Applied II Note 1CCs

Unity University; Department of Mathematics
CHAPTER ONE
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Introduction
The function concept is one of the most important in modern mathematics and as such it plays a
central role as a guide for the selection and development of material in many mathematics
courses.
In this chapter we will see the basic ideas of function, inverse functions, continuity and
differentiability of inverse functions, integrals using trigonometric substitution, Hyperbolic
functions and their inverse, evaluating integrals using the inverse hyperbolic functions and
L’Hopitals’ rule.
1.1 functions and its Basic Ideas
One of the most important mathematical aspects of the science is establishing relationships
between various phenomena. Once a relation is known, predictions can be made. An engineer
can use a formula to predict pressures on a bridge for various wind speeds, and economist can
predict unemployment rates given various levels of government spending, a chemist can use a
formula to predict the pressure of an enclosed gas given its temperature and so on. Establishing
and working with such relationships is so fundamental to both pure and applied science that it is
desirable to describe them in the precise language of mathematics.
In this section we will discuss about one-to-one, on to functions, invertible functions, and
continuity and differentiability of inverse function.
2.1.1 What is a function?
Definition 2.1.1 Informal Definition of a function
A function is a rule that produces a correspondence between a first variable 𝑥 and a

second variabley of such that to each value of 𝑥 there corresponds one and only one
value for 𝑦. In this case, we say that 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥.
Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 1

If a variable 𝑦 is a function of a variable 𝑥, we call the variable denoted by 𝑥 the independent

variable and the variable denoted by 𝑦 the dependent variable. The value of the dependent
variable is determined by, or dependent on the value of the independent variable. The set of
allowable values for the independent variable is called the domain of the function. The set of
values for the dependent variable is called the range of the function. Both domain and range
will be sets of numbers. The function concept is more general than just relationships
between numerical variables. This leads to a more formal, general definition of a function.
Definition 2.1.2 Formal Definition of a function
A function is a rule that produces a correspondence between a first set of elements called the
domain, and the second set, called the range, such that to each element in the domain there
corresponds one and only one element in the range.
Example 2.1.1 The correspondence rules in this example are given by arrows. For example,
read 1 → 5 as “1 corresponds to 5.” Indicate which rules are functions.
(A) Domain Range (B) Domain Range (C) Domain Range
1 5 -2 -1 3 1
0 3
2 0
7 7 8
2
3 9 4 1 9 9
Solution (A) Function; exactly one range value corresponds to each domain value.
(A) Function; exactly one range value corresponds to each domain value.
(B) Not a function; two range values 1 & 3 correspond to the domain value 3.
Notation If “𝑓 ” is the rule of correspondence (a function) which associates with each element
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 to a unique element 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 , then (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 , in this case we write it as
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 . For non empty sets 𝐴 & 𝐵. 𝑦 is called the image of 𝑥 under 𝑓, and 𝑥 is
called a preimage of 𝑦. the function is often denoted by 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵, or sometimes
just by 𝑓. The set A is the domain of the function and the set 𝑓(𝐴) ⊆ 𝐵 , defined by
𝑓(𝐴) = { 𝑦 ⊆ 𝐵 ∶ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 } 𝑖s called the range of the function

Example 2.1.2 Given a set of ordered pairs: 𝑓 = {(0,0), (1, −1), (1,1), (4, −2), (4,2)}
(a) Write the correspondence rule using arrows as Example 2.1.1, Indicate the domain
and the range.
(b) Graph the set in a rectangular coordinate system.
(c) Is the rule (set) a function? Why?
y
Solution (a) correspondence rule: (b) 5
4
0 0
3
1
1 2
-1 1
2 x
4 -1 2 3 4 5
-2
-2
-3
(c) The rule is not a function, since some domain values are associated with more than one
range value. In particular, 1 is associated with both −1 and 1 , and 4 is associated with
both −2 and 2. 
Example 2.1.3 Find the domain and range of the function specified by the indicated equations.
𝑥+1
a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 b) 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 2 c) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 4 d) 𝑦 = 𝑥−1
1
e) 𝑦 = log(𝑥 − 4) f) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 g) 𝑦 = tan 𝑥
Solution a) For each real 𝑥, 𝑦 is defined and is real. Thus,
Domain = ℜ (set of real numbers)
Range = ℜ (set of real numbers)
b) For 𝑦 to be real, 𝑥 − 2 can not be negative; that is,

𝑥– 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 2. Thus,
Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≥ 2} 𝑜𝑟 [2, ∞)

Range = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑦 ≥ 0} 𝑜𝑟 [0, ∞)
c) For y to be real, 𝑥 2 − 4 can not be negative; that is,

𝑥 2 − 4 ≥ 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) ≥ 0
+ +
-2 - 2
Figure 2.1
=0 =0
Thus, Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≤ 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 2 } 𝑜𝑟 (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞)

Range = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑦 ≥ 0 } 𝑜𝑟 [0, ∞)
d) For 𝑦 to be defined, 𝑥 − 1 can not be 0, that is 𝑥 ≠ 1. Thus,
Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≠ 1} 𝑜𝑟 (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
e) For 𝑦 to be defined, 𝑥 − 4 > 0, that is 𝑥 > 4. Thus,
Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 > 4} 𝑜𝑟 (4, ∞)
f) For 𝑦 to be defined, 𝑥 ≠ 0, Thus,
Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≠ 0} 𝑜𝑟 ℜ \{0} 𝑜𝑟 (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
Range = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑦 > 0} 𝑜𝑟 (0, ∞)
2𝑛+1
g) For 𝑦 to be defined 𝑥 ≠ ± ( ) 𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … ,
2
2𝑛+1
Thus, Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≠ ± ( 2
) 𝜋 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … , }
Range = ℜ (set of real numbers). 
Example 2.1.4 Given the equation, with independent variable 𝑥 and dependent variable 𝑦,
decide whether the equation determines as a function of 𝑥.
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 4
Solution a) Solve the equation for 𝑦:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑦 2 = 4 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±√4 − 𝑥 2

There are values of 𝑥 that will produce more than one value of 𝑦 . For
example, if 𝑥 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = ±√4 = ±2
Therefore, this rule is not a function.
b) Solve the equation for 𝑦:

𝑥2 + 𝑦 = 4 ⇒ 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥2
Thus, since we can solve the equation for y uniquely, it is a function. 
2.1.2 COMBINATION AND COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
Definition 2.1.3 For functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥),
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) – 𝑔(𝑥)

(𝑓. 𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
( ⁄𝑔) (𝑥) = ⁄𝑔(𝑥) , 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑓
The new functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⁄𝑔 are called the sum, difference,
product, and quotient of 𝑓 and 𝑔, respectively. And these are called combination
of functions.
The domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 is the set of numbers for which both 𝑓 and 𝑔 are
𝑓
defined. The domain of ⁄𝑔 is the set of numbers for which both 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined and
𝑔(𝑥) is not 0.
Example 2.1.5 Let 𝑓 = {(1, 0), (2, 1), (3, 4), (6, 4), (5, 1)}
𝑔 = {(2, 4), (1, 1), (3, 0), (4, 6)}
𝑓⁄ 𝑔 𝑓+𝑔
Find 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔, 𝑔 , ⁄𝑓 , 2𝑓, 3𝑔, .
𝑓−𝑔

Solution
𝑓 + 𝑔 = {(1, 1), (2, 5), (3, 4)}
𝑓 − 𝑔 = {(1, −1), (2, −3), (3, 4)}
𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 = {(1, 0), (2, 4), (3, 0)}
𝑓⁄ 1
𝑔 = {(1, 0), (2 , 4)}
𝑔
⁄𝑓 = {(2, 4), (3, 0)}
𝑓 + 𝑔 −5
= {(1, −1), (2, ) , (3, 1)}
𝑓 − 𝑔 3
Domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 = {1, 2, 3} = Domain of 𝑓 ∩ Domain of 𝑔.
Domain of 𝑓 − 𝑔 = {1, 2, 3} = Domain of 𝑓 ∩ Domain of 𝑔.
Domain of 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 = {1, 2, 3} = Domain of 𝑓 ∩ Domain of 𝑔.
𝑓⁄
Domain of 𝑔 = = {1, 2} = [𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔] \{𝑥: 𝑔(𝑥) = 0}.
= {1, 2, 3}\ {3} , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔(3) = 0 , (3, 0) ∈ 𝑔
𝑔
Domain of ⁄𝑓 = = {2,3} = [𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔] \ {𝑥: 𝑓(𝑥) = 0}.
= {1, 2, 3} \{1} , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (1, 0) ∈ 𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓(1) = 0
𝑓+𝑔
Domain of = {1, 2, 3} = [𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑓 + 𝑔) ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑓 − 𝑔)] \ {𝑥: (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ 0}
𝑓−𝑔
= {1, 2, 3} \ ∅ . 
𝑓⁄
Example 2.1.6 For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔.
Give the domain of each new function.
Solution (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1) + (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥

(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1) − (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥2 − 1
(𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
=
𝑥+1

The domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 is the set of all real numbers. The domain of
𝑓⁄
𝑔 is the set of all real numbers excluding−1; that is, 𝑥 ≠ −1. As long as we keep this
restricted domain in mind, we can simplify.
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥2 − 1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
(𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
=
𝑥+1
=
𝑥+1
= 𝑥 − 1 , 𝑥 ≠ −1. 
Since, functions are rules, we can combine them to create new functions by applying the rules in
sequence. That is, if we start with a value 𝑥 and then apply functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 in succession, the
combination of the rules is another function called the composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔. More precisely,
since it makes a difference with function is applied first, we call 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) the composition of 𝒇
by 𝒈. See Figure 2.2. The domain of 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) is the set of all numbers in the domain of 𝑓 for
which 𝑓(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑔.
f f(x) g
x
g(f(x))
Figure 2.2
composition of 𝒇 by 𝒈.
Example 2.1.7 For 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, find:
a) 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) b) 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) c) 𝑔(𝑓(2)) d) 𝑓(𝑔(2))
Solution a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
⇒ 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 1 ⇒ 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2 − 1 + 1 = 𝑥 2
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 1 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
c) 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑔(𝑓(2)) = 22 = 4
d) 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥

⇒ 𝑓(𝑔(2)) = 22 + 2(2) = 8 . 
Note From Example 2.1.7 we will conclude hat, composition of functions is not commutative.
That is for two functions 𝑓(𝑥) & 𝑔(𝑥); 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) ≠ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).
Example 2.1.8 For 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4 and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 3𝑥 2 + 7; find 𝑓(𝑥).
Solution 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 3 𝑓(𝑥) + 4 = 3𝑥 2 + 7
⇒ 3 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 7 − 4
⇒ 3 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 3
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 
Example 2.1.9 A rectangular dog pen is to be made with 160 feet of fencing.
a) If 𝑥 represents the width of the pen, express its area 𝐴(𝑥) in terms of 𝑥.
b) What is the domain of the function 𝐴 as determined by the physical restriction?
c) Graph 𝐴(𝑥).
d) What dimensions will enclose the largest possible area?
Solution a) Draw a figure and lable the sides:

x width
Perimeter = 160
Half the perimeter = Length + width = 80

80 - x (Length)
If 𝑥 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, then 80 − 𝑥 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Figure 2.3
𝐴(𝑥) = (𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)(𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ) = (80 – 𝑥)𝑥.
𝐴(𝑥) = (80 − 𝑥)𝑥 = 80𝑥 − 𝑥 2 (Area depends on width 𝑥)
b) The area can not be negative. Hence, we need
(80 − 𝑥)𝑥 ≥ 0
+
- -
0 80 Figure 2.4
=0 =0

From Fig 2.4 , Domain : 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 80 𝑜𝑟 [0, 80]
c) Since, 𝐴(𝑥) = (80 – 𝑥) 𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 80 is a quadratic function, the graph is a parabola that

opens down, has vertex at 𝑥 = 40 , 𝑦 = 1600, and has 𝑥 intercept at 0 and 80 as shown in
the Figure 2.5.
𝐴(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 80𝑥
1600
d) From the graph, the largest value of 𝐴(𝑥) occurs at

1200
the vertex, that is, when 𝑥 = 40 . Therefore,
800
a 40 – 𝑏𝑦 – 40 feet pen will enclose the largest
400
possible area, 1,600 square feet
or 𝐴(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 + 80𝑥 ⇒ 𝐴′ (𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 80
0 20 40 60 80 ⇒ 𝐴′ (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ −2𝑥 + 80 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 40
Figure 2.5
2.1.3 Graph of a Function
The pictorial representation of a function is called a graph.
Definition 2.1.4. Let 𝑓 be a function. Then the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)) such that 𝑥 is in the
domain of 𝑓 is called the graph of 𝑓.
Example 2.1.10 Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4.
By definition 2.1.4 , the graph of 𝑓 consists of the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦)
4
in the plane for which 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4. This is a line with slope 3 and 𝑦
f(x) = 3x + 4
intercept4. See Fig 2.6. 
4
3

Figure 2.6
Notation If 𝑓 is any linear function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, then the graph of 𝑓 is a
line with slope 𝑚 and y-intercept 𝑏.
Example 2.1.11 Sketch the graph of the absolute value function:
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|
y
Solution By the definition of absolute value we have
−𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
1 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
Therefore, the part of the graph to the right of the y-
0
x axis coincides with the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 and the part to the
1
The absolute value function left of the y -axis coincides with the line = −𝑥 . Thus,
−𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0 the graph is shown in Figure 2.7.
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
Figure 2.7
Example 2.1.12 Sketch the graph of the distance function defined by
y 16𝑡 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 7
𝑓(𝑡) = {
784 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 7
784 Solution We first tabulate several points (𝑡, 𝑓(𝑡)) on the graph of 𝑓.
𝑡 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10
2
t 𝑓(𝑡) 0 4 16 64 144 256 400 576 784 784
7
Plotting the points in the table and connecting them with a curve, we
Figure 2.8 obtain the graph shown in Figure 2.8. 
2.1.4 Symmetry
Symmetry is a form of balance. In mathematics we are interested in symmetry in graphs,

especially symmetry with respect to the x-axis and y-axis and the origin. There are very simple
criteria for determining the existence of such symmetry.

We say that a graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis provided that whenever (𝑥, 𝑦) is on
the graph, (𝑥, −𝑦) is also on the graph (Figure 2.9). The points above and below the x-axis can
be considered reflections of each other in the x-axis, which we regard as a mirror.
y
Symmetry with respect to x-axis
(x, y)
x
0 Figure 2.9
(x, -y)
Example 2.1.13 Show that the graph of the equation 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 is symmetric with
respect to the x-axis.
y
Solution We must show that if (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph, then
(𝑥, −𝑦) is also on the graph . Thus we must show
1 that
if = 𝑦 2 , then 𝑥 = (−𝑦)2 , but this is clear since

x
0
1
(−𝑦)2 = 𝑦 2 . (Figure 2.10) 
x  y2
Figure 2.10
A graph is symmetric with respect to y-axis provided that whenever (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph,
(−𝑥, 𝑦) is also on the graph (Figure 2.11). The points to the left and to the right of the y-axis
can be considered reflection of each other in the y-axis, which acts as a mirror.
(-x, y) (x, y)
Symmetry with respect to y-axis
x
0
Figure 2.11

Example 2.1.14 Show that the graph of the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is symmetric with respect to the y-
axis.
y
Solution We must show that if 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , then 𝑦 = (−𝑥)2
But, this is clear because

y  x2
(−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2
0 x
Therefore, the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-
axis (Figure 2.12)
Figure 2.12
A graph is symmetric with respect to the origin if (−𝑥, −𝑦) is on the graph when ever (𝑥, 𝑦) is
(Figure 2.13). This means that each point on the graph is “counterbalanced” by another point on
the graph on the other side of the origin.
y
(x, y) Symmetry with respect to the origin
(-x, -y) Figure 2.13
Example 2.1.15 Show that the equation 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 5 is symmetric with respect to the origin but
not with respect to either axis.
y
Solution Since, (−𝑦 3 ) = (−𝑥)3 when ever 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 5 , the
1 graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
(1, 1)
Next we observe that (1, 1) is on the graph, but

x neither (1, −1) nor (−1, 1) is on it. Therefore
-1 1
the graph is not symmetric with respect to either
y x
3 5
axis (Figure 2.14) 
-1
(-1, -1)
Figure 2.14

Note: 1. If only even power of 𝑦 appear in an equation, then the graph of the equation is
automatically symmetric with respect to the x-axis, since for any integer 𝑛, (−𝑦)2𝑛 =
𝑦 2𝑛 .
2. If a function is an even function, then the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis . In
order a function f to be even, −𝑥 must be in the domain of f whenever 𝑥 is , and the
relation 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) must hold.
3. If a function is an odd function, then the graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. In
order for a function f to be odd, −𝑥 must be in the domain of 𝑓 when ever 𝑥 is , and the
relation 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) must hold.
2.1.5 TYPES OF FUNCTION
(i) One-to-one function.
Definition 2.1.5 A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called one-to-one, (injective) often written 1 – 1,

iff no two elements of 𝐴 are mapped to one lement of 𝐵. In other words, 𝑓
is 1– 1 iff for every 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 , 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑎2 ) = 𝑏 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎1 = 𝑎2
Example 2.1.16 Show that the function 𝑓: ℜ → ℜ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1 is one-to-one function
Solution 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1
𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 3𝑎1 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑎2 ) = 3𝑎2 + 1
𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎2 ) ⇒ 3𝑎1 + 1 = 3𝑎2 + 1 ⇒ 3𝑎1 = 3𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑎1 = 𝑎2
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) 3𝑥 + 1 is 1 − 1 (or injective). 
Example 2.1.17 Show that function 𝑓: ℜ → ℜ + defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is one-to-one (injective).
Solution 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑒 𝑎1 and 𝑓(𝑎2 ) = 𝑒 𝑎2
If 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎2 ) then 𝑒 𝑎1 = 𝑒 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑎1 = 𝑎2
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is 1– 1 (or injective) . 
Example 2.1.18 Show that 𝑓: ℜ → ℜ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 is not one-to-one.

Solution 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑎1 2 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑎2 ) = 𝑎2 2 − 1
If 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎2 ) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎1 2 − 1 = 𝑎2 2 − 1 ⇒ 𝑎1 2 = 𝑎2 2
⇒ 𝑎1 = ± 𝑎2 ∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 is not 1 − 1 
Example 2.1.19 Show that 𝑓: ℜ → ℜ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is not one-to-one but
−𝜋 𝜋
𝑓: [ 2 , 2 ] → ℜ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is one-to-one
Solution 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ,
𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎2 ) ⇏ 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 , since , if 𝑎1 = 300 & 𝑎2 = 1500

1
𝑓(300 ) = sin 300 = = sin 1500 = 𝑓(1500 ), 𝑏𝑢𝑡 300 ≠ 1500
2
So, 𝑓: ℜ → ℜ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is not 1 – 1.

−𝜋 𝜋
But, for all 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ [ 2 , ] ; if 𝑎1 ≠ 𝑎2 , then sin 𝑎1 ≠ sin 𝑎2 ,
2
−𝜋 𝜋
Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1 𝑜𝑛 [ 2 , 2 ] , 𝑠𝑒𝑒 Figure 2.6(b) 
y
1 1
x 
 3     3 
2 2 2 2 2 2
-1
-1
(a) (b)
Figure 2.15
Note Since, the six trigonometric functions are periodic, they are not one-to-one on their intire
domain. But they are one-to-one on some intervals in the domain.
ii) Onto Functions

Definition 2.1.6 A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is an onto function (surjective) iff every element of 𝐵

is an image of some element in 𝐴. That is , range of 𝑓 = 𝐵 .
Example 2.1.20 Let 𝐴 = 𝐵 = ℜ (set of real number), 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1.

Show that f is onto (surjective ) .
Solution Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, then for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 ⇒ 2𝑎 − 1 = 𝑏

𝑏−1
⇒ 2𝑎 = 𝑏 − 1 ⇒ 𝑎= ∈ℜ=𝐴
2
So, for every 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵, there is 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴

𝑏−1
Such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ( 2
) =𝑏
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 is onto (surjective) 
iii) one-to-one correspondence.
Definition 2.1.7 Suppose 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵. If 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto function, then we say
𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence (Bijective).
Example 2.1.21 A function 𝑓: ℜ → ℜ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℜ, 𝑎 ≠ 0 is one-

to-one correspondence (Bijective).
Solution i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 , is a one-to-one (injective) function.
ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 , is an onto (surjective) function.
iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 , is one-to-one correspondence (Bijective) function. (See
Ex. 2.1.16 & Ex. 2.1.20 
−𝜋 𝜋
Example 2.1.22 Let 𝑓 ∶ [ 2 , 2 ] → [−1, 1] defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥. Show that 𝑓 is
one-to-one correspondence.
−𝜋 𝜋
Solution i) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is 1– 1 on [ 2 , ]. (Ex. 2.1.19 fig 2.15 b)
2

−𝜋 𝜋
ii) As you see on Fig 2.15 b , for every 𝑏 ∈ [−1, 1] , there is 𝑎 ∈ [ 2 , ] , such that
2
𝑓(𝑎) = sin 𝑎 = 𝑏 , that is 𝑏 = sin−1 𝑎 . (which will be mentioned latter on 2.3.2.1)
So, 𝑓 is onto.
iii) 𝑓 is both 1-1 & onto so, it is 1-1 correspondence . 
2.1.6 REVIEW EXERCISE
1. Find the domain of the function.
2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 6 − √2 𝑥 3 − 𝜋 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = {
3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0<𝑥<6
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2 e) 𝑓(𝑥) = √1 − √9 − 𝑥 2
1
c) 𝑓(𝑡) = √3 − 𝑡 2
2. Determine the range of the function
1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = c) 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥
𝑥−1
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 2 . Find the specified values (or forms) of
1 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(2) 𝑔(𝑎) − 𝑔(−1) (𝑓𝑜𝑔) (−1)

a) (𝑓𝑔) (2) b) c) d)
𝑥−2 𝑎+1 (𝑓𝑔)(1)
4. Sketch the graph of the function
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
a) 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 |𝑥| c) 𝑓(𝑥) = {
2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
5. Decide whether the graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, the y-axis, or the origin.
1
a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 b) 𝑦 = √9 − 𝑥 2 c) √𝑥 + √𝑦 = 1
d) |𝑦| = 1 e) 𝑥 = √4 − 𝑦 2 f) |𝑦| = |3𝑥|

2.2 Invertible Functions, Continuity and Differentiability of Inverse Function
Introduction
In this section we discuss another method for obtaining new functions from old ones. In
particular, we will try to “reverse” the input-output rule for a function to obtain a new functions
called the inverse function. This will not always be possible but can be done for those functions
that meet the additional condition that each output comes from a unique input. Such functions
are called one-to one.
Definition 2.2.1 in three stages: 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0 provided.
1. 𝑥0 is in the domain of f; that is 𝑓(𝑥0 ) exists.

2. lim f x  exists.
x  x0
3. 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = lim f x 
x  x0
If any of these three conditions fails, f is not continuous at 𝑥0 . We say that f is discontinuous at 𝑥0
or that 𝑓 has discontinuity at 𝑥0 . There are several different ways a function can be
discontinuous at a point 𝑥0 , and it is important to see exactly that it is that goes wrong when a
function is not continuous.
𝑥2
Example 2.2.1 Let (𝑥) = . Determine the number at which f is continuous.
1 + 𝑥2
Solution Since 𝑓 is a rational function, and its denominator 1 + 𝑥 2 is never 0. Thus 𝑓 is

defined for all 𝑥, and therefore 𝑓 is continuous at every real number. That is
lim f x   f a  , for every 𝑎 ∈ ℜ .

x  xa
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
Example 2.2.2. Let (𝑥) = . Determine the numbers at which 𝑓 is continuous and 𝑓
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6
is discontinuous. 
Solution 𝑓 is a rational function. The denominator is 0 for 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −6, so 𝑓 is

defined for all 𝑥 except 1 & − 6. Therefore 𝑓 is continuous at every number except
1 and −6. 𝑓 is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −6. 

𝑥2 − 4
Example 2.2.3 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . Determine the numbers at which 𝑓 is continuous and 𝑓 is
𝑥−2
discontinuous. For the point at which it is discontinuous identify whether it

is removable or not.
Solution 𝑓 is a rational function. 𝑓 has discontinuity at 𝑥 = 2 because 𝑓(2) does not exist 𝑥 =
2 is not in the domain of 𝑓. on the other hand
y
x2  4
5 lim f x   lim  lim x  2  4
4 x 2 x 2 x2 x 2
3 x 4
2
f x   Hence 𝑓 has removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 2. If we define
2 x2
1
𝑥 2 −4
x 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 2
-2 -1 1 2 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥−2
4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2
then 𝑓 has been made continuous at 𝑥 = 2 (see figure 2.16) 
Figure 2.16
sin 𝑥
Example 2.2.4 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = . Define a function 𝑔 such that 𝑔 is continuous, and
𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ≠ 0.
Since lim f x   lim

sin x
Solution 1
x 0 x 0 x
sin 𝑥
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 0
Let 𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0
Then 𝑔 is continuous at 0. Since lim g x   1  g 0. Further more 𝑔(𝑥) =

x 0
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ≠ 0, as was required of 𝑔. 

1
There are “worse” discontinuities than those in the examples above. The functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
1
and 𝑔(𝑥) = sin (𝑥) have discontinuities at 𝑥 = 0 which are neither removable nor jump
discontinuities. In fact, 𝑓 is unbounded at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑔 has an oscillating behavior (it

oscillates between −1 and 1) at 𝑥 = 0.

Theorem 2.2.1 If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑥0 and 𝑐 is any number, then 𝑓 ± 𝑔, 𝑐𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑔
𝑓⁄
are continuous at 𝑥0 . If 𝑔(𝑥0 ) ≠ 0, then 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑥0
Proof:- By sum Theorem for limits, we obtain
lim  f  g x   lim  f x   g x 

x x x x
0 0
 lim f  x   lim g  x 
x x x 0
0
 f x0   g x0 
  f  g  x0 
Consequently 𝑓 + 𝑔 is continuous at 𝑥0 . The remaining parts of the proof follow similarly

from the limit theorems and the definition of continuity.
Example 2.2.6 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 4. show that f is continuous at every number.
Solution We know that the functions 𝑥, sin 𝑥 and 4 are continuous at every number. Since 𝑓
is obtained from these functions by forming first the product 𝑥 sin 𝑥 and then the
sum 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 4, we know by Theorem 2.2.1 that 𝑓 is continuous at every number.
Theorem 2.2.2 If f is continuous at 𝑥0 and g is continuous at (𝑥0 ) , then
lim g  f x   g  f x0 
x x
0
So, that 𝑔𝑜𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0 .
Example 2.2.7 Let ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1. Show that ℎ is continuous at 2.
Solution Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑦) = √𝑦 . Then ℎ = 𝑔𝑜𝑓 . we know that 𝑓 is

continuous at 2 and that is continuous at 𝑓(2) = 1 since the square root functions is

continuous at every positive number, it follows from Theorem 2.2.2 that ℎ is

continuous at 2. 
Example 2.2.8 Show that the diving board function defined by
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
is continuous from the right at 0 but not continuous from the left at 0.
y Solution Since lim f x   1  f 0, 𝑓 is continuous from
x  0
the right at 0.
0 for x  0
f x   
1 for x  0 Since lim f x   0  f 0, 𝑓 is not continuous
x  0
x
0 from the left at 0. (see figure 2.18). 
1
Diving board function

Figure 2.18
Remark If function 𝑓 is continuous from the right & left at a point 𝑥0 , then 𝑓 is
continuous at 𝑥0 .
𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≤ 1
Example 2.2.9 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1
Show that f is continuous at 1.
y Solution lim f x   lim x 2 1  f 1 and

x  1 x  1
lim f x   lim x 1  f 1

x  1 x  1
1 𝑓 is continuous from the left and from the right at 1.

x
0 1 Therefore, 𝑓 is continuous at 1 (see Figure 2.19). 
Figure 2.19

Definition 2.2.4 a) A function is continuous on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) , or simply continuous on

(𝑎, 𝑏), if it is continuous at every point in (𝑎, 𝑏).
b) A function is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] , or simply continuous on

[𝑎, 𝑏], if it is continuous at every point in (𝑎, 𝑏) and is also continuous from
the right at 𝑎 and continuous from the left at 𝑏.
There are analogous definitions of continuity on a half-open interval or on an interval of the

form (𝑎, ∞), [𝑎, ∞), (−∞, 𝑎), (−∞, 𝑎] 𝑜𝑟(−∞, ∞).
Example 2.2.10 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √9 − 𝑥 2 . Show that 𝑓 is continuous on [−3, 3].
Solution Since √𝑥 is defined for all 𝑥 ≥ 0, and since 9 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 if and only if −3 ≤

𝑥 ≤ 3, it follows that the domain of 𝑓 is [−3, 3]. Next we observe that
lim  lim 9  x2  9  x0  f x0  if  3  x0  3

2
x x x x
0 0
lim  lim 9  x2  9  32  0  f 3

x  3 x  3
lim  9  x2  9   3  0  f  3
2
lim
x  3 x  3
Consequently 𝑓 is continuous on[−3, 3]. 
2.2.2 Inverse Functions.
A function 𝑓 associates a unique output value 𝑓(𝑥) with each input value 𝑥. Can this process
be reversed? For example, if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1
What input 𝑥 yields output 7? That is, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 7,
What is x? this amounts to solving 7 = 2𝑥 − 1 for 𝑥:
7 = 2𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 8 = 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4 .
Thus, for the given range value 7 we have found the corresponding domain value 4. Proceeding
in the same way, we could find the corresponding domain value for each range value for the
function 𝑓.

The process just described leads to a new function, the inverse of 𝑓, which is donoted by 𝑓 −1 .
−1
Definition 2.2.5 Assume that the function 𝑓 has an inverse, and let 𝑓 be the unique function
having as its domain the range of f and satisfying 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 if and only if
−1 (𝑦)
Or equivalently see𝑓 inverse=function
𝑥 for all
as 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 and all y in the range of 𝑓. Then
𝑓−1 is the inverse of 𝑓.
If 𝑦 is a function 𝑓 of 𝑥 and each value of 𝑦 is obtained from a unique value of 𝑥, then we

say that 𝑓 has an inverse function 𝑓−1 . The inverse function is the rule that reverse 𝑓. That is,
if 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎), then 𝑎 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑏).
Note In the notation for the inverse function, −1 is not an exponent.

1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) does not mean
𝑓 (𝑥)
The range for 𝑓 becomes the domain for 𝑓−1 , and the domain for 𝑓 becomes the range for
𝑓−1 . Interms of ordered pairs. If (𝑎, 𝑏) belongs to 𝑓 , then (𝑏, 𝑎) belongs to 𝑓−1 . From 𝑏 =
𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑎 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑏), we obtain.
𝑎 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑎))
𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑏))
That is: 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥
When 𝑓 is specified by an equation, we may be able to find an equation that specifies 𝑓 −1 as

we did above for the particular function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 and a particular value of 𝑦. We solve
for 𝑥 interms of 𝑦 and then interchange the variables:
𝑓 ∶ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 solve for 𝑥 interms of 𝑦.
𝑦 + 1 = 2𝑥
𝑦+1
𝑥 = inverse rule
2
𝑦+1
Thus, 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 2
interchange variables to from an inverse rule with 𝑥 as
the name of the independent variable

𝑥+1
𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2
Note that (4, 7) is an element of function 𝑓 and (7,4) is an element of the inverse function
𝑓 −1 ; that is 𝑓(4) = 7 and 𝑓 −1 (7) = 4.
Rules for Finding the Inverse

To find an inverse rule for 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) is specified by an algebraic expression in 𝑥:
Rule 1. Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Rule 2. Solve for 𝑥 intems of 𝑦.
Rule 3. Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Rule 4. Write 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) for y in Rule 3.
Example 2.2.11 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6. Find the inverse and its domain and range.
Solution For our given function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6, we have
Domain = ℜ and Range = ℜ
To find the inverse
Rule 1. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 6 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 6
𝑦+6
Rule 2. 𝑥 = , solving for 𝑥 interms of 𝑦
2
𝑥+6 1
Rule 3. 𝑥 = = 𝑥 + 3 , interchanging 𝑥 & 𝑦
2 2
1
Rule 4. 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3.
2
1
So, 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, which is linear function, then
2
Domain of 𝑓 −1 = ℜ and Range of 𝑓 −1 = ℜ 
Example 2.2.12 The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 has an inverse. Find the inverse rule and its
domain and range.

Solution For our given function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 , we have
Rule 1. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 , Domain = ℜ and range = ℜ+
Rule 2. 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑦 , solving for 𝑥 interms of 𝑦
Rule 3. 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 , interchange 𝑥 & 𝑦 of Rule 2.
Rule 4 . 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
Domain of 𝑓 −1 = ℜ+ and Range of 𝑓 −1 = ℜ. (see figure 2.20) 
Graph of 𝑓 & 𝑓 −1 are symmetric
With respect to the line 𝑦 = 𝑥
Figure 2.20
Note
1. A function 𝑓 is invertible (has an inverse) if and only if it is one-to-one.
2. If 𝑓 is invertible, then the graph of 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 are always symmetric with respect to the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
3. If 𝑓 is invertible, then (𝑓 −1 )−1 = 𝑓, 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑦)) = 𝑦.
Example 2.2.13 The function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 has an inverse. Find the inverse rule and its domain
and range.
Solution For our given function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, we have Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≥ 0} &
Range = {𝑦 ∈ ℜ: 𝑦 ≥ 0}
To find the inverse,
Rule 1. 𝑦 = √𝑥

Rule 2. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥, solving for 𝑥 interms of 𝑦.
Rule 3. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , interchanging 𝑥 & 𝑦 of Rule 2.
Rule 4. 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .
Domain of 𝑓 −1 = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≥ 0} and Range of 𝑓 −1 = {𝑦 ∈ ℜ: 𝑦 ≥ 0}
(see figure 2.21) 
Figure 2.21
Horizontal-Line Test for an Inverse Function.
A function has an inverse function if each horizontal line in the coordinate system crosses-
the graph of the function at most once.
Example 2.2.14 Determine from its graph whether the given function has an inverse:
a) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = ℓ𝑛 𝑥
Solution Applying the Horizontal line Test
y y
y  f  x   n x
a) . b)
y  g x   x 2  4
x
x 1
-2 2
-4

From the graph; 𝑔(𝑥) has no inverse. From the graph; 𝑓(𝑥) has an inverse.
since a horizontal line crosses the since no horizontal line crosses
graph of 𝑔(𝑥) twice. 𝑓(𝑥) twice.
Note 1. A function f has an inverse if and only if for any two numbers 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 in the
domain of 𝑓.
If 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , then 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ (𝑓𝑥2 ).
2. A function 𝑓 is strictly increasing on its domain D, If ∀𝑥, 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ,

then 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
3. Every strictly increasing function and every strictly2 decreasing function has an
inverse.
2.2.3 The Derivative
Definition 2.2.6 Let 𝑓 be a function, and let 𝑥0 be in the domain of 𝑓, the derivative of
𝑓 at 𝑥0 is
𝑓(𝑥0 +ℎ)− 𝑓(𝑥0)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = hlim
0 ℎ
Provided the limit exists. When the limit exists, we say that 𝑓 is
differentiable at 𝑥0 .
The derivative of a function 𝑓 is again a function ′ ; its domain which is a subset of the domain
of 𝑓, is the set of all points 𝑥0 for which 𝑓 is differentiable.
𝑓 (𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
Note: In the difference quotient if we replace 𝑥0 + ℎ by 𝑥, that is,
ℎ
let 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + ℎ , we obtain.
𝑓 (𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0)

ℎ
= 𝑥 − 𝑥0
ℎ is with in 𝛿 of 0 if and only if 𝑥 is with in 𝛿 of 𝑥0 . Thus an equivalent

definition for the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥0 is
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim
xx 𝑥 − 𝑥0
0

Example 2.2.17 Show that, if 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥0 then 𝑓 is continuo us at 𝑥0 .
Solution Recall that 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥0 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) or equivalently

xx
0
lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )] = 0

xx
0
We assume that f is differentiable at 𝑥0 . Then

𝑓(𝑥)− 𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )] = lim (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
xx xx 𝑥− 𝑥0
0 0
𝑓(𝑥)− 𝑓(𝑥0 )
= lim lim (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
xx 𝑥− 𝑥0 xx
0 0
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ). 0 = 0 
We assume that the reader is familiar from introductory calculus the basic rules of
differentiation:
1. (𝑓 + 𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)
2. (𝑘𝑓)′ (𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
3. (𝑓𝑔)′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔′ (𝑥)
′
𝑓 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)− 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔′ (𝑥)
4. ( ⁄𝑔) (𝑥) = [ 𝑔 (𝑥)]2
When ever the right hand sides of the equations exist.
𝑥3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 1
Example 2.2.18 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = {
2𝑥 − 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 1
Show that 𝑓 ′ (1) does not exist.
Solution 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 1 . And for points 𝑥 > 1, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2. The derivative at
𝑥 = 1 is a (two-sides) limit and therefore involves both formulas.
𝑓(𝑥)− 𝑓(1) 𝑥 3 −1 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)
lim = lim = lim = lim (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) = 3
𝑥− 1 𝑥− 1 𝑥−1 x 1
x 1 x 1 x 1
𝑓(𝑥)− 𝑓(1) (2𝑥−1)−1 2 (𝑥 − 1)

lim
𝑥− 1
= lim 𝑥− 1
= lim 𝑥−1
=2
x 1
x 1 x 1

𝑓(𝑥)− 𝑓(1) 𝑓(𝑥)− 𝑓(1)

lim =3 ≠2= lim
𝑥− 1 𝑥− 1
x 1 x 1
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(1)
Hence, 𝑓 ′ (1) = lim does not exist. 
x 1 𝑥− 1
Theorem 2.2.3 (CHAIN RULE)
If 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥0 and 𝑔 is differentiable at 𝑦0 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) then

ℎ = 𝑔𝑜𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥0 and
ℎ′ (𝑥0 ) = (𝑔𝑜𝑓)′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑔′ (𝑓(𝑥0 )) = 𝑔′ (𝑦0 ) ∙ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )
Note: 1. The chain rule is also written as

𝑑
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔′ (𝑓(𝑥)) ∙ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
2. In chain rule, if 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑔. Then 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)), = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), and
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦⁄ ′ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑔 (𝑢). so 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔′ (𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (𝑢)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
That is =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Example 2.2.19 Find a formula for 𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 4 .
Solution Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥. Then

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0.
2√𝑥
𝑑 1 2𝑥 3
Therefore 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 𝑥 4 = 𝑔′ (𝑓(𝑥))𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2√𝑓(𝑥)
4𝑥 3 = √1+𝑥4
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example 2.2.20 Let 𝑦 = sin8 𝑥 . Find and |𝑥= 𝜋 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4
Solution i) If 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑢8 .

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑 𝑑
= = (𝑢8 ) (sin 𝑥) = 8𝑢7 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
= 8 sin7 𝑥 cos 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦 𝜋 𝜋
ii) |𝑥= 𝜋 = 8 sin7 4 cos 4
𝑑𝑥 4
7
√2 √2 1
= 8 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) = 2. 
Example 2.2.21 Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 . Using Leibniz notation, find the first three derivatives of 𝑦.
Solution Taking successive derivatives with the help of the product rule, we obtain
𝑑𝑦
= sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑
= (sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑥 (2 cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑥) = −2 sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = −3 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 cos 𝑥. 
𝑑𝑥 3
2.2.4 Continuity and Differentiability of Inverse Functions.

The inverse of continuous function is continuous and that the inverse of a differentiable function
is differentiable.
Theorem 2.2.4 Let 𝑓 be continuous on an interval I, and let the values assigned by 𝑓 to
the points in I form the interval J. If 𝑓 has an inverse, then 𝑓 −1 is
continuous on J. (see figure 2.23)
f -1
f
I f
J
-1
I J
1
x
f
=
y
(a) (c)
(b)

Figure 2.23
Theorem 2.2.5 Suppose that 𝑓 has an inverse and is continuous on an open interval I
containing 𝑎. Assume also that 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) exists , 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ≠ 0, and 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐.
1 1
Then (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑐) = , 𝑖𝑒 (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑓(𝑎)) = .
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
Proof: Using the fact 𝑓 −1 (𝑐) = 𝑎 , since 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐 , and the definition of the derivative,
we find that
𝑓 −1 (𝑦) − 𝑓 −1 (𝑐) 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) − 𝑎

(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑐) = lim = lim (∗)
y c 𝑦−𝑐 y  c 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑦)) − 𝑓(𝑎)
Provided that the latter limit exists. We will simultaneously show that it does exist and find its
value. First notice that 𝑓 −1 is continuous at 𝑐 by Theorem 2.2.4.
Therefore , lim 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑐) = 𝑎

y c
So that if 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦), then 𝑥 approaches a as y approaches 𝑐. More over, the fact that 𝑓 −1
has an inverse and 𝑓 −1 (𝑐) = 𝑎 implies that 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) ≠ 𝑎 for 𝑦 ≠ 𝑐. consequently (∗) and
substitution 𝑥 for 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) implies that
𝑓 −1 (𝑦)− 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 1 1
(𝑓 −1 )′(𝑐 ) = lim = lim = = . 
y  c 𝑓(𝑓−1 (𝑦))−𝑓(𝑎) xa 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓′ (𝑎)
xa 𝑥−𝑎
Example 2.2.22 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 7. Find (𝑓 −1 )′ (6).
Solution In order to use Theorem 2.2.5, we must first find the value of “a” for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐 = 6
3
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎3 + 7 = 6 ⇒ 𝑎3 = −1 ⇒ 𝑎 = √−1 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1
Since, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (−1) = 3 (−1)2 = 3 ≠ 0
Thus, by Theorem 2.2.5
1 1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (6) = = . 
𝑓 ′ (−1) 3

Example 2.2.23 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 7 + 8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2. Find (𝑓 −1 )′ (−2).
Solution In order to use Theorem 2.2.5 , we must first find the value of “a” for which
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐 = −2 .
But, 𝑓(0) = −2 , so 𝑎 = 0. Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 7𝑥 6 + 24𝑥 2 + 4, it follows that

𝑓 ′ (0) = 4. By Theorem 2.2.5 we conclude that
1 1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (−2) = = . 
𝑓 ′ (0) 4
Note Let 𝑓 be invertible, and differentiable function, then Theorem 2.2.5 becomes
1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑓(𝑥)) = , 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
−𝜋 𝜋
Example 2.2.24 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 , <𝑥< . Find (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑐) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = √3.
2 2
Solution 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1 𝑜𝑛 ( 2 , 2 ) , so f is invertible on (−𝜋⁄2 , 𝜋⁄2).

−𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑐 = √3 ⇒ tan 𝑎 = √3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 < 𝑎 < .
2 2
⇒ 𝑎 = tan−1(√3) = 𝜋⁄3.
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ ( 𝜋⁄3) = sec 2 3 = 22 = 4 ≠ 0

𝜋
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥
Hence 𝑓 −1 is differentiable at √3 and

1 1 1
(𝑓 −1 ) (√3) = = 𝜋 = . 
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) 𝑓′ ( ) 4
3
1 1
Note: The formula in Theorem 2.2.5 , (𝑓 −1 )′(𝑓(𝑥)) = and (𝑓 −1 )′(𝑐) = … (𝑖)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)
takes a very simple form in Leibniz notation
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 and 𝑓 be invertible. Then 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥. Their derivatives 𝑓′ and

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
(𝑓 −1 )′ are denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = and (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑦) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Thus the formula (𝑖) can be written as

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1
= 𝑑𝑦 and |𝑦 =𝑐
= 𝑑𝑦 … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 |𝑥 = 𝑎
Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS
𝑑𝑥 II Dawit𝑑𝑥Solomon Page 31
𝑑𝑥
Example 2.2.25 Let 𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 𝑥. Find .
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 1
Solution 𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 𝑥 ⇒ = > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
We know that the function 𝑦 has an inverse.
So, using (𝑖𝑖)

𝑑𝑥 1 1
= 𝑑𝑦 = 1 = 𝑥. 
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 2.2.36 Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥. Find and |𝑦 = −3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Solution The function 𝑦 has an inverse because its derivative, 5𝑥 4 + 2 is a positive function.
using (𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑥 1 1
= 𝑑𝑦 = ∗
𝑑𝑦 5𝑥 4 + 2
𝑑𝑥
Since 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥, it follows that 𝑦 = −3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1.
We conclude from ∗ that
𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
|𝑦 = −3
= 𝑑𝑦 = = . 
𝑑𝑦 | 5(−1)4 +2 7
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 = −1

2.3 Trigonometric Function, Inverse Trigonometric Function and their Derivatives

and Integral.
2.3.1 Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometrical Ratios.
Definitions 2.3.1 Let a revolving line 𝑂𝑃 start from 𝑂𝑋 in the anti-clockwise direction and
trace out an angle 𝑋𝑂𝑃. See figure 2.24, then
p 𝑀𝑃
1. is called sine of angle 𝜃, and is written as 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.
𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝑀
 2. is called cosine of angle 𝜃, and is written as 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽.
o 𝑂𝑃
M x 𝑀𝑃
3. is called tangent of angle 𝜃, and is written as 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽.
𝑂𝑀
Figure 2.24
𝑂𝑀
4. is called cotangent of angle 𝜃, and is written as 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽.
𝑀𝑃
𝑂𝑃
5. is called secant of angle 𝜃, and is written as 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽.
𝑂𝑀
𝑂𝑃
6. is called cosecant of angle 𝜃, and is written as 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜽.
𝑂𝑀
These ratios are called Trigonometrical Ratios of the angle 𝜃.
Remarks 1. It follows form the definition 2.3.1 that

P’ 1 1 1 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sec 𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = , cot 𝜃 = , tan 𝜃 = , cot 𝜃 =
p cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
2. Trigonometrical ratios are the same for the same angle. See figure 2.25.
Q 𝑀𝑃 𝑀′𝑃′
o ∆ 𝑂𝑃𝑀 ~ ∆ 𝑂𝑃′ 𝑀′ , so = = sin 𝜃 , similarly true for other ratios.
M M’ 𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑃′
Figure 2.25 3. (sin 𝜃)𝑛 is written as sinn 𝜃 , where n – is positive. Similar notation
holds good for other trigonometrical ratios.
4. sin−1 𝑘 denotes that angle whose sine is k. Note that sin−1 𝑘 does not
1
stand for sin 𝑘. Similar notation holds good for other trigonometrical
rations.

5. For any angle 𝜃,

i) sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1 ii) sec 2 𝜃 = 1 + tan2 𝜃 iii)
cosec 2 𝜃 = 1 + cot 2 𝜃
Signs of Trigonometrical Ratios
Consider four lines 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑋 ′ , 𝑂𝑌, 𝑂𝑌′ at right angles to each other. See figure 2.26 Let a
revolving line 𝑂𝑃 start from 𝑂𝑋 in the anticlockwise direction. From 𝑃 draw 𝑃𝑀 ⊥ 𝑂𝑋 or 𝑂𝑋 ′ .
We have the following convention of signs regarding the sides of ∆ 𝑂𝑃𝑀.
Y
p p 1. 𝑂𝑀 is positive, if it is along 𝑂𝑋.

2. 𝑂𝑀 is negative, if it is along 𝑂𝑋’.
X’ X
M M 3. 𝑀𝑃 is negative, if it is along 𝑂𝑌’.
p p 4. 𝑀𝑃 is positive, if it is along 𝑂𝑌.
5. 𝑂𝑃 is regarded always positive.
Y’
Figure 2.26
First Quadrant. If the revolving line 𝑂𝑃 is in the first quadrant, than all the sides of the triangle
𝑂𝑃𝑀 are positive. Therefore, all the trigonometrical ratios are positive.
Second quadrant. If the revolving line 𝑂𝑃 is in the second quadrant, then 𝑂𝑀 is negative and
the other two sides of ∆𝑂𝑃𝑀 are positive. Therefore, ratios involving 𝑂𝑀 will be negative. So,
cosine, secant, tangent, cotangent of an angle in the second quadrant are negative while sine and
cosecant of angle in the second quadrant are positive.
Third Quadrant. If the revolving line 𝑂𝑃 is in the third quadrant then side 𝑂𝑀 and 𝑀𝑃 both
are negative. Since 𝑂𝑃 is always positive. Therefore, ratios involving each one of 𝑂𝑀 and 𝑀𝑃
alone will be negative. So, sine, cosine, cosecant and secant of an angle in the third quadrant are
negative. Since tangent or cotangent of any angle involve both 𝑂𝑀 and 𝑀𝑃, therefore, these
will be positive. So, tangent and cotangent are positive in third quadrant.

Fourth Quadrant. If the revolving line 𝑂𝑃 is in the fourth quadrant, them 𝑀𝑃 is negative and
the other two sides of ∆𝑂𝑃𝑀 are positive. Therefore, ratios involving 𝑀𝑃 will be negative and
others positive. So, sine, cosecant, tangent and cotangent of an angle in the fourth quadrant are
negative while cosine and secant of an angle in the fourth quadrant are positive.
Note: we know that sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1 for any angle 𝜃.
Thus, sin2 𝜃 ≤ 1 , cos2 𝜃 ≤ 1 ⇒ sin 𝜃 & cos 𝜃 can not be numerically greater than 1.
1 1
Similarly 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sec 𝜃 = can not be numerically in the interval (-1, 1) .
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Example 2.3.1 Prove that sin6 𝜃 + cos6 𝜃 = 1 − 3 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 .
Solution sin6 𝜃 + cos6 𝜃 = (sin2 𝜃)3 + (cos2 𝜃)3
= (sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 ) (sin4 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 + cos 4 𝜃 )
= 1 (sin4 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 + cos 4 𝜃 )
= (sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 )2 − 3 sin2 𝜃 cos2 𝜃
= 1 − 3 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃. 
1+ cos 𝜃
Example 2.3.2 Prove that √ 1−cos 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + cot 𝜃. Provided cos 𝜃 ≠ 1,
sin 𝜃 > 0 & cos 𝜃 > 0.
1+ cos 𝜃 (1 + cos 𝜃) (1 + cos 𝜃) √(1+cos 𝜃)2 1+cos 𝜃

Solution √ = √ (1 −cos 𝜃)(1 + cos 𝜃) = =
1−cos 𝜃 √1−cos2 𝜃 sin 𝜃
1 cos 𝜃
= + = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + cot 𝜃. 
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Example 2.3.3 Prove that
(1 + cot 𝜃 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃) (1 + tan 𝜃 + sec 𝜃) = 2.

cos 𝜃 1 sin 𝜃 1
Solution (1 + cot 𝜃 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃) (1 + tan 𝜃 + sec 𝜃) = (1 + − ) (1 + + )
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
(sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − 1 ) ((𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 + 1 ))

=
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

(sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃)2 − 1

=
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 +2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 1

=
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1+2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 1

=
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= = 2. 
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
4 2 sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃
Example 2.3.4 If tan 𝜃 = , find the value of
5 4 cos 𝜃 + 3 sin 𝜃
8
2 sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 2 tan 𝜃 + 3 + 3 23
Solution = = 5
12 = . 
4 cos 𝜃 + 3 sin 𝜃 4+ 3 tan 𝜃 4 + 32
5
Example 2.3.5 Find a solution of the following equation.
𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃.
1
Solution 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = + tan 𝜃
tan 𝜃
1+ tan2 𝜃 sec2 𝜃
= =
tan 𝜃 tan 𝜃
sec2 𝜃
Then, = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 ⇒ sec 2 𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 tan 𝜃 = 2 sec 𝜃
tan 𝜃
⇒ sec 𝜃 (sec 𝜃 − 2) = 0
sec 𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 sec 𝜃 = 2.
As sec 𝜃 = 0 is impossible, we get sec 𝜃 = 2 . 
⇒ One value of 𝜃 = 𝜋⁄3. Thus the solution of given equation 𝜃 =

𝜋
3
𝜋 3𝜋
Example 2.3.6 If cos 𝜃 = 𝑎, find the values of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2 + 𝜃) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin ( − 𝜃) .
2

𝜋 1 1
Solution Now 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2 + 𝜃) = csc 𝜃 = = , and
cos 𝜃 𝑎
3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin ( − 𝜃) = sin (𝜋 + − 𝜃) = − sin ( 2 − 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃 = −𝑎. 
2 2
Example 2.3.7 What value of 𝑥 (between 00 and 900 ) will satisfy the equation
tan 2𝑥 tan 4𝑥 = 1 ?
Solution tan 2𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 4𝑥 = 1
1
⇒ tan 2𝑥 = = cot 4𝑥
tan 4𝑥
𝜋
⇒ tan 2𝑥 = tan ( 2 − 4𝑥 )
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 2𝑥 = − 4𝑥 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 2𝜋 + ( 2 − 4𝑥)
2
⇒ 𝑥 = 150 , 750 .
Trigonometrical Ratios of Sums and Difference of Two Angles.
For any Angles 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
1. sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

2. cos (𝐴 ± 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
tan 𝐴 ± tan 𝐵
3. tan(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = 1 ∓ tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
4. i) sin 2𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

ii) cos 2𝐴 = 2 cos2 𝐴 − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴 = cos 2 𝐴 – sin2 𝐴
2 tan 𝐴
iii) tan 2𝐴 = 1 − tan2 𝐴
Example 2.3.8 Find the value of tan 750 and hence prove that tan 750 + cot 750 = 4
1 2
tan 450 + tan 300 1+ √3 + 1 (√3 + 1)
Solution tan 75 = (tan 450 + 300 ) = 1 − tan 450 tan 300
= √3
1 = = = 2 + √3
1− √3 − 1 2
√3
1
Now tan 750 + cot 750 = 2 + √3 + 2 + √3

2 − √3
= (2 + √3) + (2+ √3) (2− √3)
2 − √3
= 2 + √3 + = 2 + √3 + 2 − √3 = 4. 
4−3
sin 𝐴 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 3𝐴
Example 2.3.9 Prove that = tan 2𝐴
cos 𝐴 + cos 3𝐴
sin 𝐴 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 3𝐴 sin 𝐴 + 3 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴 − 4 sin3 𝐴

Solution =
cos 𝐴 + cos 3𝐴 cos 𝐴 + 4 cos3 𝐴 −3 cos 𝐴
4 sin 𝐴 ( 1−sin2 𝐴) 4 sin 𝐴 cos2 𝐴

= =
2 cos 𝐴 ( 2 cos2 𝐴 − 1) 2 cos 𝐴 cos 2 𝐴
2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 2𝐴

= = = tan 2𝐴. 
cos 2𝐴 cos 2𝐴
Note For all angles 𝐶 and 𝐷

𝐶 +𝐷 𝐶− 𝐷
1. sin 𝐶 + sin 𝐷 = 2 sin cos
2 2
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶− 𝐷
2. sin 𝐶 − sin 𝐷 = 2 cos sin
2 2
3. cos 𝐶 + cos 𝐷 = 2 cos cos
2 2
4. cos 𝐶 − cos 𝐷 = 2 sin sin
2 2
Example 2.3.10 If sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦 = 𝑏, show that

𝑏 2 − 𝑎2
cos(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) = .
𝑏 2 + 𝑎2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 −𝑦
Solution sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 = 𝑎 ⇒ 2 sin cos = 𝑎 and
2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 −𝑦
cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦 = 𝑏 ⇒ 2 cos cos = 𝑏
2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑎
Therefore, tan =
2 𝑏
𝑥+𝑦 𝑎2
1 − tan2 ( ) 1 − 2 𝑏2 − 𝑎2
Now cos (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥
2
+ 𝑦 = 𝑏
𝑎2
= . 
1 + tan2 ( ) 1+ 2 𝑏2 + 𝑎2
2 𝑏

Definition 2.3.2 It follows from Definition 2.3.1 that the functions
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = cot 𝑥,

𝑓(𝑥) = sec 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 are called Trigonometric functions
(circular2.3.2
The functions in Definition functions).
have the following graphs
y
y
1
1
x x
 3   3
 2  3   3 2
 2   2
  2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
-1
-1 f x   sin x f x   cos x
(a)
y
(b)
y
x x
 3   3 2 3   3 2
 2   2  
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
f x   tan x f  x   cot x
(c) (d)
y
1 1
x
x  2  3   3
 3     2
 2 3 2
  2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
-1
-1
f  x   cos ec x
f x   sec x
f
(e) (f)
figure 2.27

2.3.2 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions, Their Derivative and Integral.
2.3.2.1 The Arcsine Function
The sine function does not have an inverse because it is periodic. However, if we restrict the
−𝜋 𝜋
domain of the sine function to [ , ] , then the resulting function is strictly increasing.
2 2
Hence the restricted function has an inverse, which we call the arcsine function. The domain
−𝜋 𝜋
of the arcsine is [−1 , 1] , and its range is [ , ]. Its value at 𝑥 is usually written 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2 2
or sin−1 𝑥.
Definition 2.3.3 arcsin 𝑥 = 𝑦 if and only if sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and

−𝜋 𝜋
≤ 𝑦 ≤ . (see figure 2.28)
2 2
y
y 
2
1
1
y  sin x
x x
   
-1
2 2 1
2 2
y  arc sin x
-1
-1

2
Figure 2.28
𝜋 𝜋
Note 1. arcsin (sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 for − 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ sin(arcsin 𝑥) = 𝑥 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
2
≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋⁄2 .
−𝜋
2. 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ⟷ sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 , 2
Example 2.3.11 Evaluate

1
a) arcsin (2)
1 𝜋 𝜋 1
Solution arcsin (2) = 6
, since sin 6
= 2
. 

−√2
b) arcsin ( )
2
−√2 −𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋 −√2
Solution arcsin ( ) = , since sin ( 4 ) = − sin = . 
2 4 4 2
5𝜋
c) arcsin (sin )
6
5𝜋 1 5𝜋 1 𝜋
Solution sin = , so that arcsin (sin ) = arcsin = . 
6 2 6 2 6
√3
d) sin (arcsin )
2
√3 𝜋 √3 𝜋 √3
Solution arcsin = , so, sin (arcsin ) = sin = . 
2 3 2 3 2
Example 2.3.12 Show that
a) sin−1(−𝑥) = − sin−1 𝑥
Solution Let 𝑦 = sin−1 (−𝑥) ⇒ −𝑥 = sin 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = − sin 𝑦 = sin(−𝑦)
⇒ 𝑥 = sin(−𝑦) ⇒ − 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = −sin−1 𝑥
∴ sin−1 (−𝑥 ) = −sin−1 𝑥. 
1
b) sec(arcsin √𝑥 ) =
√1−𝑥
1
Solution See figure 2.29 x
y
arcsin √𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ sin 𝑦 = √𝑥 ≥ 0
1 x
1 1
sec 𝑦 = ⇒ sec(arcsin √𝑥 ) = .  Figure 2.29
√1−𝑥 √1−𝑥
𝑑 1
Theorem 2.31 arcsin 𝑥 = √1−𝑥 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Proof Let 𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 ⇒ = cos 𝑦 = √1 − sin2 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
−𝜋 𝜋
We take only +𝑣𝑒 sign under radical as cos 𝑦 is always positive for 2
≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 1 1
Now, = 1 ⇒ = 𝑑𝑥 = √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1
∴ = arcsin 𝑥 = √1−𝑥 2
. 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 2.3.13 Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) , for the following function 𝑓(𝑥)
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = arcsin (5𝑥 2 ).

1 10 𝑥
Solution 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (arcsin 5𝑥 2 )′ = (5𝑥 2 )′ =
√1−25 𝑥 2
. (using chain rule) . 
√1− (5𝑥 2 )2
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 arcsin ℓ𝑛 𝑥.
Solution 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 ′ arcsin ℓ𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 (arcsin ℓ𝑛 𝑥)′ (Using product rule)

1
= 1 arcsin ℓ𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 (ℓ𝑛 𝑥)′
√1−(ℓ𝑛 𝑥)2
𝑥 1 1
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin ℓ𝑛 𝑥 + ∙ = arcsin ℓ𝑛 𝑥 + . 
√1−(ℓ𝑛 𝑥)2 𝑥 √1−(ℓ𝑛 𝑥)2
𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑥)
Note arcsin 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑔2 (𝑥)
From Theorem 2.3.1 since integration is the inverse differentiation, we have

1
∫ √1−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin 𝑥 + 𝐶 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
1 𝑥
Example 2.3.14 show that ∫ 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin ( 𝑎) + 𝑐, for 𝑎 > 0
1 1 𝑥 1
Solution ∫ 𝑎2 – 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 , Let 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑦
𝑎√1 − ( )
𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = ∫ = arcsin 𝑦 + 𝐶 = arcsin + 𝐶. 
𝑥 2 𝑎√1 − 𝑦 2 √1 − 𝑦2 𝑎
𝑎√1 − ( )
𝑎
Example 2.3.15 Evaluate the following integrals.

1
a) ∫ √9 2 𝑑𝑥
−𝑥

1 𝑥
Solution Using Example 2.3.14 , ∫ √9 2 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin + 𝐶. 
−𝑥 3
1
b) ∫ √4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
−𝑥
1 1 1 𝑥−2
Solution ∫ √4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = arcsin ( ) + 𝐶. 
−𝑥 √ 22− (𝑥−2) 2
√4 –(4−4𝑥+ 𝑥 2 )
2+ √2 1
c) ∫3 √4𝑥 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
Solution Using Example 2.3.15 (b) we have
2+ √2 1 𝑥−2
∫3 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin ( ) | 32+√2
2
√4𝑥 – 𝑥 2
2+ √2 − 2 (3−2)
= arcsin ( ) − arcsin
2 2
√2 1
= arcsin − arcsin
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= − = . 
4 6 12
2.3.2.2 The Arc Cosine Function
Definition 2.3.4 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥 = 𝑦 if and only if cos 𝑦 = 𝑥 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
and 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 . (see figure 2.30)

y
y

1

2 y  arc cos x
x 1
 
2
(a) (b) x (c)
-1 -1 1
y  cos x Figure 2.30
Note 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
cos(𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 for − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1


1
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (2)
1 𝜋 𝜋 1
Solution 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (2) = , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 cos =
3 3 2
√3
b) cos (𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos )
2
√3 𝜋 √3
Solution cos (𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos ) = cos = .
2 6 2
a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = − cos −1 𝑥
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = cos 𝑦 = cos(−𝑦) ⇒ 𝑥 = cos (– 𝑦)
⇒ −𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = − cos −1 𝑥
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = − cos −1 𝑥 . 
𝜋
b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 = cos ( − 𝑦) ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = –𝑦 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
2 2 2
𝜋
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = . 
2
𝑑 −1
Theorem 2.3.2 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥 = √1− 𝑥 2
for −1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Proof Let 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = cos 𝑦 ⇒ = − sin 𝑦 = −√1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑦 = −√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
We take only sin 𝑦 (+𝑣𝑒) since 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 , so sin 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 −1
This implies = √1 − 𝑥2
. 
𝑑𝑥
Example 2.3.18 Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), for the following functions 𝑓(𝑥).
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (sin 𝑥)

−1 − cos 𝑥
Solution 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = [𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (sin 𝑥)]′ = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
(sin 𝑥)′ = √1− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
. 
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √𝑥

′
Solution 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √𝑥) = 𝑥 ′ 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √𝑥 + 𝑥 (𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √𝑥)′
−1
= 1 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √𝑥 + 𝑥 ( ) (√𝑥)′
2
√1 − (√𝑥)
−𝑥 1
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √𝑥 +
√1−𝑥 2√𝑥
√𝑥
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √𝑥 − . 
2 √1−𝑥
𝑑 −𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑
Note 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑔(𝑥) = = − 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 √1− 𝑔2 (𝑥)
From Theorem 2.3.2 we have

−1 1
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ √1 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1, 𝐶 – constant.
−1 𝑥
Example 2.3.19 Show that ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (𝑎) + 𝐶 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0
−1 −1 𝑥 1
Solution ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎√1− ( )
𝑎
−1 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑥
so, ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑦 + 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (𝑎) + 𝐶. 
𝑥 2 𝑎√1−𝑦 2 √1− 𝑦2
𝑎√1− ( )
𝑎
−1 1
Note 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 = ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ √1 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 = −𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋⁄2 ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ [0, 𝜋⁄2] .
−𝜋
Where 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥, −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 2

2.3.2.3 The Arctangent Function
−𝜋 𝜋
Definition 2.3.5 arctan 𝑥 = 𝑦 if and only if tan 𝑦 = 𝑥 for any 𝑥 and for < 𝑦< .
2 2
see figure 2.31
y
y
y  tan x

2
y  arc tan x
x
x
 
2 2

2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.31
−𝜋 𝜋
Note arctan (tan 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 < 𝑥 < 2
tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥.
3
Example 2.3.20. Evaluate y
−1 1
a) csc (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan ( 3 )). 10 Figure 2.32
−1
Solution We will evaluate csc (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan ( 3 )) by evaluating csc 𝑦 for the value of 𝑦 in
−𝜋 𝜋 −1 −1
( 2 , 2 ) such that 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan ( 3 ) = 𝑦 , that is , tan 𝑦 = . since tan 𝑦 < 0 , it
3

−𝜋
follows that < 𝑦 < 0 , so that csc 𝑦 < 0 . By the Pythagorean Theorem the
2
hypotenuse of the triangle in figure 2.32 has length √10. Therefore csc 𝑦 = −√10
−1
As a result, csc (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan ( 3 )) = csc 𝑦 = −√10 . 
1
b) cos (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan ).
√𝑥 −1
1 1
Solution Let 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan = 𝑦 ⇒ tan 𝑦 =
√𝑥 −1 √𝑥 −1
−𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 in ( 2 , 2 ). Using figure 2.33, we have x
1
1 √𝑥 − 1 y
cos (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan ) = cos 𝑦 =  Figure 2.33
√𝑥 −1 √𝑥 x 1

1
a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = csc −1 𝑥
1 1 1 1
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 ⇒ = ⇒ = csc 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥
𝑥 sin 𝑦 𝑥
1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = csc −1 . 
𝑥
b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥
1 1 1 1
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = cos 𝑦 ⇒ = ⇒ = sec 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥
𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑥
1
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 . 
1
c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = cot −1 𝑥
1 1 1 1
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = tan 𝑦 ⇒ = ⇒ = cot 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥
𝑥 tan 𝑦 𝑥
1
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = cot −1 𝑥 . 
d) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥 ) = − tan−1 𝑥
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥) ⇒ −𝑥 = tan 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = − tan 𝑦 = tan(−𝑦) ⇒ tan−1 𝑥 = −𝑦

1
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 = − tan−1 𝑥 . 
e) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝑥) + cot −1 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) ⇒ 𝑥 = tan 𝑦 = cot ( 2 − 𝑦) ⇒ cot −1 𝑥 = − 𝑦
2
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ cot −1 𝑥 = − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + cot −1 𝑥 = 2 . 
2
𝑥+𝑦
f) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + cot −1 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 1 − 𝑥𝑦)
Solution Let 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 ⇒ tan 𝛼 = 𝑥, tan 𝛽 = 𝑦

tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥+ 𝑦
⇒ tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) = = ⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛽 = tan−1 (1 − )
1−tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽 1− 𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦
𝑥+ 𝑦
⇒ tan−1 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 (1 − ) . 
𝑥𝑦
g) cos (sin−1 𝑥) = sin(cos −1 𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 √1 − 𝑥 2
Thus cos (sin−1 𝑥) = cos(cos −1 √1 − 𝑥 2 ) = √1 − 𝑥 2 .
Again, Let 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 ⇒ cos 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 sin 𝑧 = √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2
Thus, sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥) = sin (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 ) = √1 − 𝑥 2
Hence sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥) = cos (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ) . 
𝑑 1
Theorem 2.3.3 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2+ 1
−𝜋 𝜋
Proof - Let 𝑥 = tan 𝑦 , 𝑦 ∈ ( 2 , 2 ) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
= tan 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 = tan2 𝑦 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑 1
⇒ = ⇒ 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2+ 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2+ 1

𝑑𝑓
Example 2.3.22 Find for the following functions 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑒 4𝑥 .

𝑑𝑓 𝑑 1 𝑑 4 𝑒 4𝑥
Solution = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑒 4𝑥 = (𝑒 4𝑥 )2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 4𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 8𝑥 + 1
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥 ).

𝑑 𝑑
Solution tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥) 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑 1 1
= sec 2 (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥). 2 √𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥) ∙
(√𝑥) + 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥+1 2√ 𝑥
−𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥 ⇒ tan 𝑦 = √𝑥 ⇒ tan2 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ∈ ( 2 , 2 )
1 1 1 1 2 1 1
= sec 2 𝑦 ∙ ∙ = (tan2 𝑦 + 1) ∙ = [(√𝑥) + 1] ∙ 𝑥 + 1 ∙
𝑥+1 2√𝑥 𝑥+1 2√𝑥 2√𝑥
1 1 1
= (𝑥 + 1) ∙ 𝑥 + 1 ∙ = .
2√𝑥 2√𝑥
′ ′ 1
Note 1. tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥 ) = √𝑥 ⇒ [tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan √𝑥)] = (√𝑥) =
2√ 𝑥
𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑥)
2. 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔2 (𝑥)+ 1
From Theorem 2.3.3 The corresponding integral is

1
∫ 𝑥2+ 1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ ; 𝐶 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 .
1 1 𝑥
Example 2.3.23 For 𝑎 > 0, show that ∫ 𝑥2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan + 𝐶.
𝑎 𝑎
1 1 1 1 𝑥
Solution ∫ 𝑥2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2
∫ 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎
= 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑦
𝑎2 (( ) + 1) ( ) + 1
𝑎 𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑥
So, 𝑎2
∫ 𝑦 2 +1 = 𝑎
∫ 𝑦2+ 1 = 𝑎
𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑦 + 𝐶 = 𝑎
𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑎 + 𝐶 . 


1
a) ∫ 𝑥 2 + 25 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1 𝑥
Solution ∫ 𝑥 2 + 25 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 + 52
= 5
𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 5 + 𝐶. 
1
b) ∫ 9𝑥 2 + 4 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1 𝑑𝑥 3 2
Solution ∫ 9𝑥 2 + 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 2
, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
4(( 𝑥) + 1) 4 ( 𝑥) + 1 2 3
2 2
1 2⁄ 𝑑𝑦 1 2 𝑑𝑦 1 1 3
So, ∫ 3
4 𝑦2+ 1
= 4
× 3
∫ 𝑦2+ 1
= 6
𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑦 + 𝐶 = 6
𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan (2 𝑥) + 𝐶. 
1
c) ∫ 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
Solution Using complicating the square method, we have
1 2 1
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 2 [ (𝑥 + 2) + (2)] .
1 1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 2 1 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 2
𝑑𝑢, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑥 + ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥+1 2 [ (𝑥 + ) + ( ) ] 2 𝑢2 +( ) 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 𝑢
So, ∫ 1 2 𝑑𝑢, [ 1⁄ 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan + 𝐶] = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 2𝑢 + 𝐶.
2 𝑢2 +( ) 2 2
2
1
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 2 (𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶. 
2.3.2.4 The Arc cotangent Function
To define an inverse for the cotangent function, we restrict the cotangent function to (0, 𝜋).
The resulting inverse function is called the arc cotangent function. Its domain is (−∞, ∞) and
its range is (0, 𝜋). We usually write its value at 𝑥 is 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 or 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥.
Definition 2.3.6 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 = 𝑦 if and only if 𝑥 = cot 𝑦 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℜ and for 0 <
𝑦 < 𝜋 . see figure 2.34.

Example 2.3.25 Evaluate 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot(tan 𝜋⁄3) .
Solution tan 3 = √3 , 𝑠𝑜, 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot(tan 𝜋⁄3) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot √3

𝜋
𝜋
⇒ cot 𝑦 = √3 ⇒𝑦= . 
6
𝑑 −1
Theorem 2.3.4 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 = for all 𝑥 ∈ ℜ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2+ 1
Proof Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = cot 𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑦 < 𝜋

𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 −1 −1 −1
⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = cot 𝑦 = − csc 2 𝑦 ⇒ = = =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑦 +1 𝑥2 + 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 −1
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 + 1
𝑑 1 𝑑
Note 1. 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 = − = − 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℜ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2+ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑
2. 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑔(𝑥) = − = − 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑔2 (𝑥)+ 1 𝑑𝑥
Example 2.3.26 Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot (sin2 𝑥)

𝑑𝑓 𝑑 −1 𝑑 −2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Solution 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot (sin2 𝑥) = (sin2 𝑥) 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
(sin2 𝑥) = sin4 𝑥 + 1
. 
From theorem 2.3.4 The corresponding integral is

−1
∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ , 𝐶 - constant.
2.3.2.5 The Arc secant Function.
Definition 2.3.7 𝑦 = arcsec 𝑥 if and only if sec 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙

𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1 ] ∪ [1, ∞) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑦 ∈ [0, 2 ) ∪ [𝜋 , ) see figure 2.35
2
−1

a) sec (𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √3⁄2)
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos √3⁄2 ⇒ cos 𝑦 = 2

√3 𝜋
⇒ 𝑦 = 6.
√3 𝜋 1 1 2 2√3
Hence, sec (𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 2 ) = sec 6 = cos 𝜋 = √3 = = . 
⁄6 ⁄ √3 3
2
5𝜋
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec (4 sin )
6
5𝜋 1
Solution Let 𝑥 = 4 sin = 4 (2) = 2
6
5𝜋
so, 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec (4 sin ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec(2), 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 2
6
1 1 𝜋
⇒ sec 𝑦 = 2 ⇒ = 2 ⇒ cos 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑦=
cos 𝑦 2 3
5𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec (4 sin ) = . 
6 3
𝜋
Example 2.3.28 Show that 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 = .
2
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = sec 𝑦

𝜋
or, 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2 − 𝑦)
𝜋 𝜋
so, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 = − 𝑦 = − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥
2 2
𝜋
⇒ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 = . 
2
𝜋 3𝜋
Note 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec(sec 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ [0, 2 ) ∪ [𝜋 , )
2
sec(𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, |𝑥| ≥ 1
−1
∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ , 𝐶 -
𝑑 1
constant.
Theorem 2.3.5 (𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑥 < −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1 (𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| > 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
−1
Proof Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐
∫ 𝑥sec 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = sec 𝑦
2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ , 𝐶 - constant.

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 = = =
𝑑𝑥 sec 𝑦 sec 𝑦 tan 𝑦 sec 𝑦 √𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦 − 1 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1
∴ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑𝑓
Example 2.3.29 Find , for the following functions 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑑𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec √𝑥 .

𝑑𝑓 𝑑 1 𝑑 1 1 1
Solution = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec √𝑥 = √𝑥 = ∙ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥−1 2√𝑥 2𝑥 √𝑥 − 1
√𝑥 √(√𝑥) − 1
𝑑 1
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec √𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥√𝑥− 1
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 2 .

𝑑𝑓 𝑑
Solution = (𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 ′ 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 (𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 2 )′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 ∙2𝑥
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 ∙ (𝑥 2 )′ = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 2 +
𝑥 2 √𝑥 4 − 1 𝑥 2 √𝑥4 − 1
2
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 2 + . 
√𝑥 4 − 1
𝑑 𝑔′ (𝑥)
Note 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) √𝑔2 (𝑥) − 1

−1
∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 1= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 + 𝐶,
∫ 𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 = arcsec 𝑥 + 𝐶 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, |𝑥| > 1.
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ , 𝐶 - constant.
1 1 𝑥
Example 2.3.30 Show−1 that ∫ √𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 arcsec 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0 and
∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥= −𝑎
𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ , 𝐶 - constant.
C arbitrary constant.
1 1 1 1
Solution ∫ 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
∫ 2
𝑥 2 𝑥 √(𝑥) − 1
𝑥√𝑎2 [ ( ) − 1] 𝑎
𝑎
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let 𝑢 = ⇒ 𝑎𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑢 = , so
𝑎 𝑎

1 1 𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑥
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑢2 = arcsec 𝑢 + 𝐶 = arcsec + 𝐶
𝑎 𝑎𝑢 − 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 √(𝑥) − 1
𝑎
1 1 𝑥
∴ ∫ √𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = arcsec + 𝐶.
𝑥 −𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
√2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (arcsec 𝑥)
Example 2.3.31 Evaluate ∫1 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (arcsec 𝑥) 1
Solution ∫ 𝑑𝑥 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = arcsec 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (arcsec 𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢 + 𝐶 = tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥 ) + 𝐶
𝑥 √𝑥2 − 1
√2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (arcsec 𝑥)
so, ∫1 𝑑𝑥 = tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥) | 1√2 = tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec √2) − tan(𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 1)
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
= tan(𝜋⁄4) − tan 0 = 1 − 0 = 1. 
2.3.2.6 The Arc cosecant Function
Definition 2.3.8 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 if and only if 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1,∞)
𝜋 3𝜋
and for all 𝑦 ∈ (0, 2 ] ∪ (𝜋, ] . see figure 2.36
2
𝜋 3𝜋
Note 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ (0, ] ∪ (𝜋, ]
2 2
−1
∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑥) =
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 +𝑥,𝐶,|𝑥|
𝑓𝑜𝑟
≥ 𝑎𝑙𝑙
1 𝑥 ∈ ℜ , 𝐶 - constant.
𝑑 −1
Theorem 2.3.6 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| > 1.
𝑥 √ 𝑥2 − 1
−1
𝑑 −1 −𝑑
Note 1. 𝑑𝑥
(𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) = = 𝑑𝑥
(𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec 𝑥) , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| > 1
𝑥 √ 𝑥2 − 1
𝑑 −1 −𝑔′ (𝑥) −𝑑
2. 𝑑𝑥
[𝑎𝑟𝑐
∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑔(𝑥)] = = 𝑑𝑥 [𝑎𝑟𝑐
2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑥 ∈ ℜsec
, 𝐶𝑔(𝑥)].
-
𝑔(𝑥) √𝑔2 (𝑥)− 1
constant.

−1
Applied Mathematics II/∫CALCULUS𝑑𝑥
−1II= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cotcosec
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶,Solomon
Dawit 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟
+ 𝐶 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℜ , 𝐶 - constant.
𝐶 Page 54
𝑥 2 +1
𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
−1 −1
Note arc cosec 𝑥 + 𝐶 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − arcsec 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 √𝑥2 − 1 𝑥 √ 𝑥2 − 1
𝑑𝑓
Example 2.3.31 Find 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −1 𝑑 −2𝑥
Solution 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥 2 ) = 2 √𝑥4 𝑥 2 = 2 √𝑥 4 , 𝑥4 ≥ 1 .
𝑑𝑥 −1 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −1
2.3.3 Review Exercise.
1. Prove that
tan 𝜃 cot 𝜃
+ = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 sec 𝜃 , 𝑖𝑓 cot 𝜃 ≠ 1, 0 & tan 𝜃 ≠ 1, 0.
1 − cot 𝜃 1 − tan 𝜃
2. Find the value of 𝜃 for the equation
𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 – (1 + √3 ) cot 𝜃 + √3 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝜃 < 2 .
3. If 𝜃 is the angle in fourth guardant satisfying the equation 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 4, find the value
1
of (sec 𝜃 – csc 𝜃).
√5
12 𝜃 𝜃
4. If tan 𝜃 = , and 𝜃 is in third quadrant, find the value of 2 sin 2 − 3 cos 2 .
5
5. Find the numerical value of

a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 720 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 600 1
e) 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (3) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (7)
1
𝜋 13𝜋
b) sin 16 + sin 3𝜋
10 f) 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sec (tan )
4
1 23
c) 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (4) + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 7
g) csc (𝑎𝑟𝑐 cot(−√3))
−1 1
d) sin [𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 2 ) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )]
√3
6. Evaluate the indefinite integral.

1 1
a) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫
√9 − 4𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
9𝑥 + 16
1 1
b) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 d) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 6 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 25

𝑥3 cos 𝑡
e) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 h) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1− 𝑥 8 9 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡
𝑒 −𝑥 cos 4𝑥
f) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 i) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 sin 4𝑥 √16𝑠𝑖𝑛2 4𝑥 − 4
𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 2𝑥
g) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 4𝑥 2
7. Evaluate the definite integral.

4
2 1 2√3− 2 1 1
a) ∫0 √16 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫−2 2
𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 8 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 4
4√3
3
8. Find the area 𝐴 of the region bounded by the y-axis and the graph of
1 1
𝑦= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 4 3
9. Prove that
𝑥
arctan = arcsin 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1.
√1 − 𝑥 2
10. Show that the following identities are valid.
𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
a) 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin (3 − 1) = − 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin √1 −
2 6
𝑥 √𝑥 𝜋
b) 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin (3 − 1) = 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin − .
√6 2
𝑥 + 1
11. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan .
𝑥− 1
−1
a) Show that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = for 𝑥 ≠ 1 b) Find a formula for 𝑓 ′′ .
𝑥2+ 1
2.4 Hyperbolic Functions, inverse hyperbolic functions, their derivatives and Integrals.

Introduction
In this section we briefly describe the hyperbolic functions, which are defined interms of the
exponential function and have a great application in Engineering. The hyperbolic function are
very different from trigonometric functions. Whereas all the trigonometric functions are
periodic, none of the hyperbolic functions is periodic. The reason is that the hyperbolic functions
are defined from the exponential function, which is certainly not periodic. In suitably restricted
domains we will find also the inverses of these hyperbolic functions.
2.4.1 Hyperbolic Functions.
Hyperbolic functions are functions defined intermes of the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .
The two most important hyperbolic functions are called Hyperbolic sine function and
Hyperbolic cosine function.
The other four are expressed interms of these two as that of Trigonometric functions, even if the
hyperbolic functions are not periodic.
Definition 2.4.1 (Hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions)

i) The hyperbolic sine function, denoted by sin ℎ𝑥 and is defined by
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = sin ℎ𝑥 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ. (see figure 2.37 a)
2
ii) The hyperbolic cosine function, denoted by cos ℎ𝑥 and is defined by
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = cos ℎ𝑥 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ. (see figure 2.37 b)
2
y y
y  f x   sin hx
x y  f x 
−1
1
x
(a) (b)
Figure 2.37
Note 1. sin ℎ𝑥 is read as “hyperbolic sine of x” or in short pronounced as “𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑥” or

“sin 𝑐ℎ 𝑥 “.
2. cos ℎ𝑥 is read as “hyperbolic cosine of x” or pronounced as “cos ℎ 𝑥” .
3. sin ℎ𝑥 is an odd function with sin ℎ 0 = 0, and that cos ℎ𝑥 is an even function
Example 2.4.1 Simplify the following
a) Find cos ℎ 0
𝑒 0 𝑒 −0 1+1 2
Solution cos ℎ 0 = = = = 1. 
2 2 2
b) Find sin ℎ (ℓ𝑛 2)

1 1
ℓ𝑛 2−
𝑒 ℓ𝑛 2 − 𝑒 −ℓ𝑛 2 𝑒 ℓ𝑛 2 − 𝑒 2 4− 1 3
Solution sin ℎ (ℓ𝑛 2) = = = 2
= = . 
2 2 2 4 4
c) Find cos ℎ (ℓ𝑛 2)

1 1
ℓ𝑛 2+
𝑒 ℓ𝑛 2 + 𝑒 −ℓ𝑛 2 𝑒 ℓ𝑛 2 + 𝑒 2 4+ 1 5
Solution cos ℎ (ℓ𝑛 2) = = = 2
= = . 
2 2 2 4 4
Example 2.4.2 Show the following identities.
a) cos ℎ2 𝑥 − sin ℎ2 𝑥 = 1.
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 1
Solution cos ℎ2 𝑥 = [ ] = ( )( ) = (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2)
2 2 2 4
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 1
and sin ℎ2 𝑥 = [ ] = ( )( ) = (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2)
2 2 2 4
1 1
Then, cos ℎ2 𝑥 − sin ℎ2 𝑥 = (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2) − (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2)
4 4
1 1 1 1 1 −2𝑥 1
𝑒 2𝑥 + 4 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2 − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 +2
4 4 4
1 1
= + = 1. 
2 2
b) sin ℎ(−𝑥) = − sin ℎ𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 (−𝑥) 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
Solution sin ℎ(𝑥) = = = −( ) = − sin ℎ𝑥. 
2 2 2
c) cos ℎ2 𝑥 + sin ℎ2 𝑥 = cos ℎ (2𝑥)

Solution From Ex. 2.4.2 (a), we have

1 1
cos ℎ2 𝑥 + sin ℎ2 𝑥 = (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2) + (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2)
4 4
1
= (𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 )
2
𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥
But, cos ℎ 2𝑥 = , hence cos ℎ2 𝑥 + sin ℎ2 𝑥 = cos ℎ 2𝑥 . 
2
Definition 2.4.2 (Hyperbolic tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant functions)
The hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cotangent, hyperbolic secant and hyperbolic

cosecant function are defined as follows.
sin ℎ𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
i) 𝑓(𝑥) = tan ℎ𝑥 = = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ.
cos ℎ𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = cot ℎ𝑥 = = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ∗ = ℜ|{0} .
sin ℎ𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 – 1
1 2
iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = sec ℎ𝑥 = = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ.
cos ℎ𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
1 2
iv) 𝑓(𝑥) = csc ℎ𝑥 = = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℜ∗ , see figure 2.3.8
sin ℎ𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
y y y
y
f x   sec hx
f x   tan hx
1
1 f x   csc hx
1
f x   cot hx 0
x x
x x 0
0 0
-1 -1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 2.38
Example 2.4.3 Find the values of the following.
a) cot ℎ (ℓ𝑛 4).
cos ℎ (ℓ𝑛 4) 𝑒 2 ln 4 + 4
Solution By Definition 2.4.2 (ii), cot ℎ (ℓ𝑛 4) = =
sin ℎ (ℓ𝑛 4) 𝑒 2 ℓ𝑛 4 − 4
2
𝑒 ℓn 4 + 1 42 + 1 17
= 2 = = . 
𝑒 ℓ𝑛 4 −1 42 − 1 15
b) csc ℎ (ℓ𝑛 𝜋 2 )

1 2
Solution By Definition 2.4.2 (iv), csc ℎ (ℓ𝑛 𝜋 2 ) = = 2 2
sin ℎ (ℓ𝑛 𝜋2) 𝑒 ℓ𝑛 𝜋 − 𝑒 −ℓ𝑛 𝜋
2 2 2𝜋 2
= 1 = 1 = . 
2 ℓ𝑛 𝜋2 − 𝜋4 − 1
𝑒 ℓ𝑛 𝜋 − 𝑒 𝜋2 𝜋2
Example 2.4.4 Show the following identities
a) tan ℎ2 𝑥 + sec ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
2
𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑥
sin ℎ2 𝑥 1 sin ℎ2 𝑥 + 1 ( ) +1
2 2 2
Solution tan ℎ 𝑥 + sec ℎ 𝑥 = + = = 2
cos ℎ2 𝑥 cos ℎ2 𝑥 cos ℎ2 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒−𝑥
( )
2
𝑒2𝑥 + 𝑒−2𝑥 − 2
+ 1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2 + 4 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2
= 4
𝑒2𝑥 + 𝑒−2𝑥 + 2
= = = 1 
𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2
4
b) cot ℎ2 𝑥 − csc ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
2
𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒−𝑥
cos ℎ2 𝑥 1 cos ℎ2 𝑥 − 1 ( ) −1
2
Solution cot ℎ2 𝑥 + csc ℎ2 𝑥 = − = = 2
sin ℎ2 𝑥 sin ℎ2 𝑥 sin ℎ2 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑥
( )
2
𝑒2𝑥 + 𝑒−2𝑥 + 2
− 1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2 − 4 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2
= 4
𝑒2𝑥 + 𝑒−2𝑥 − 2
= = = 1. 
𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2
4
Facts The following identities are true.
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ℎ(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sin ℎ𝑥 cos ℎ𝑦 ± sin ℎ𝑦 cos ℎ𝑥

2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cos ℎ𝑥 cos ℎ𝑦 ± sin ℎ𝑥 sin ℎ𝑦
3. sin ℎ(2𝑥) = 2 sin ℎ𝑥 sin ℎ2 𝑥
4. cos ℎ (2𝑥) = cos ℎ2 𝑥 + sin ℎ2 𝑥
tan ℎ 𝑥 ±tan ℎ𝑦
5. tan ℎ (𝑥 ± 𝑦) = 1 ±tan ℎ𝑥 tan ℎ𝑦
2 tan ℎ 𝑥
6. tan ℎ 2𝑥 = 1+ tan ℎ2 𝑥
2.4.2 Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions.

Theorem 2.4.1 (Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions)

𝑑 𝑑
i) sin ℎ𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑥 iv) cot ℎ𝑥 = −csc ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
ii) cos ℎ𝑥 = sin ℎ𝑥 v) sec ℎ𝑥 = −sec ℎ𝑥 tan ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
iii) tan ℎ𝑥 = sec ℎ2 𝑥 vi) csc ℎ𝑥 = −csc ℎ𝑥 cot ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 1 𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
Proof (i) sin ℎ𝑥 = ( ) = [𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ] = = cos ℎ𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 1 𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
(ii) cos ℎ𝑥 = ( ) = [𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ] = = sin ℎ𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 sin ℎ𝑥 [ sin ℎ𝑥] cos ℎ𝑥 − sin ℎ𝑥 cos ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(iii) tan ℎ𝑥 = (cos ℎ𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos ℎ2 𝑥.
cos ℎ𝑥 cos ℎ𝑥 − sin ℎ𝑥 sin ℎ𝑥 cos ℎ 2 𝑥 − sin ℎ 2 𝑥 1

cos ℎ 2 𝑥
= cos ℎ 2 𝑥
= cos ℎ 2 𝑥
= sec ℎ2 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 cos ℎ𝑥 [ cos ℎ𝑥] sin ℎ𝑥 − cos ℎ𝑥 sin ℎ𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(iv) ) cot ℎ𝑥 = (csin )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ℎ𝑥 sin ℎ2 𝑥.
sin ℎ𝑥 sin ℎ𝑥 − cos ℎ𝑥 cos ℎ𝑥 sin ℎ 2 𝑥 − cos ℎ 2 𝑥 −1

sin ℎ 2 𝑥
= sin ℎ 2 𝑥
= sin ℎ2 𝑥
= −csc ℎ2 𝑥 .
(v) & (vi) are similarly done. 
Example 2.4.5 Find the derivative of the following
a) sec ℎ√𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 − sec ℎ√𝑥 tan ℎ√𝑥

Solution sec ℎ√𝑥 = − sec ℎ√𝑥 tan ℎ√𝑥 √𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
b) 𝑒 csc 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
Solution 𝑒 csc 𝑥 = 𝑒 csc ℎ𝑥 csc ℎ𝑥 = 𝑒 csc ℎ𝑥 (− csc ℎ𝑥 cot ℎ𝑥) = − csc ℎ𝑥 cot ℎ𝑥 𝑒 csc ℎ𝑥 . 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
c) tan ℎ (ℓ𝑛 𝑥)
𝑑 𝑑 sec ℎ2 (ℓ𝑛 𝑥)
Solution tan ℎ (ℓ𝑛 𝑥) = sec ℎ2 (ℓ𝑛 𝑥) ℓ𝑛 𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2.4.3 The Inverse Hyperbolic Function

As you might expect, the hyperbolic functions have inverses, at least when their domains are
suitably restricted.
2.4.3.1 The Inverse Hyperbolic sine Function
sin ℎ𝑥 is strictly increasing on its domain (−∞, ∞) and range (−∞, ∞). (see figure 2.37 (a) ).
Hence sin ℎ𝑥 has inverse with the same domain and range. We denot the value of the inverse at
𝑥 by "sin ℎ−1 𝑥".
Definition 2.4.3 𝑦 = sin ℎ−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = sin ℎ𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑦 ∈
ℜ
𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1
Using Definition 2.4.3, and let 𝑥 = sin ℎ𝑦 = = .
2 2𝑒 𝑦
𝑒 2𝑦 − 1
⇒ 𝑥 = ⇒ 2𝑒 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑦 − 1 ⇒ (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − (2𝑥)𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0 which is a
2𝑒 𝑦
quadratic equation.
Our aim now is to write 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥. Using quadratic formula and the fact that 𝑒 𝑦 >
2𝑥 + √4𝑥 2 + 4
0, we have 𝑒 𝑦 = = 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1
2
Now by taking natural logarithms on both side
𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 )
But 𝑦 = sin ℎ−1 𝑥, so we have
(i)
−1 √𝑥 2
sin ℎ 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + + 1 ) forall 𝑥.
1
Theorem 2.4.2 The derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin ℎ−1 𝑥, for all 𝑥 ∈ ℜ 𝑖𝑠 √𝑥 2 + 1
Proof From (i) we have sin ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ) . so

𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑑
sin ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ) = ∙ (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
1 2𝑥 1 √𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥 1
= ∙ (1 + ) = ( ) = . 
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 2√𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1

a) sin ℎ−1 (−4𝑥 2 )

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Solution sin ℎ−1 (−4𝑥 2 ) = [− sin ℎ−1 (4𝑥 2 )] = − sin ℎ−1 (4𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑑 −8𝑥
= (4𝑥 2 ) = . 
√(4𝑥 2 )2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 √16𝑥 4 + 1
b) sin ℎ−1 (sin 𝑥)

𝑑 1 𝑑 cos 𝑥
Solution sin ℎ−1 (sin 𝑥) = √sin2 𝑥 + 1
sin 𝑥 = √sin2 𝑥 + 1
. 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
Theorem 2.4.3 The indefinite integral of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2
is sin ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶,
+1
for all constant 𝐶.
1
i.e ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = sin ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 ) + 𝐶.
+1
𝑑 1
Proof By Theorem 2.4.2 sin ℎ−1 𝑥 = √𝑥 2 + 1
. Then taking the
𝑑𝑥
1
∫ √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = sin ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 . for constant 𝐶. 
Example 2.4.7 For constants a & c, a> 0 , show that

1 𝑥
∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = sin ℎ−1 ( 𝑎 ) + 𝐶 .
1 1 1 1
Solution ∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 , using
𝑥 2 √(𝑥 ) + 1
√𝑎2 [( ) + 1 ] 𝑎
𝑎
𝑥 1
integration by substitution Let 𝑦 = 𝑎
⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
so, ∫ 𝑎
= ∫ 2 = sin ℎ−1 𝑦 + 𝐶 = sin ℎ (𝑎) + 𝐶. 
𝑥 2 √𝑦 +1
√( ) + 1
𝑎

10 1
a) ∫5 √𝑥 2 +1
𝑑𝑥
10 1
Solution ∫5 √𝑥 2 +1
𝑑𝑥 = sin ℎ−1 𝑥 | 10
5
= ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) | 10
5
10+√101
ℓ𝑛(10 + √102 + 1) − ℓ𝑛 (5 + √52 + 1) = ℓ𝑛 (10 + √101) − ℓ𝑛 (5 + √26) = ( 5 +√26
). 

1
b) ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
+ 2𝑥 + 10
1
1 1 1 𝑑𝑥
Solution ∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3
2𝑥 + 10 √(𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1) + 9 √(𝑥 + 1)2 + 32 2
√ (𝑥 + 1 ) + 1
3
𝑥+ 1 1
Using integration by substitution. Let 𝑢 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑜
3 3
1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑥+1
∫ 3
2
= ∫ √𝑢2 = sin ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶 = sin ℎ−1 ( ) + 𝐶
+ 1 3
√(𝑥 + 1) + 1
3
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 2
= ℓ𝑛 ( + √( ) + 1 ) +𝐶. 
3 3
1 𝑥
c) ∫0 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 4 + 1
Solution
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑥 , 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑈 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ √𝑥 4 + 1 𝑑𝑥 ∫ √(𝑥 2 )2 + 1 2
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑢 = 1
1 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢
so, ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 = sin ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶 | 10 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑢 + √𝑢2 + 1) | 10
√𝑥 4 +1 √𝑢2 + 1
= ℓ𝑛(1 + √12 + 1) − ℓ𝑛(0 + √02 + 1) = ℓ𝑛 (1 + √2) − ℓ𝑛 1 = ℓ𝑛(1 + √2) . 
2.4.3.2 The Inverse Hyperbolic cosine Function &
Definition 2.4.4 𝑦 = cos ℎ−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ ℜ
𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 2𝑦 + 1
Using Definition 2.4.4 , and let 𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑦 = =
2 2𝑒 𝑦
𝑒 2𝑦 + 1
⇒𝑥= ⇒ 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑦 + 1 ⇒ (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 + 1 = 0 which is a quadratic equation
2𝑒 𝑦
Now, using quadratic formula and the fact 𝑒 𝑦 > 0, we have
2𝑥 + √4𝑥2 − 4
𝑒𝑦 = = 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 )
2
But, 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ−1 𝑥 , so we have
(∗)
cos ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 > 1

Theorem 2.4.4 For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = cos ℎ−1 𝑥 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1
𝑑 1
i) cos ℎ−1 𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 1
and
𝑑𝑥
1 −1
ii) ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = cos ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1
− 1
Proof i) From (∗) we have cos ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑑 𝑑 1 𝑑
So, cos ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 ) = (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥
1 2𝑥 1 √𝑥 2 − 1 + 𝑥 1
= √𝑥 2
(1 + ) = ( ) = .
𝑥+ − 1 2√𝑥 2 −1 𝑥+ √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑 1
ii) Since cos ℎ−1 𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 1
. Taking the integral of both sides
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑
∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 cos ℎ−1 𝑥 = cos ℎ−1 𝑥 + C, for constant C. 
1
a) cos ℎ−1 √𝑥 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1

𝑑 1 𝑑 1 1 1
Solution cos ℎ−1 √𝑥 = √𝑥 = ∙ = . 
𝑑𝑥
√(√𝑥) − 1
2 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 − 1 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2 − 𝑥
b) cos ( cos ℎ−1 𝑥 2 )

𝑑 𝑑
Solution cos ( cos ℎ−1 𝑥 2 ) = − sin ( cos ℎ−1 𝑥 2 ) cos ℎ−1 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑 −2x sin (cos ℎ−1 𝑥 2 )

= − sin ( cos ℎ−1 𝑥 2 ) 𝑥2 = . 
√(𝑥 2 )2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 4 − 1
Example 2.4.10 For two constants 𝑎 & 𝑐 , 𝑎 > 0 , show that

1 𝑥
∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥 = cos ℎ−1 ( ) + 𝐶 . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 1
𝑎2 𝑎
𝑥
1 1 1⁄ 𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 =
𝑎 𝑎
Solution ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ , 1
− 𝑎2 2
√(𝑥) − √(𝑥)
2
⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 1 − 1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑥
so, ∫ 𝑎
= ∫ √𝑢2 = cos ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶 = cos ℎ−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶. 
𝑥 2 − 1
√( ) − 1
𝑎


1
a) ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 .
−100
1 1
Solution ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑥 2 , for 𝑎 = 10 , using Example 2.4.10
−100 −102
1 𝑥
We have ∫ √𝑥 2 −102 𝑑𝑥 = cos ℎ−1 (10) + 𝐶 . 
1
b) ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥.
+ 4𝑥 + 3
1 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution ∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑥 2 = ∫ = cos ℎ−1 (𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶 . 
4𝑥 + 3 + 4𝑥 + 4− 1 √(𝑥 + 2)2 − 1
2.4.3.3 The Inverse Hyperbolic Tangent Function.
The tan ℎ𝑥 is 1 − 1 on its domain (−∞, ∞) and range (−1, 1) (see figure 2.38 (a)). The
inverse hyperbolic tangent function " tan ℎ−1 𝑥 " has domain (−1, 1) and range (−∞, ∞)
Definition 2.4.4 𝑦 = tan ℎ−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = tan ℎ𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ (−1, 1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ ℜ
1 1+ 𝑥
Example 2.4.12 Show that tan ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (−1, 1).
2
Solution Let 𝑦 = tan ℎ𝑥 , then finding the inverse
𝑒 2𝑥 −1
𝑦 = tan ℎ𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑦(𝑒 2𝑥 + 1) = 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑦𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
𝑦 +1
⇒ 𝑦 + 1 = 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑦𝑒 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 + 1 = (1 − 𝑦)𝑒 2𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑒 2𝑥
1 −𝑦
1 1⁄
1+𝑦 1 +𝑦 2 1+ 𝑦 2
⇒ = (𝑒 𝑥 )2 ⇒ ( 1 − 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( 1 − 𝑦) ⇒ 𝑥 =
1−𝑦
1 1+𝑦 1 1+ 𝑥
ℓ𝑛 ( ) , 𝑠𝑜 𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 ( 1 − 𝑥) . is the inverse of tan ℎ𝑥
2 1−𝑦 2
1 1 + 𝑥
∴ tan ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( )
2 1 − 𝑥
Theorem 2.4.5 For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = tan ℎ−1 𝑥 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (−1 , 1)
𝑑 1
i) tan ℎ−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS
1 II Dawit Solomon
−1 Page 66
ii) ∫ 1 − 𝑑𝑥 = tan ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶. For constant C.
𝑥2
Proof i) Using example 2.4.12
𝑑 𝑑 1 1+ 𝑥 1 1 𝑑 1+ 𝑥
tan ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (1 − 𝑥) = [1+ 𝑥 ∙ (1 − 𝑥) ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥
1− 𝑥
1 1− 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 − (−1) (1 + 𝑥) 1 1− 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 ) + 1 + 𝑥
= [1 + ∙( )] = [1 + ∙ ( )]
2 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)2 2 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)2
1 2 1
= [(1 + ] = . 
2 𝑥) (1 − 𝑥) 1 − 𝑥2
𝑑 1
ii) Since tan ℎ−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
1 𝑑
⇒ ∫1− 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 tan ℎ−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 . 
𝑥2
Example 2.4.13 Find the derivative of the following .
a) tan ℎ−1 (2𝑥 + 1).

1 1 + (2𝑥 + 1) 1 2 + 2𝑥
Solution tan ℎ−1 (2𝑥 + 1) = ℓ𝑛 (1 − ) = ℓ𝑛 ( ).
2 (2𝑥 + 1) 2 −2 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 2 + 2𝑥 1 −2𝑥 𝑑 2+2𝑥
so, tan ℎ−1 (2𝑥 + 1) = ℓ𝑛 ( ) = ( ( −2𝑥 ))
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2 2 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 −2𝑥 −𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 1 −𝑥 1 −1
= (2 + ∙ ( )) = (1 + 𝑥) (𝑥 2 ) = .
2 2𝑥 𝑥2 2 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 2 −1
or by Theorem 2.4.5 (i) tan ℎ−1 (2𝑥 + 1) = (2𝑥 + 1) = = . 
𝑑𝑥 1 − (2𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
b) tan ℎ−1 (√𝑥).
1 1 + √𝑥
Solution tan ℎ−1 (√𝑥) = ℓ𝑛 (1 − )
2 √𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 1 + √𝑥 1 𝑑 1 + √𝑥
tan ℎ−1 (√𝑥) = [ 2 ℓ𝑛 (1 − ) ] =2 ℓ𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 − √𝑥
1 1 − √𝑥 𝑑 1 + √𝑥
= (1+ (1− ))
2 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥
1 1
1 1 − √𝑥 (1 – √𝑥) − (1 + √𝑥) (− )
2√𝑥 2√𝑥
= [1+ 𝑥 ∙ 2 ]
2 √ (1 – √𝑥)
1 1 − √𝑥 1 1 – √𝑥 + 1 + √𝑥
= [1+ ∙ ( 2 )]
2 √𝑥 2√𝑥 (1 – √𝑥)

1 1 1 2 1 1
= [1+ ∙ ∙ ] = ((1 + )
2 √𝑥 2√𝑥 1− √𝑥 2√𝑥 √𝑥) (1− √𝑥)
1 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
= . or by Theorem 2.4.5 (ii) tan ℎ−1 √𝑥 = 2 √𝑥 = . 
2√𝑥 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 1− (√𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)
Example 2.4.14 For two constants & 𝑐, 𝑎 > 0 , show that

1 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = tan ℎ−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶.
− 𝑥2 𝑎
1 1 𝑥 1
Solution ∫ 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑎2 ( 1 − ( ) ) 𝑎
𝑎
1
1 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑢 1
∫ 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 = ∫1− = tan ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶
𝑎2 (1−( ) ) 𝑎 1 − ( 𝑥 )2 𝑎 𝑢2 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
1 𝑥
= tan ℎ−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶 . 
𝑎

1
a) ∫ 25 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution By using Example 2.4.14 and 𝑎 = 5 , 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

1 1 1 1 𝑥
∫ 25 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 52 − 𝑥2 = ∫ 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = tan ℎ−1 (5) + 𝐶 .
52 (1 − ( ) ) 5
5
4
b) ∫ 10𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
4 4 4
Solution ∫ 10𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 25 − 25 + 10𝑥 − 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 = 25 – (25 −10𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑥− 5
4 4 4
1
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 5
= ∫ 52 − (𝑥−5)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥− 5 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 5
𝑥− 5 2
, 1
52 (1 – ( 5
5
) ) 1–(
5
) ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
5
4 𝑑𝑢 4 4 𝑥− 5
= ∫ 1− 𝑢2 = t𝑎𝑛 ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶 = t𝑎𝑛 ℎ−1 ( ) + 𝐶. 
5 5 5 5
2.4.3.4 The Inverse Hyperbolic cotangent Function.
The cot h 𝑥 is 1 − 1 on (0, ∞) (see figure 2.38 b). The inverse hyperbolic cotangent function
"cot ℎ−1 𝑥" has domain (1, ∞) and range (0, ∞).
Definition 2.4.6 𝑦 = cot ℎ−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = cot ℎ𝑦 for all 𝑥 ∈ (1, ∞)
and 𝑦 ∈ (0, ∞).

1 𝑥+1
Example 2.4.16 Show that 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ (1, ∞)
2
Solution Let 𝑦 = cot ℎ𝑥 , then find the inverse as follow.
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
𝑦 = cot ℎ𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑦 (𝑒 2𝑥 − 1) = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑦𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 + 1
𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
1
2𝑥 2𝑥 𝑦+1 𝑥 𝑦+1 2
⇒ (𝑦 − 1)𝑒 = 𝑦+1 ⇒ 𝑒 = ⇒ 𝑒 = ( 𝑦−1)
𝑦−1
1
𝑦+1 2 1 𝑦+1
⇒ 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( 𝑦−1) ⇒ 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( 𝑦−1) , then by interchanging x & y
2
1 𝑥+1
𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 ( 𝑥−1) is the inverse of cot ℎ𝑥. so
2
1 𝑥 + 1
cot ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( 𝑥 − 1 )
2
Theorem 2.4.6 For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = cot ℎ−1 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ (1, ∞)

𝑑 −1 1
i) cot ℎ−1 𝑥 = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2− 1 1 − 𝑥2
−1 1 1
ii) ∫ 𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = cot ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 1 − 𝑥2
Example 2.4.17 Find the derivative of the following.
a) cot ℎ−1 √𝑥.
Solution Using Theorem 2.4.6 (i)

𝑑 −1 𝑑 −1 1 1
cot ℎ−1 √𝑥 = 2 √𝑥 = ∙ = . 
𝑑𝑥 (√𝑥) − 1 𝑑𝑥 x− 1 2√x 2√x(1 − x)
b) cot ℎ−1 (𝑥 2 + 1).
Solution Using Theorem 2.4.6 (i)

𝑑 −1 𝑑 −2x −2x
cot ℎ−1 (𝑥 2 + 1) = (𝑥 2 + 1)2 − 1 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 1) = (x4 +2x2 + 1)− 1
= . 
𝑑𝑥 x4 + 2x2


−1
a) ∫ 𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0
𝑎2
𝑥
−1 −1 1
−1
𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑎
Solution ∫ 𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎
𝑥 2
, 1
𝑎2 𝑎
𝑎2 (( ) − 1)
𝑎
(( ) − 1)
𝑎
𝑎
−1
1 𝑑𝑥 1 −𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑥
𝑎
2 = ∫ 𝑢2 −1 = cot ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶 = cot ℎ−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶. 
𝑎 (( ) − 1) 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
1
b) ∫ 3 + 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 −𝑥 2
1 1 −1
Solution ∫3+ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 −𝑥2 −(𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1− 4
−1 −1 1 𝑥− 1
= ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥− 1 2
𝑑𝑥 = cot ℎ−1 ( ) + 𝐶. 
1)2 − 22 22 (( ) − 1) 2 2
2
2.4.3.5 The Inverse Hyperbolic Secant Function.
Definition 2.4.7 𝑦 = sec ℎ−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = sec ℎ𝑦 for all 𝑥 ∈ (0, 1] and 𝑦 = [0, ∞).
1 + √1 − 𝑥 2
Example 2.4.19 Show that 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (0, 1].
𝑥
Solution Let 𝑦 = sec ℎ𝑥 , then we will find the inverse as follows.

1 2𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 = sec ℎ𝑥 = = ⇒ 𝑦 (𝑒 2𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑒 𝑥
2
𝑦𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦𝑒 2𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑦
Which is a quadratic equation, Then using quadratic formula
2 −2 2 2 4 − 4𝑦2
+ √( ) −4 + √ 1 √1 − 𝑦 2 1 + √1 − 𝑦 2
𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦2
𝑒 = = = + =
2 2 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
1 + √1 − 𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑒𝑥 = , interchanging x & y
𝑦
1 + √1 − 𝑥 2 1 + √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑒𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 ( )
𝑥 𝑥

1 + √1 − 𝑥 2
∴ sec ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (0, 1]
𝑥
Theorem 2.4.7 For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = sec ℎ−1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ (0, 1]

𝑑 −1
i) sec ℎ−1 𝑥 = and
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
−1 −1
ii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sec ℎ 𝑥 + 𝐶 , 𝐶 - constant.
𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑑 1 + √1−𝑥 2
Proof i) sec ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (0, 1]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
−𝑥2
− (1+√1 − 𝑥2 )
𝑥 𝑑 1 + √1 − 𝑥2 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥2
= ( ) = [ ]
1+ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 + √1 − 𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑥 −𝑥 2 − √1 − 𝑥 2 − (1 − 𝑥 2 )
= [ ]
1 +√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥2
𝑥 −𝑥 2 − √1 − 𝑥 2 − 1 + 𝑥2 𝑥 1 + √1 − 𝑥2
= [ ] = ∙ −( )
1 +√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 1 + √1 − 𝑥2 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
−1
= . 
𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 −1 −1
ii) Since sec ℎ−1 𝑥 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sec ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. 
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√1 − 𝑥2 𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2
a) sec ℎ−1 (2𝑥 + 1)

𝑑 −1 𝑑
Solution sec ℎ−1 (2𝑥 + 1) = (2𝑥 + 1) by Theorem 2.4.7 i.
𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥+1)√1 −(2𝑥+1)2 𝑑𝑥
−2
= . 
(2𝑥+1)√1 −(2𝑥+1)2
b) sec ℎ−1 √𝑥
𝑑 −1 𝑑
Solution sec ℎ−1 √𝑥 = √𝑥 by Theorem 2.4.7. i
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 √1 − (√𝑥)
−1 1 −1
= ∙ = . 
√𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2√𝑥 2𝑥√1 − 𝑥


−1
a) ∫ 𝑥 √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0.
−1 −1
Solution ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2
𝑥 2 𝑎𝑥 √1 − ( )
𝑥 √𝑎2 (1 − ( ) ) 𝑎
𝑎
𝑥
−1 −1
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1
𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 √ 1 − ( ) √1− ( )
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
1 − 𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑥
= ∫ = sec ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶 = sec ℎ−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶. 
𝑎 𝑢 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎
−1
b) ∫ √25 2 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 −𝑥
−1 −1 1 𝑥
Solution ∫ 𝑥 √25 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 √52 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = sec ℎ−1 (5) + 𝐶. 
5
2.4.3.6 The Inverse Hyperbolic cosecant Function.
The csc h 𝑥 is 1-1 on (0, ∞). (see figure 2.38d). so it has an inverse. The inverse hyperbolic
cosecant function "csc ℎ−1 𝑥" has domain (0, ∞) and range (0, ∞) .
Definition 2.4.8 𝑦 = csc ℎ−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = csc h 𝑦 for 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞) and 𝑦 ∈ (0, ∞).
1 + √1 + 𝑥 2
Example 2.4.22 Show that csc ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞).
𝑥
Solution Let = csc ℎ𝑥 , then we will find the inverse as follow.

1 2 2𝑒 𝑥 2𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 = csc ℎ𝑥 = = = ⇒ 𝑦 =
sin ℎ𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 −1 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
2
⇒ 𝑦(𝑒 2𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ (𝑒 𝑥 )2 − 𝑒 𝑥 − 1 = 0 , which is a quadratic equation.
𝑦
using quadratic formula.
2 4
+ √𝑦2 + 4
𝑦 1 1 + 𝑦2 1 + √1 + 𝑦 2
𝑒𝑥 = = + √ =
2 𝑦 𝑦2 𝑦
1 + √1+ 𝑦 2 1 + √1+ 𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( ) , interchanging x & y, we have 𝑦 = ℓ𝑛 ( )
𝑦 𝑥

1 + √1+ 𝑥 2
∴ csc ℎ−1 𝑥 = ℓ𝑛 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞)
𝑥
Theorem 2.4.8 For a function 𝑓(𝑥) = csc ℎ−1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞)

𝑑 −1
iii) csc ℎ−1 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1+ 𝑥 2
−1
iv) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = csc ℎ−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 constant - 𝐶
𝑥 √1+ 𝑥 2
Example 2.4.23 Find the derivative of the following.
a) csc ℎ−1 √𝑥.
Solution Using Theorem 2.4.8.(i) we have

𝑑 −1 𝑑 −1 1 −1
csc ℎ−1 √𝑥 = √𝑥 = ∙ = . 
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2 √𝑥 2𝑥 √1 + 𝑥
√𝑥 √1 + (√𝑥)
−1 𝑥
b) 𝑒 csc ℎ .
Solution Using Theorem 2.4.8 (i) we have

−1 𝑥
𝑑 −1 𝑥 −1 𝑥 𝑑 −𝑒 csc ℎ
𝑒 csc ℎ = 𝑒 csc ℎ csc ℎ−1 𝑥 = . 
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2

−1
a) ∫ √𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 0
𝑥 + 𝑥2
−1 −1 −1
Solution ∫ 𝑥 √𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥 2
𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑥√1 + ( )
𝑥 √𝑎2 (1 + ( ) ) 𝑎
𝑎
𝑥
−1 1 −
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 , 1
𝑎
𝑥
𝑎2 ( ) √(1 +
𝑥 2
( ) )
𝑥
( ) √(1 +
𝑥 2
( ) )
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎
1 − 𝑑𝑢 1 1 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑢 √1 + 𝑢2 = csc ℎ−1 𝑢 + 𝐶 = csc ℎ−1 (𝑎) + 𝐶. 
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
−1
b) ∫ √16 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 + 𝑥2
−1 −1 1 𝑥
Solution ∫ 𝑥 √16 + 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √42 𝑑𝑥 = csc ℎ−1 (4) + 𝐶. 
𝑥2 𝑥 + 𝑥2 4

2.4.4 Review Exercise

1. Find the numerical value of the expression.
a) cot ℎ (−1) c) cot ℎ (ℓ𝑛 4) e) sin ℎ (ℓ𝑛 𝑥)
b) sin ℎ (ℓ𝑛 3) d) sec ℎ (ℓ𝑛 √2) f) tan ℎ (ℓ𝑛 𝑥)
2. Differentiate the following functions.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin ℎ2 √1 − 𝑥 2 c) tan(sec ℎ−1 𝑥 2 )
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos ℎ (arctan 𝑒 2𝑥 ) d) sin(cot ℎ−1 (3𝑥))
3. Find the following integrals.

10 1
a) ∫ sec ℎ2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫2
1
𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ √9 2 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 + 1 +𝑥
𝑥 1
d) ∫ √𝑥 2
1
𝑑𝑥 e) ∫ 1 − 𝑥4 𝑑𝑥 f) ∫ √1 4 𝑑𝑥
+ 4𝑥 − 21 𝑥 +𝑥
4. Prove that
i) 𝑒 𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑥 + sin ℎ𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥.
ii) 𝑒 −𝑥 = cos ℎ𝑥 − sin ℎ𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥.
5. Prove that
i) (cos ℎ𝑥 + sin ℎ𝑥)𝑛 = cos ℎ 𝑛𝑥 + sin ℎ 𝑛𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥.
ii) (cos ℎ𝑥 − sin ℎ𝑥)𝑛 = cos ℎ 𝑛𝑥 − sin ℎ 𝑛𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥.
2.5 L’Hopital’s Rule

Introduction
L’Hopital: Pronounced “Lo-pi-tal”.
L’Hoputal’s Rule should actually be called “Bernoulli’s Rule,” because it appears in

correspondence from Johann Bernoulli to L’Hopital. But L’Hopital and Bernoulli had made an
agreement under which L’Hopital paid Bernoulli a monthly fee for solutions to certain problems,
with the understanding that Bernoulli would tell no one of the arrangement. As a result the rule
described appeared publically in L’Hopital’s 1696 treatise. It was only recently discovered that
the rule, its proof, and relevant examples all appeared in a 1694 latter from Bernoulli to
L’Hopital.

From the quotient Theorem for limits we know that
lim f x 
f x  x a
lim 
x  a g x  lim g x 
x a
Provided that the limits on the right side exist and lim g x   0. However, there are many
x a
𝑓
examples of quotient functions ⁄𝑔 that have limits at “a” even though lim g x   0. Perhaps the
x a
𝑥 sin 𝑥
simplest examples of such a function are 𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥
, with 𝑎 = 0 .
x sin x
lim  1 and lim 1
x 0 x x 0 x
Nevertheless, except for canceling factors where possible, we have thus far no systematic
method for evaluating limits of quotients in which the denominator approaches 0. In this section
we will describe such a method.
2.5.1 The Indeterminate Form %.
Definition 2.5.1 If lim f x   0  lim g x  , then we say that f x  has the

lim
x  a x  a x  a
g x 
indeterminate form %. The same notation applies if lim is replaced by
x  a
lim , lim , lim or lim .

x c x  x 
x  a
cos x ex  x 1
Example 2.5.1 a) lim b) lim
 sin x  1 x 0 x2
x 
2
These are indeterminate form %.
Recall (Generalized mean value Theorem)

Let 𝑓 & 𝑔 be continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏). If 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 for
𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏, then there is a number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓′ (𝑐)
=
𝑔(𝑏)− 𝑔(𝑎) 𝑔′ (𝑐)

Our first version of L’Hopital’s Rule concerns limits of the indeterminate form ∞
∞
.
Theorem
Our 2.5.1 of(L’Hopital’s
first version Rule
L’Hopital’s Rule First Version)
concerns Limits of the indeterminate form %.
Let 𝐿 be a real number or ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
a) Suppose 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏. If
f ' x 
lim f x   0  lim g x  and lim  L , then
x  a x  a x  a
g ' x 
f x  f ' x 
lim  L  lim
x  a
g x  x  a
g ' x 
An analogous result holds if lim is replaced by lim or lim , where “𝐶 ” is
x c
x  a x  b
any number in (𝑎, 𝑏). (In the latter case 𝑓 & 𝑔 need not be differentiable at 𝐶).
b) Suppose 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable on (𝑎, ∞) and 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑎. If
f ' x  f x  f ' x 
lim f x   0  lim g x  and lim  L , then lim  L  lim
x  x  x  g ' x  x   g x  x   g ' x 
An analogous result holds if lim is replaced by lim .

x  x 
Proof We establish the formula involving the right-hand limits in (a). Define 𝐹 & 𝐺 on
(𝑎, 𝑏). by
𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏

𝐹(𝑥) = { 𝐺(𝑥) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎
Then lim F x   lim f x   0  F a .

x  a x  a
So that 𝐹 is continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏). The same is true of 𝐺. Moreover, 𝐹 & 𝐺 are differentiable
on (𝑎, 𝑏) , since they agree with 𝑓 and 𝑔, respectively, on (𝑎, 𝑏). consequently if 𝑥 is any
number in (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝐹 & 𝐺 are continuous on [𝑎, 𝑥] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑥). By the
Generalized mean value Theorem, this means that there is a number 𝑐(𝑥) in (𝑎, 𝑥) such that
𝐹(𝑥) 𝐹(𝑥) − 𝐹(𝑎) 𝐹 ′ (𝑐(𝑥))

= =
𝐺 (𝑥) 𝐺(𝑥) − 𝐺(𝑎) 𝐺 ′ (𝑐(𝑥))
Because 𝐹 = 𝑓 and 𝐺 = 𝑔 on (𝑎, 𝑏), this means that

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑐(𝑥))
=
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔′ (𝑐(𝑥))
Since < 𝑐(𝑥) < 𝑥 , we know that lim cx   a so we can use the substitution with 𝑦 = 𝑐(𝑥)
x  a
f x  f ' cx  f ' y f ' x 

to lim  lim  lim  lim  L
x  a
g x  x a  g ' c  x  y a  g '  y  x  a
g ' x 
This proves the equation involving right-hand limits in (𝑎). The results involving left-hand and
two-sides limits are proved an alogously. Part (𝑏) left as an exercise. 
Example 2.5.2 Evaluate the following limits.
x2  4
a) lim .
x 2 x2
Solution lim
x 2
x 2

 4  0  lim
x 2
x  2.
x2  4 0
Thus, lim . has indeterminate form 0. Then by Theorem 2.5.1 (a) of L’Hopital’s rules,
x 2 x2
we have lim
x2  4
 lim
x 4 '
2

 lim
2x
 4. 
x 2 x2 x 2 x  2 ' x 2 1
cos x
b) lim
 sin x  1
x 
2
Solution lim cos x  0  lim sin x  1

 
x  x 
2 2
cos x 0
Thus, lim has indeterminate form 0 . Thus by Thorem 2.5.1 (a) of L’Hopital’s
 sin x  1
x 
2
rules, we have lim

cos x
 lim
cos x '  lim  sin x   lim tan x    . 

sin x  1 
sin x  1' 
cos x 
x  x  x  x 
2 2 2 2

1  cos 2 x
c) lim .
x  0 1  cos 3 x
Solution lim 1  cos 2 x   0  lim 1  cos 3x  .

x 0 x 0
1  cos 2 x 0
Thus, lim has indeterminate form . Thus y Theorem 2.5.1 (a) of L’Hopital’s rule,
x  0 1  cos 3 x 0
we have lim
1  cos 2 x
 lim
1  cos 2 x '  lim 2 sin 2 x  2 lim sin 2 x
x  0 1  cos 3x x  0 1  cos 3 x ' x  0 3 sin 3x 3 x  0 sin 3x
0
Again lim sin 2 x  0  lim sin 3x . If has indeterminate form . so by applying Theorem 2.5.1
x 0 x 0 0
(a) again,
2
lim
sin 2 x 2
 lim
sin 2 x '  2 lim 2 sin 2 x  2  2  4 . 
3 x  0 sin 3x 3 x  0 sin 3x ' 3 x  0 3 sin 3x 3 3 9
  arc tan x
d) lim 2 .
x  1
x
   1
Solution Since lim arc tan x  , we deduce that lim   arc tan x   0  lim
x  2 x 
2  x  x

2  arc tan x 0
Therefore lim has indeterminate form . By (a) of Theorem 2.5.1
x  1 0
x
1
lim

2  arc tan x
 lim
2  arc tan x '
 lim
1  x  2
 lim
x2
1 
x  1
x
x   1 x ' x  1
x2
x  1 x2
ex  x 1
e) lim
x 0 x2
ex  x 1
Solution Since lim e x  x  1  0  lim x 2 , so lim has an indeterminate
x 0 x 0 x 0 x2
0
form . Then by Theorem 2.5.1 (a) of L’Hopitals’s rule
0
ex  x 1

ex  x 1 '

ex 1 
lim
x 0 x2
lim
x 0 x2 '
lim
x 0 2x  

provided that the latter limit exists. However lim e x  1  0  lim 2 x

x 0 x 0
ex 1 0
so, it is again lim has indeterminate form , Apply Theorem 2.5.1 (a) again,
x 0 2x 0
then lim
ex 1
 lim
e x  1'
 lim
ex 1
 . 
x 0 2x x  0 2 x ' x  0 2 2
∞
2.5.2 The Indeterminate Form
∞
Definition 2.5.2 Suppose that lim f x    or   and that lim g x    or   .

x  a x  a
f x  ∞
Then we say that lim has the indeterminate form . The same
x  a
g x  ∞
notion applies of lim is replaced by lim , lim , lim or lim .

x  c x  x  
x  a x  b
Our second version or L’Hopital’s Rule Involves limits with indeterminate form ∞⁄∞. We give
it now, without proof.
Theorem 2.5.2 (L’Hopital’s Rule second version)
Let “L” be a real number or ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞
a) Suppose 𝑓 & 𝑔 are differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏. If
f ' x 
lim f x    or   , lim g x    or   and lim L
x  a x  a x  a
g ' x 
f x  f ' x 
then lim  L  lim
x  a
g x  x  a
g ' x 
An analogous result holds if lim is replaced by lim or by lim , where “𝑐”

x  c
x  a x  b
is any number (𝑎, 𝑏). (In the latter case, neither 𝑓 nor 𝑔 will be differentiable at
“𝑐”).
b) Suppose 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable on (𝑎, ∞) and 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑎. If

f ' x 
lim f x    or   , lim g x    or   and lim L
x  x  x   g ' x 
f x  f ' x 
then lim  L  lim .
Applied Mathematics II/  g  x  II
x CALCULUS ' x  Solomon
Dawit
x  g Page 79
An analogous result holds if lim is replaced by lim

x  x  
1
a) lim x
1
x  0 e x2
1 1
   lim e x . It follows from Theorem 2.5.2(a) that
2
Solution lim
x  0
x x  0
1
x 
1 x  '  lim
1
x 2

xe

1
x2

0.0
 0. 
 
lim lim lim
x  0
1
x2 x  0  1
 x  0
1
x2 2 x  0
2 2
e e x2
' e
x3
 
tan x
b) lim

sec x  1
x 
2
Solution lim tan x    lim sec x  1 . It follows form Theorem 2.5.2(a) that
 
x  x 
2 2
lim
tan x
 lim
tan x '  lim sec 2 x  lim
sec x

sec x  1 
sec x  1' 
sec x tan x 
tan x
x  x x  x 
2 2 2 2
1 cos x 1
= lim ,  lim  1. 

cos x sin x 
sin x
x  x 
2 2
ex
c) lim
x  x2
Solution Since lim e x    lim x 2 . It follows form Theorem 2.5.2 (b) that
x  x 
ex

e ' x
 lim
ex
lim
x  x2
lim
x  x ' 2 x  2x
.
Again since lim e x    lim 2 x , we apply Theorem 2.5.2(b) then

x  x 
ex ex
lim 2  lim 2  lim
ex

ex
 .
  '

x  x x  x x   x2 '
lim
x  2  
Note 1. The L’Hopitals’s Rule can be used repeatedly until the indeterminate form
0 ∞
" 0 " 𝑜𝑟 " ∞ " vanish.
ex
2 In a similar way of Example 2.5.3(c) you can show that lim   for any
x   xn
positive integer “𝑛”. We sometimes express this by saying that as 𝑥

approaches ∞, 𝑒 𝑥 goes to infinity faster than any power of 𝑥. .
2.5.3 Other Indeterminate Forms.
Definition 2.5.2 Indeterminate forms such as 0. ∞, 00 , 1∞ , ∞0 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∞ − ∞, can usually be

converted into the indeterminate form 0⁄0 𝑜𝑟 ∞⁄∞ and then evaluated by
one of the version of L’Hopital’s Rule given in Theorem 2.5.1 and 2.5.2.
a) lim x n x
x  0
Solution Since lim x  0 and lim n x    . The given limit is of the form 0. ∞
x  0 x  0
(more precisely 0. (−∞) ). However, we can transform it in to the indeterminate form

∞⁄ by rewriting it as
∞
n x
lim
x  0
1
x
1 −∞ ∞
Because lim n x    and lim   , so it is ∞
which is ∞
form.
x  0 x  0
x
By Theorem 2.5.2(a) we conclude that
n x

n x '  lim
1
x  lim  x   0
lim
x  0
1
x
lim
x  0  
1 '
x x  0
1
x 2 x  0
so, that lim x n x  0. 

x  0

b) lim x x .
x  0
Solution The limit evidently has the indeterminate form 00 .
𝑥
Note 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒 ℓ𝑛 𝑥 = ex ℓ𝑛 𝑥
so lim x x  lim e x n x
x  0 x  0
Since the exponential function is continuous, it follow that
lim e x n x
x n x x  0
lim x x
 lim e e  e 0  1 by Example 2.5.4(a). 
x  0 x  0
x
 1
c) Show that lim 1   e
x 
 x
Solution As in Example 2.5.4 (b)

x  1
x  1 x n  1  
 1 n  1    x
lim e
lim 1    lim e  x
e x 
x 
 x x 
 1
n1  
 1  x 0
But lim x n 1    lim . It is indeterminate form .
0
x 
 x x   1
x
 1
Since, lim n 1    0  lim 1 . So using Theorem 2.5.1 (b)
x 
 x x  x
'
 1   1   1   1
n 1   n 1  x  1    2 
 x  
lim   lim 
x  x  1 1
  lim  1
lim
x  1
x
x  1
x
'
  x  1 2
x
x 
1
1 1 0
x
 1
x x n  1  
 1  x
lim e
Therefore, lim 1    e x 
 e1  e. 
x 
 x

d) lim csc x  cot x 

x  0
Solution lim csc x  cot x   lim csc x  lim cot x    

x  0 x  0 x  0
So, lim csc x  cot x  is    form, we have to convert in any of

0
0
𝑜𝑟
∞
∞
form. as
x  0
 1 cos x  1  cos x
lim csc x  cot x   lim     lim
x  0 
x  0
sin x sin x  x  0 sin x
lim 1  cos x   0  lim sin x , Thus by Theorem 2.5.1 (a)

0
Which is indeterminate form , since
0
x  0 x  0
lim csc x  cot x   lim

1  cos x
 lim
1  cos x '  lim sin x  0  0 . 
x  0 x  0
sin x x  0
sin x ' x  0 cos x 1
2.5.4 Review Exercises

Use the two versions of L’Hopital’s Rule to find the following limits.
x16  a16 6. lim

x 1 x  1 x
1. lim 11. lim
x a xa x  n x x 0 x
cos x 1 n 1  x  sin x
2. lim 7. lim 12. lim
x 0 x x  n x x  0 e x
1
sin 8 x 1  cos x
3. lim 8. lim
x 0 sin x
x  0 sin 5 x
tan 4 x
1
1
x x
9. lim
4. lim 
tan 2 x
x  1 x 
x 2
tan x 1  cos 2 x
5. lim 10. lim
  sec x  1 1  cos 3x
x 0
x 
2

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Unity University; Department of Mathematics

1.1 functions and its Basic Ideas

2.1.1 What is a function?

Definition 2.1.1 Informal Definition of a function

A function is a rule that produces a correspondence between a first variable 𝑥 and a

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 1

If a variable 𝑦 is a function of a variable 𝑥, we call the variable denoted by 𝑥 the independent

Definition 2.1.2 Formal Definition of a function

(A) Domain Range (B) Domain Range (C) Domain Range

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 2

Solution a) For each real 𝑥, 𝑦 is defined and is real. Thus,

Domain = ℜ (set of real numbers)

Range = ℜ (set of real numbers)

b) For 𝑦 to be real, 𝑥 − 2 can not be negative; that is,

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 3

c) For y to be real, 𝑥 2 − 4 can not be negative; that is,

Thus, Domain = {𝑥 ∈ ℜ: 𝑥 ≤ 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 2 } 𝑜𝑟 (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞)

Range = ℜ (set of real numbers). 

Solution a) Solve the equation for 𝑦:

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 4

Therefore, this rule is not a function.

b) Solve the equation for 𝑦:

2.1.2 COMBINATION AND COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 2.1.3 For functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥),

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) – 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑔 = {(2, 4), (1, 1), (3, 0), (4, 6)}

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 5

𝑓 + 𝑔 = {(1, 1), (2, 5), (3, 4)}

𝑓 − 𝑔 = {(1, −1), (2, −3), (3, 4)}

𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 = {(1, 0), (2, 4), (3, 0)}

Domain of 𝑓 + 𝑔 = {1, 2, 3} = Domain of 𝑓 ∩ Domain of 𝑔.

Domain of 𝑓 − 𝑔 = {1, 2, 3} = Domain of 𝑓 ∩ Domain of 𝑔.

Domain of 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 = {1, 2, 3} = Domain of 𝑓 ∩ Domain of 𝑔.

Solution (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1) + (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥

(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 6

a) 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) b) 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) c) 𝑔(𝑓(2)) d) 𝑓(𝑔(2))

⇒ 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 1 ⇒ 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2 − 1 + 1 = 𝑥 2

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 7

Example 2.1.8 For 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4 and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 3𝑥 2 + 7; find 𝑓(𝑥).

Solution a) Draw a figure and lable the sides:

Half the perimeter = Length + width = 80

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 8

From Fig 2.4 , Domain : 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 80 𝑜𝑟 [0, 80]

c) Since, 𝐴(𝑥) = (80 – 𝑥) 𝑥 = −𝑥 2 + 80 is a quadratic function, the graph is a parabola that

d) From the graph, the largest value of 𝐴(𝑥) occurs at

2.1.3 Graph of a Function

The pictorial representation of a function is called a graph.

Example 2.1.10 Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4.

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 9

Example 2.1.11 Sketch the graph of the absolute value function:

Example 2.1.12 Sketch the graph of the distance function defined by

Symmetry is a form of balance. In mathematics we are interested in symmetry in graphs,

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 10

respect to the x-axis.

if = 𝑦 2 , then 𝑥 = (−𝑦)2 , but this is clear since

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 11

But, this is clear because

(x, y) Symmetry with respect to the origin

(-x, -y) Figure 2.13

Next we observe that (1, 1) is on the graph, but

Applied Mathematics II/ CALCULUS II Dawit Solomon Page 12

2.1.5 TYPES OF FUNCTION