification with 12 mm layer thickness, as
shown in Figure 1b. The rear surface of one PV panel is integrated to the PCM containment of 2 mm
transparent glass to incorporate the PCM layer. The PV-PCM setup schematic is shown in Figure 1c.
The incident solar radiation, ambient temperature, wind velocity, and direction are measured using
the meteorological station in the test site. The experiment was conducted from 07.00 AM to 06.00

Table 2. Polycrystalline Silicon (p-Si) PV Module Specifications.

Parameter P-Si
Nominal power (Watt) Pmax 25
Maximum power point Voltage (V) Vmp 17.11
Maximum power point Current (A) Imp 1.47
Open circuit voltage (V) Voc 21.2
Short circuit current (A) Isc 1.57
Temperature coefficient of power (%/K) −0.45
Temperature coefficient of Voc (%/K) −0.35
Temperature coefficient of Isc (%/K) +0.05
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 5

Figure 1. (a) Experimental setup with temperature data logger. (b) Rear view of the PV-PCM system. (c) Cross-sectional schematic of
the PV-PCM system.

PM during March 2018 on the rooftop of the Mechanical Engineering Department, National
Engineering College, Kovilpatti.

Eday :ð1 ηÞ:A

x¼ � � (1)
ρpcm :A cp ðTEm t1 Þ þ h þ cp ðt2 TEm Þ

where x – thickness of the PCM layer, Eday – Energy value to be drained from the PV surface, η – PV
efficiency at STC, A – PV cell area, ρpcm – Density of the eutectic PCM, cp – specific heat of the
eutectic PCM, h – specific enthalpy of the eutectic PCM, TEm – melting temperature of the eutectic
PCM, t1, t2 – operating temperature range.

Selection of PCM
PCMs can maintain a constant temperature during the absorption and dissipation of heat and possess
the capability to store up and liberate latent heat (Ali 2020). High latent heat, high storage-volume
density, chemical inertness, non-toxicity, eco-friendliness, availability, and economic cost are the
advantages of inorganic salt hydrates (Hasan et al. 2010). Salt hydrates are useful in hot climatic
conditions and have attained a considerable drop in PV temperature and power savings compared to
organic eutectic PCMs (Hasan et al. 2014a). The module temperature can be managed by using PCM
with a lesser melting temperature. The PCM having the melting temperature nearer to the average
atmospheric temperature is an appropriate PCM for PV-PCM systems (Khanna, Reddy, and Mallick
2017). The location considered for the study has an average ambient temperature of 33.75°C during
the summer months, and hence, a PCM with appropriate thermo-physical property needs to be used.
6 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

Table 3. Thermo-physical properties of the hydrated salts used in the preparation of eutectic PCM.
Sodium carbonate decahydrate – Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate –
Properties Na2CO3.10H2O MgSO4.7H2O
Melting point (°C) 33 48.5
Heat of fusion (J/g) 247 202
Relative Density (g/cm3) 1.44 1.69
Specific heat capacity (J/g°C) 1.88 1.546
Thermal conductivity (W/m°C) 0.876 0.645
Water solubility (g/lit. at 20°C) 210 246.48
Thermal cyclic stability Yes [Kenisarin] Yes [Kenisarin]
Source Sigma Aldrich Sigma Aldrich
Chemical abstract service 71360 M1880
number

Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O) has the required thermo-physical property for
the study. But the phase separation and super-cooling of the salt has to be reduced significantly.
The temperature of phase change in a PCM may be customized by utilizing the eutectic phenom­
ena and mixing with another PCM in a suitable proportion. Also, the phase separation of hydrated
salts can be reduced or eliminated by forming binary eutectics of salt hydrates (Liu and Yang
2017b). With this consideration, Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO4.7H2O) is mixed with
Sodium carbonate decahydrate to synthesize a novel Na2CO3.10H2O–MgSO4.7H2O eutectic. This
almost eliminates the phase separation and reduces the super-cooling degree of Na2CO3.10H2O.
Table 3 shows the thermo-physical properties of the PCM salts used to prepare the eutectic.

Samples preparation
Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O, 99% purity) and Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
(MgSO4.7H2O,99% purity) with melting temperature 33°C and 48°C, respectively, are used. Heating-
mixing method is used for preparing the Na2CO3.10H2O–MgSO4.7H2O binary eutectic mixture of the
PCM. The salts were mixed thoroughly in a glass beaker and heated at 55°C in a water bath till melting.
The mixture was stirred for 5 minutes at 1000 rpm and the ensuing mixture contained 100, 90, 80, and
70 wt% of Na2CO3.10H2O as shown in Figure 2. It was cooled to room temperature and the
temperature of phase change and latent heat of the eutectic mixtures were obtained by using DSC.
The thermal stability of the PCM is tested using TGA.

Characterization
DSC is used to determine the temperature of phase change and latent heat of the eutectic PCM.
The DSC analysis is carried out by taking 10 mg of sample sealed in an aluminum pan at 5°C/min
rate with nitrogen gas being supplied steadily at 20 ml/min flow rate. Further, the sample under­
goes the charging process from 5°C to 55°C. One of the significant parameters to be considered for
selecting the PCMs is thermal stability (Xin et al. 2019). Understanding the behavior of decom­
position and stability under thermal cycling of the eutectic is significant. TGA is used to investigate
the thermal stability of the eutectic PCM. The samples were heated from 25°C to 250°C with
a course of 20 ml/min of Nitrogen supply at a stable rate of 5°C/min. The weight of the samples has
been recorded continuously. Modular DSC is utilized to determine the specific heat capacity (Cp)
of the eutectic PCM. Continuous measurement of heat capacity is noted by weighing the sample in
milligrams and simultaneously at a heating rate of 1°C/min from 20°C to 50°C with a constant
supply of nitrogen at 20 ml/min flow rate. Equation (2) is used to estimate the specific heat capacity
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 7

Figure 2. Eutectic mixture of Na2CO3.10H2O – MgSO4.7H2O with a different mass ratio of SCD.

of the eutectic PCM (Sun et al. 2018b). The instruments and devices utilized for measurements are
listed in Table 4.

dH
¼ m:cp :β (2)
dt

where m – Sample mass, cp – specific heat, β – heating rate, and dH/dt – heat flow

Experimental uncertainties
Error can be defined as the change of value between the measured and measurand. The uncertainties
of the measured values are predicted from the instruments used for measurement as listed in Table 4.
The uncertainty in the solar radiation sensor, voltmeter, ammeter, thermocouple wire, and

Table 4. Specifications of the measurement instruments.

Instrument/Equipment Range Accuracy
Solar radiation sensor (PYRA – 300 V2) 0–1800 W/m2 ±5%
Ambient temperature sensor (RTD Pt100Ω -Class A) 0–100°C ±0.3°C
Wind speed sensor (WS-120) 0–50 m/s ± 3%
Wind direction sensor (WD-150) 0–360 Deg. ±3 Deg.
Thermocouple wires (K-type) 0–220°C ±0.1°C
Temperature data logger (PICO TC-08) –270 – 1820°C ±0.5°C
Thermo-gravimetric analyzer (TGA 4000-Perkin Elmer) 0–1000°C ±0.5 K
Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC 6000-Perkin Elmer) –180 – 450°C ±0.2 K
Modular DSC – Mettler Toledo –150 – 700°C ±0.2 K
8 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

temperature data logger was found to be 0.056%. The uncertainty of the measuring devices/instrument
was 0.056%, which revealed in the PV modules output are within the limit.

Results and discussion

Phase transition performance of SCD-MSH PCM
The mixture of Na2CO3.10H2O-MgSO4.7H2O with a different mass ratio of Na2CO3.10H2O to
MgSO4.7H2O after melting is shown in Figure 2. It can be observed that pure Na2CO3.10H2O solution
is turbid and deposits a lot of precipitation. When MgSO4.7H2O content is added, the solution system
is homogeneous and has almost no phase separation for the binary mixture of 70:30 SCD-MSH.
Hence, an appropriate mix ratio exists for these two hydrate salts.
Latent heat of the PCMs and temperature of phase change are measured with a DSC. The DSC
results for pure salt hydrate Na2CO3.10H2O and MgSO4.7H2O are revealed in Figure 3a and b. It
signifies that the onset melting began at 30.6°C and 44.9°C while the melting point for the salts is 33.2°
C and 47.7°C, respectively. The onset freezing started at 25.4°C and 42.8°C with a peak at 21.4°C and
41°C for the respective pure salt hydrates. Figure 3c shows the phase change temperatures measured
for the binary eutectic of SCD-MSH during the charging processes. The melting and freezing
temperature are 35.6°C and 31.1°C with 33.2°C as the onset of melting and freezing, respectively,
for heating/cooling rates of 5°C/min. The super-cooling of Na2CO3.10H2O has been reduced sig­
nificantly so that the proposed eutectic is a potential PCM for usage in PV-PCM systems. The latent
heat value for the binary eutectic PCM is estimated as 230.5 J/g.

Figure 3. DSC curves of Salt hydrate (a) Na2CO3.10H2O (b) MgSO4.7H2O (c) 70:30 binary eutectic SCD-MSH PCM.
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 9

Thermal stability of SCD-MSH PCM

TGA has been used to observe the thermal stability of the eutectic salt hydrate. The samples were
heated at a constant rate of 5°C/min from 24°C to 64°C, and measurements were completed. Figure 4
shows the TGA curves of the weight percentage of eutectic PCM plotted against the temperature for 0,
100, and 200 cycles. Onset decomposition of the PCM is indicted by a sudden drop in the TGA curve.
A gradual decrease in weight may be due to the evasion of volatile impurities. No significant
decomposition is noted initially till 115°C and weight loss rate peaks around/above 120°C, mainly
due to dehydration. A reduction of about 19% in the initial weight of the eutectic mixture was
observed between 120°C and 150°C. After 200 thermal cycles, the TGA curves of the eutectic PCM
followed a similar trend, and no sudden drop in the weight percentage was noted. Thermal cycling
does not affect the thermal degradability pattern of the eutectic PCM developed, as the operating range
of the PV-PCM system is around 25°C to 70°C. Hence, the eutectic PCM ensures its long-term
suitability in PV-PCM systems.

Thermo-physical properties of SCD-MSH PCM

The measured thermo-physical properties of the 70:30 binary eutectic SCD-MSH PCM are listed in
Table 5. A modular DSC was utilized to study the specific heat capacity (cp) of the binary eutectic
PCM. The samples are heated from 30°C to 42°C, and heat capacities are continuously measured and
recorded at 1°C/min with a constant supply of N2 at 20 ml/min. A steady rise in the heat capacity value
during the temperature of phase transition and the maximum value of 1.75 J/g°C is recorded at 36.2°C.
The heat capacities found to be constant after the phase transition with an increase in temperature.
The density of the SCD-MSH PCM was calculated using the Analytical weighing machine. The

Figure 4. Thermo-gravimetric Analysis of 70:30 binary eutectic SCD-MSH PCM.

10 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

Table 5. Thermo-physical properties of the 70:30 binary eutectic SCD-MSH

PCM.
Properties Binary eutectic SCD-MSH PCM
Melting temperature (°C) 35.6
Latent heat of fusion (J/g) 230.5
Density (g/cm3) 1.49
Specific heat capacity (J/g°C) 1.75
Thermal conductivity (W/m°C) 0.81
Thermal cyclic stability Yes

obtained density values of the eutectic PCM are 1.49 g/cm3. The thermal conductivity of the eutectic
PCM is calculated using equation (3) as 0.81 W/m ° C, as suggested by DiGuilio and Teja (1992).
X
n
λeutectic ¼ xi λi (3)
i

where λeutectic – thermal conductivity of the eutectic PCM, xi – mass proportion of the individual
component, λi – thermal conductivity of the individual component.

Meteorological conditions
The PV system performance is influenced by the seasonal variations and the geographical location
(Karthick, Murugavel, and Kalaivani 2018b). Hence, the meteorological data at the site have to be
considered to evaluate the performance of the PV-PCM system. The data set with a monthly average of
ambient conditions during the year 2018 is revealed in Figure 5. The monthly global radiation level is
highest in March as 185.24 kWh, with air temperature of 28.9°C. The wind speed ranges between

Figure 5. Average monthly variation of the solar radiation, wind velocity, ambient temperature, and PV module temperature.
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 11

2.2 m/s in April and 4.5 m/s in June 2018. The annual average monthly PV temperature was also
reported as 45.81°C in March. Hence, the experimentation was carried out outdoors during
March 2018 and two typical days, 14th and 21st are considered for further analysis. The typical days
considered for experiments included high solar insolation, low wind speed, and peak air temperature.
The variations in solar insolation and atmospheric temperature for the two typical days are shown in
Figure 6. The hourly variations in the solar insolation had the same pattern on both the days and
reached a maximum of about 985 W/m2 and 940 W/m2 on 14th and 21st March, respectively. The
atmospheric temperature increased from 27°C and 26.7°C to a peak of 40.2°C and 39.9°C on both the
days, respectively. These ambient conditions resulted in the high PV module temperature (Ramanan,
Kalidasa Murugavel, and Karthick 2019). Integrating PCM with the PV module will provide better
thermal control of the PV module which can increase the power output and efficiency of the PV-PCM
system.

Temperature regulations and PV efficiency

Figure 7a and b show the temporal variation of the temperature on the PV panel’s rear surface and the
corresponding efficiency for the PV-PCM system and reference PV panel for the typical days of study.
From Figure 7a, it is clear that the PV-PCM module temperature is below that of the reference PV
panel on 14th March. The reference PV module temperature increased from 28°C to 53.6°C, with an
average of 42.37°C. The PV-PCM system temperature varied from 27°C to 51.8°C, with an average of
40.04°C. This implies that the PCM is able to decrease the PV module temperature by an average of
2.33°C. In the PV-PCM module for the first 90 minutes, a rise in temperature is observed before it
reaches 35.6°C, the value at which the phase change starts. The PCM temperature increases further for
about 300 minutes during its change of phase until the PV-PCM module temperature reaches around
51.8°C. No particular difference in temperature between the PV-PCM module and reference PV is

Figure 6. Hourly average of variations in solar radiation and ambient temperature on the typical days of study.
12 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

Figure 7. Hourly variations in PV temperature and efficiency of reference PV and PV-PCM module on the typical days of study (a) 14th
March 2018 (b) 21st March 2018.

noted after 14.00 hours. In the PV-PCM module, the convective heat transfer from the PCM into the
atmosphere is not significant. Similar trends of variations in the PV temperature are noticed on 21st
March, another typical day of experimentation, as shown in Figure 7b. Figure 7a shows that the
efficiency varied from 5.78% to a maximum of 10.73% with an average of 8.81% for the reference PV
and from 6.76% to 13.13% with an average of 9.95% for PV-PCM system. An average increase of 1.14%
of daily efficiency is noted for PV-PCM system than that of the reference PV. This performance
improvement is due to the corresponding decrease in the PV temperature of 2.33°C for the PV-PCM
system than the reference PV for the same radiation conditions. From Figure 7b, an average increase of
1.21% is noted in the PV-PCM module’s daily efficiency with an average decrease of 2.41°C in PV
temperature.

PV panel open-circuit voltage

The hourly variations of open-circuit voltage for the PV-PCM system compared with reference
PV concerning the solar radiation intensity for the two typical days of experimentation are
revealed in Figure 8a and b. It is recorded that the VOC increases with the solar radiation
intensity until the mid-noon hours and tends to decrease till the end of the day. However, there

Figure 8. Hourly variations of VOC concerning solar radiation for the PV-PCM and reference PV module on the typical days of study
(a) 14th March 2018 (b) 21st March 2018.
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 13

is a gradual increase in the PV module temperature due to the rise in solar insolation. Due to
the rise in PV temperature, the decrease in VOC is offset by the increase in radiation intensity
and the temperature control provided by the PCM. The PV-PCM module’s VOC tends to be in
the increasing trend up to 14.00 hours on both the experimental days relative to the reference
PV. But, in the evening hours, no noticeable increase in the VOC for the PV-PCM system is
seen than the reference PV. This features to the PV-PCM module temperature, as it is sig­
nificantly lower than the reference PV until 14.00 hours and has the same temperature range in
the afternoon hours. Figure 9a and b show the average and estimated peak VOC and the
comparison of PV-PCM module and reference PV efficiency for the typical days of
experimentation.

PV panel power output

The variations of DC power output for the PV-PCM module with that of the reference PV
is shown in Figure 10. The changing trends of the curves are the same for both the days of
experimentation. The reference PV and PV-PCM system’s DC power output increases from
7:00 a.m. to 12:00 a.m. and gets maximum at noon, then decreases from 12:00 a.m. to 5:00
p.m. This trend shows that the power output attributes to the solar radiation intensity than
the ambient temperature. The output power was maximum at mid-noon as 16.91 W and
19.53 W for the reference PV module and PV-PCM module on day1 with an increase of
17.23 W DC power for the PV-PCM system during the hours of operation. Similarly, an
increase of 18.03 W DC power in the PV-PCM system was recorded on day 2 of experi­
mentation with a maximum power output of 16.08 W and 19.0 W at mid-noon, respec­
tively, for both the systems.
However, no significant rise in the power output is noticed for the PV-PCM module on
both the days of experimentation beyond 14.00 hours. This is obviously because no specific
temperature difference is found between the PV-PCM and reference PV module in the
afternoon hours. PCM had reached a complete molten state, and almost no heat transfer
occurs from the PV rear surface to PCM. The annual energy generations of a 1kWp p-Si
PV plant in the same location had been reported by the authors of this work as 1536.99
kWh (Ramanan, Kalidasa Murugavel, and Karthick 2019). Taking into account the 1.21%
improvement in annual output for the PV-PCM module, it can be estimated that a 1kWp
p-Si PV plant will produce around 1859.75 kWh/year. This could be a major improvement
in the p-Si PV system efficiency, with an increase in the annual energy yield.

Figure 9. Peak and average VOC of the PV-PCM and reference PV module on the typical days of study (a) 14th March 2018 (b) 21st
March 2018.
14 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

Figure 10. Hourly variations of DC power output of the PV-PCM and reference PV module.

Economic analysis
The overall cost associated with the PV-PCM systems includes (i) PCM cost (ii) PCM containment
materials cost (iii) fabrication cost. The cost of the PCMs utilized in this work is 42.27 USD/kg for SCD
and 27.71 USD/kg for MSH, respectively, when purchased in smaller quantities (Sigma Aldrich). The
cost is anticipated to decrease to 5.07 USD/kg for SCD and 3.33 USD/kg for MSH while procured in
large quantities (Hasan et al. 2014b). 2.6 kg of eutectic PCM (70% SSD and 30% MSH) is required to
integrate with the PV module for a PCM layer thickness of 12 mm. As a 25 W module is used for this
study, the additional cost incurred is estimated to be 3.94 USD/Wp and 0.472 USD/Wp for single
fabricated systems and for mass-produced systems.
The average energy gain per day was found to be 17.63 W for PV-PCM system during the days of
study. The economic benefits are estimated by considering the cost per Watt (i.e., 0.793 USD/W) for
PV systems in India. So, the financial benefits acquired by the PV-PCM system are 13.98 USD based
on the energy gains. The economic benefits derived from the PV-PCM systems are almost equal to that
of the additional investment for PCM setup, if mass-produced. Further increasing the PCM layer
thickness to manage the PV module temperature may not be economically beneficial. However, the
temperature regulation of the PV module may extend the lifespan of the PV module by 20% (Royo
et al. 2016), which can be considered to be beneficial in locations having similar climatic conditions as
that of India.

Conclusions
A new binary eutectic of in-organic salt hydrates Na2CO3.10H2O and MgSO4.7H2O was prepared and
characterized as the PCM for the heat extraction from PV modules. In this work, the prospective for
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 15

the enhancement in the energy generation performance of a p-Si PV module integrated with PCM was
investigated experimentally under actual outdoor conditions. Based on the results obtained, it was
found that the phase change materials provide an effective means for controlling the PV temperature.
The 70:30 SCD-MSH binary eutectic show almost no phase separation with melting and freezing
temperature of 35.6°C and 31.1°C, respectively, significantly reducing the super-cooling of
Na2CO3.10H2O. The measured thermo-physical properties of the eutectic PCM are significant and
the latent heat value for the PCM is estimated to be 230.5 J/g. The PCM is found to be thermally stable
after 200 thermal cycles in TGA from 25°C to 70°C operating temperature range. An instantaneous
drop of 7°C in the PV module temperature was found. In the before noon hours an average of 2.33°C
decrease in PV module temperature is observed, while no specific temperature difference is noted after
14.00 hours on the typical days of study. For the PV-PCM module, an average improvement in the
daily output of 1.21% is noted as the reference PV.
The temperature drop and increase in the performance of the PV-PCM system is analogous to that
suggested by Patricia et al. (2016) and Karthick, Kalidasa Murugavel, and Ramanan (2018a) for the
PV-PCM systems. The PV-PCM system’s power output increased by an average of 17.63 W for typical
test days contributing to 12.5% increase in the electric energy. However, the additional price included
in the preparation of PV-PCM setup is almost equal to the financial benefits resulting from the
proposed system. The economic feasibility of different configurations of binary eutectic hydrated salts
for PV applications needs to be further investigated to find the optimal PCM. The appropriate addition
of nucleating agents and nanopowders to the PCMs has to be studied for the betterment in its stability,
thermal conductivity, and heat storage capacity. Due to the present climatic issues, the passive cooling
of PV systems may offer extended life to the PV modules, which will render additional economic
benefits.

Nomenclature
PV Photovoltaic
PCM Phase change material
SCD Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate
MSH Magnesium Sulfate Heptahydrate
DSC Differential Scanning Calorimeter
TGA Thermogravimetric Analyzer
WPJ White petroleum jelly
BIPV Building Integrated Photovoltaic
p-Si Polycrystalline silicon
Tof Onset freezing point of the salt hydrate (°C)
Tf The freezing point of the salt hydrate (°C)
Tom Onset melting point of the salt hydrate (°C)
Tm The melting point of the salt hydrate (°C)
TEof Onset freezing point of the eutectic (°C)
TEom Onset melting point of the eutectic (°C)
TEf The freezing point of the eutectic (°C)
TEm The melting point of the eutectic (°C)
A PV cell area (m2)
Voc PV panel open-circuit voltage (V)
PDC DC power of the PV panel (W)
ηPV Conversion efficiency of the PV panel
cp Specific heat capacity of the PCM (J/g°C)
λ Thermal conductivity of the PCM (W/m°C)
ρ Density of the PCM (g/cm3)
m Mass of the sample (g)
β Heating rate (°C/min)
x Thickness of the PCM layer (mm)
η PV efficiency at STC
h specific enthalpy of the PCM (J/g)
16 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

t1, t2 operating temperature range (°C)

TPV Back surface temperature of PV panel (°C)
Eday Energy value to be drained from the PV surface (Wh/m2day)

Acknowledgments
The authors extend their gratitude to Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology (TNSCST), Chennai, India
for the financial grant under the Student Projects scheme [Sanction No.TNSCST/SPS/AR/2018-19 dated 18/02/2019] and
National Engineering College, Tamil Nadu, India for generous support in this work.

Notes on contributors
Mr. Ramanan Pichandi is a teaching faculty and research scholar in the faculty of Mechanical Engineering. His research
area includes field performance study of various photovoltaic technologies, solar thermal technologies, and energy
storage.
Dr. Kalidasa Murugavel Kulandaivelu received his Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Solar desalination from Anna
University, Chennai in 2009. He has wide hands of research experience on modeling and enhancing the productivity &
effectiveness of solar stills. His research area includes performance improvement of other solar thermal systems such as
spiral flow passive solar water heater, double pass solar air heater, compressed water thermal energy storage and
performance & economic viability of Solar Photovoltaic systems.
Dr. A. Karthick received his Doctor of Philosophy in the field of Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) from Anna
University, Chennai in 2018. He has received Best Paper Award for his research articles in Biomass conversion. His
research area includes Solar Photovoltaic, Bioenergy, Zero energy buildings.
Hari Kishan Dhevaguru received his graduation in the faculty of Mechanical Engineering in 2019. His research interests
include synthesis and characterization of eutectic phase change materials.
Suriyanarayanan Ganesamoorthy received his graduation in the faculty of Mechanical Engineering in 2019. His
research interests include modeling and analysis of grid-tied solar PV systems.

ORCID
Kalidasa Murugavel Kulandaivelu http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0179-4135
Karthick Alagar http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0670-5138
Hari Kishan Dhevaguru http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5444-2996
Suriyanarayanan Ganesamoorthy http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2159-4747

References
Ali, H. M. 2020. Recent advancements in PV cooling and efficiency enhancement integrating phase change materials
based systems–A comprehensive review. Solar Energy 197:163–98. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2019.11.075.
Arici, M., F. Bilgin, S. Nižetić, and A. M. Papadopoulos. 2018. Phase change material based cooling of photovoltaic panel:
A simplified numerical model for the optimization of the phase change material layer and general economic
evaluation. Journal of Cleaner Production 189:738–45. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.057.
DiGuilio, R. M., and A. S. Teja. 1992. A rough hard-sphere model for the thermal conductivity of molten salts.
International Journal of Thermophysics 13 (5):855–71. doi:10.1007/BF00503912.
Hachem, F., B. Abdulhay, M. Ramadan, H. E. Hage, M. G. El Rab, and M. Khaled. 2017. Improving the performance of
photovoltaic cells using pure and combined phase change materials: Experiments and transient energy balance.
Renewable Energy 107:567–75. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2017.02.032.
Hasan, A., S. J. McCormack, M. J. Huang, and B. Norton. 2010. Evaluation of phase change materials for thermal
regulation enhancement of building integrated photovoltaics. Solar Energy 84 (9):1601–12. doi:10.1016/j.
solener.2010.06.010.
Hasan, A., S. J. McCormack, M. J. Huang, and B. Norton. 2014a. Characterization of phase change materials for thermal
control of photovoltaics using differential scanning calorimetry and temperature history method. Energy Conversion
and Management 81:322–29. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2014.02.042.
Hasan, A., S. J. McCormack, M. J. Huang, and B. Norton. 2014b. Energy and cost saving of a photovoltaic-phase change
materials (PV-PCM) system through temperature regulation and performance enhancement of photovoltaics.
Energies 7 (3):1318–31. doi:10.3390/en7031318.
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 17

Hasan, A., S. J. McCormack, M. J. Huang, J. Sarwar, and B. Norton. 2015. Increased photovoltaic performance through
temperature regulation by phase change materials: Materials comparison in different climates. Solar Energy
115:264–76. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2015.02.003.
JianShe, H., Y. Chao, X. Zhao, Z. Jiao, and J. Du. 2018. Structure and thermal properties of expanded graphite/paraffin
composite phase change material. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects.
doi:10.1080/15567036.2018.1496199.
Karthick, A., K. Kalidasa Murugavel, K. Sudalaiyandi, and A. Muthu Manokar. 2019. Building integrated photovoltaic
modules and the integration of phase change materials for equatorial applications. Building Services Engineering
Research & Technology. doi:10.1177/0143624419883363.
Karthick, A., K. Kalidasa Murugavel, and P. Ramanan. 2018a. Performance enhancement of a building-integrated
photovoltaic module using phase change material. Energy 142:803–12. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2017.10.090.
Karthick, A., K. K. Murugavel, A. Ghosh, K. Sudhakar, and P. Ramanan. 2020a. Investigation of a binary eutectic mixture
of phase change material for building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system. Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
207:110360. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2019.110360.
Karthick, A., K. K. Murugavel, and L. Kalaivani. 2018b. Performance analysis of semitransparent photovoltaic module
for skylights. Energy 162:798–812. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2018.08.043.
Karthick, A., P. Ramanan, A. Ghosh, B. Stalin, R. Vignesh Kumar, and I. Baranilingesan. 2020b. Performance enhance­
ment of copper indium diselenide photovoltaic module using inorganic phase change material. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Chemical Engineering e2480. doi:10.1002/apj.2480.
Khanna, S., K. S. Reddy, and T. K. Mallick. 2017. Performance analysis of tilted photovoltaic system integrated with
phase change material under varying operating conditions. Energy 133:887–99. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2017.05.150.
Klugmann-Radziemska, E., and P. Wcisło-Kucharek. 2017. Photovoltaic module temperature stabilization with the use
of phase change materials. Solar Energy 150:538–45. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2017.05.016.
Ling, Z., J. Liu, Q. Wang, W. Lin, X. Fang, and Z. Zhang. 2017. MgCl2·6H2O-Mg(NO3)2·6H2O eutectic/SiO2 composite
phase change material with improved thermal reliability and enhanced thermal conductivity. Solar Energy Materials
and Solar Cells 172:195–201. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2017.07.019.
Liu, Y., and Y. Yang. 2017a. Preparation and thermal properties of Na2CO310H2O-Na2HPO412H2O eutectic hydrate salt
as a novel phase change material for energy storage. Applied Thermal Engineering 112:606–09. doi:10.1016/j.
applthermaleng.2016.10.146.
Liu, Y., and Y. Yang. 2017b. Use of nano-α-Al2O3 to improve binary eutectic hydrated salt as phase change material.
Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 160:18–25. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2016.09.050.
Manoj Kumar, P., K. Mylsamy, and P. T. Saravanakumar. 2019. Experimental investigations on thermal properties of
nano-SiO2/paraffin phase change material (PCM) for solar thermal energy storage applications. Energy Sources, Part
A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. doi:10.1080/15567036.2019.1607942.
Nada, S. A., D. H. El-Nagar, and H. M. S. Hussein. 2018. Improving the thermal regulation and efficiency enhancement
of PCM Integrated PV modules using nano particles. Energy Conversion and Management 166:735–43. doi:10.1016/j.
enconman.2018.04.035.
Nizetic, S., M. Arıcı, F. Bilgin, and F. Grubisic-Cabo. 2018. Investigation of pork fat as potential novel phase change
material for passive cooling applications in photovoltaics. Journal of Cleaner Production 170:1006–16. doi:10.1016/j.
jclepro.2017.09.164.
Park, J., T. Kim, and S. B. Leigh. 2014. Application of a phase-change material to improve the electrical performance of
vertical-building-added photovoltaics considering the annual weather conditions. Solar Energy 105:561–674.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2014.04.020.
Parkunam, N., L. Pandiyan, G. Navaneethakrishnan, S. Arul, and V. Vijayan. 2019. Experimental analysis on passive
cooling of flat photovoltaic panel with heat sink and wick structure. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and
Environmental Effects. doi:10.1080/15567036.2019.1588429.
Patricia, R., V. J. Ferreira, A. M. Lopez-Sabiron, and F. German. 2016. Hybrid diagnosis to characterise the energy and
environmental enhancement of photovoltaic modules using smart materials. Energy 101:174–89. doi:10.1016/j.
energy.2016.01.101.
Ramanan, P., K. Kalidasa Murugavel, and A. Karthick. 2019. Performance analysis and energy metrics of grid-connected
photovoltaic systems. Energy for Sustainable Development 52:104–15. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2019.08.001.
Ramanan, P., K. Kalidasa Murugavel, A. Karthick, and K. Sudhakar. 2020. Performance evaluation of
building-integrated photovoltaic systems for residential buildings in Southern India. Building Services Engineering
Research and Technology. 41(4):492–506. doi:10.1177/0143624419881740.
Reddy, K. P., M. V. N. Gupta, S. Nundy, A. Karthick, and A. Ghosh. 2020. Status of BIPV and BAPV system for less
energy-hungry building in India—A review. Applied Sciences 10 (7):2337. doi:10.3390/app10072337.
Sainthiya, H., and N. S. Beniwal. 2019. Comparative analysis of electrical performance parameters under combined water
cooling technique of photovoltaic module: An experimental investigation. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery,
Utilization, and Environmental Effects. doi:10.1080/15567036.2019.1604894.
Skoplaki, E., and J. A. Palyvos. 2009. On the temperature dependence of photovoltaic module electrical performance:
A review of efficiency/power correlations. Solar Energy 83 (5):614–24. doi:10.1016/j.solener.2008.10.008.
18 R. PICHANDI ET AL.

Sun, V., A. Asanakham, T. Deethayat, and T. Kiatsiriroat. 2018a. Study on phase change material and its appropriate
thickness for controlling solar cell module temperature. International Journal of Ambient Energy. doi:10.1080/
01430750.2018.1443500.
Sun, X., K. O. Lee, M. A. Medina, Y. Chu, and L. Chuanchang. 2018b. Melting temperature and enthalpy variations of
phase change materials (PCMs): A differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. Phase Transitions 91 (6):667–80.
doi:10.1080/01411594.2018.1469019.
Xin, W., J. Fang, W. Jiang, L. Ping, L. Na, F. Yanhan, and L. Wang. 2019. Preparation and modification of novel phase
change material Na2SO4·10H2O-Na2HPO4·12H2O binary eutectic hydrate salt. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery,
Utilization, and Environmental Effects 1–12. doi:10.1080/15567036.2019.1646843.
Zheng, T., Z. Chen, R. Sun, J. Peng, C. Wang, and J. Ning. 2019. Research on optimization and performance of
Na2HPO4· 12H2O mixture system combining fuzzy optimization model based on analytic hierarchy process. Energy
Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects 41 (3):324–37.