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Underground Space 3 (2018) 310–316
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A coupled fluid FEM-DEM technique for predicting blasting

operations in tunnels
Francisco Zárate a,b,⇑, José M. Gonzalez a,b, Juan Miquel a,b, Rainald Löhner c
Eugenio Oñate a,b
a
Centre Internacional de Mètodes Numèrics en Enginyeria (CIMNE), Spain
b
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Gran Capitan s/n, Campus Nord, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
c
George Mason University, USA1

Received 15 September 2017; received in revised form 3 September 2018; accepted 16 September 2018
Available online 9 October 2018

Abstract

We present recent developments in the coupling of the finite element method (FEM) and the discrete element method (DEM) for the
analysis of rock blasting operations in tunnels. The coupled FEM-DEM technique has been proven to be an efficient procedure for pre-
dicting the multiple fractures of rock induced by the loads generated in blasting. The coupled FEM-DEM procedure is applied in tunnel
construction, as well as to gas pressure blasting pyrotechnics to break rocks for the excavation of the tunnel front. In the latter case, the
effect of gas explosion is modeled by solving the equations of gas dynamics in the analysis domain using FEM. The effect of gas forces in
the underlying rock mass is modeled via an embedded fluid-structure interaction method. The efficiency of the coupled FEM-DEM tech-
nique is demonstrated in several examples of fracture tests and rock blasting problems related to tunnel engineering. The examples pre-
sented indicate that the combination of the DEM with simple three-node linear triangular elements (for two-dimensional problems)
captures the onset of fractures and their evolution accurately, accounting for the penetration of gas in the failure domain (Zárate &
Oñate, 2015; Zárate, Cornejo, & Oñate, 2018).
Ó 2018 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Owner. This is an open access article
under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Discrete elements; Finite elements; Fracture mechanics; FEM-DEM; Gas dynamics

1 Introduction poses numerous challenges due to the difficulty of the

In this work we extend the simple FEM-DEM proce-
dure presented in Zárate, Cornejo, and Oñate (2018) and
Zárate and Oñate (2015), to analyze of blasting operation
in tunnel fronts that leads to multiple fractures and the
material disgregation of the rock model.
The computed prediction of fractures in a rock induced
by a blast load using the finite element method (FEM)
⇑ Corresponding author at: Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC),
Gran Capitan s/n, Campus Nord, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.
E-mail address: zarate@cimne.upc.edu (F. Zárate).
1 Zárate, Rojek, & Miquel, 2005; Oñate & Rojek, 2004;
Visitor Professor at (a).
FEM for computing the onset and propagation of multiple
cracks. The problem complexity increases if the effect of the
gas pressure acting within the cracks is considered (Labra,
Rojek, Oñate, & Zárate, 2008; Löhner, 2008).
The FEM-DEM procedure is based on an initial dis-
cretization of the analysis domain by a mesh of standard
finite elements (FE). The onset of fracture at a point is gov-
erned by a simple damage model. Once a crack is detected
at an element side in the FE mesh, discrete elements (DE)
are generated at the nodes that share the side. A DEM
approach is used to model the evolution of the crack in
the fractured solid (Labra et al., 2008; Oñate, Labra,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.undsp.2018.09.002
2467-9674/Ó 2018 Tongji University and Tongji University Press. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Owner.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 F. Zárate et al. / Underground Space 3 (2018) 310–316
Oñate et al., 2015). This optimizes the use of DE to zones
where they can be more effective, thus simplifying the con-
tact search process and reduces the overall computational
cost significantly. Applications of the FEM-DEM tech-
nique can be found in González, Oñate, and Zárate
(2018), Zárate et al. (2018), and Zárate and Oñate (2015).
In this study, we use two methods to simulate the
pressure-time behavior of an explosion: (a) The direct
application of the well known pulse function on the frac-
ture faces, and (b) Solution of the gas dynamic equations
within the fracture domain coupled to the solid mechanics
solution using an embedded mesh approach. Examples of
boths numerical procedures to rock blasting solutions are
given.
2 Basics of the implementation
2.1 FEM-DEM approach
We solve the solid domain using an implicit solution in
time using the dynamic equilibrium equations. In essence,
the adaptive FEM-DEM procedure starts with a discretiza-
tion of the analysis domain using a FE mesh only and oper-
ates as explained next.
1. At each time instant the stress level is verified at each
element. Linear triangles and tetrahedra imply comput-
ing the strains and stresses at the middle point of the ele-
ment sides. This strategy follows the idea of the
superconvergent patch recovery procedure
(Zienkiewicz & Zhu, 1992) and provides a better stress
field than the one obtained at the gauss points
(Cervera, Chiumenti, & Codina, 2011).
2. The threshold of failure (fracture) of each element is
evaluated. This can be performed via procedures based
on the point-wise value of the stresses (or the strains),
or using an adequate energy norm. In our work, the
rock exhibits has a linear elastic behavior limited by a
simple Rankine crack model with a linear damage rule
which has been used to define the onset of fracture at
the mid-point of the element sides (Cervera et al.,
2011). The element damage corresponds to the largest
value of the damage parameter at the different cut planes
existing in a triangle. The cut plane damage is evaluated
as the mean value of the damage parameter at the edges
involved in such cut plane as shown in Fig. 1 (a), were
two element sides are damaged.
3. A collection of DEs is introduced within the FEs that
has exceeded the failure threshold. In our work, this
occurs when the element damage reaches 95% of the
threshold value. At this moment, the continuum region
previously occupied by the damaged element is modeled
with a collection of DEs created at the element nodes,
and the damaged elements are removed (Fig. 1(b)).
The radius of the new DE is defined as the maximum
possible to avoid collisions with other DE. The mass
311
Fig. 1. (a) Two element sides damaged in a FE mesh. (b) Element removal
and DE creation (not in scale) at an element with two sides exceeding the
damage threshold.
of the system remains constant because 1/3 of the ele-
ment mass goes to each DE created at the element
nodes.
4. A two-stage time integration scheme is used to solve the
contact between the DE and the FE meshes. For the
DE, an explicit time integration scheme is used to record
the impulse between t and t þ Dt (Oñate, Labra, Zárate,
& Rojek, 2012; Rojek & Oñate, 2007). The impulse
found is used in the FE mesh to evaluate the displace-
ments, velocities, and accelerations, and similarly at
the DE at the same time period via an implicit time inte-
gration scheme. The introduction of additional DE
regions on the FE mesh evolves in time accordingly to
the evolution of the stress field in the domain. For blast
problems, the transition of the FE mesh to the DE
region occurs rapidly, as the fracture zone progresses
almost at the blast speed. The adaptive FEM-DEM pro-
cedure is effective in these cases as the time increment for
the explicit solution is very small and the delay in intro-
ducing DEs leads to considerable reduction in comput-
ing time (Oñate et al., 2012; Rojek & Oñate, 2007;
Zárate et al., 2018; Zárate & Oñate, 2015).
2.2 Simulation of the explosion via a pressure function
In order to characterize the effect of the explosion within
the fractured domain two different approaches have been
used. The simplest one corresponds to the classical
pressure-time function wide that is used widely in the liter-
ature (Cho & Kaneko, 2004; Cho, Ogata, & Kaneko, 2003;
Donzé, Bouchez, & Magnier, 1997); it expresses the pres-
sure as an exponential function of time where the parame-
ters used try to reproduce the characteristic print of the
more popular explosives.
The amplitude and the duration of the pressure wave
can be determined by the internal energy of the explosive
and the size and geometry of the borehole. The following
general form of a pulse function represents a large range
of borehole pressures (Cho & Kaneko, 2004),


P ¼ P 0 expðatÞ  expðbtÞ ð1Þ
where P is the pressure at time t; P 0 is the peak pressure,
and a and b are constants. The pressure-time curves for
the ratio a=b ¼ 2 used in this work are depicted in Fig. 2.
312 F. Zárate et al. / Underground Space 3 (2018) 310–316

Fig. 2. Effect of pressure loading rate. (a) 20 MPa/ls loading rate. (b) 1 MPa/ls loading rate. The graphs shows the two pressure curves used.
   
2.3 Solution of the compressible gas equations x R1 v x
p ¼A 1 e þB 1 eR2 v þ xqei ð7Þ
R1 v R2 v
The effect of the (compressible) gas within the fractures
is modeled by solving the Euler equations, given by where v denotes the relative volume of gas:

u;t þ $  F ¼ 0
T
u ¼ ½q; qvi ; qe

T
Fj ¼ qvj ; qvi vj þ pdij ; vj ðqe þ pÞ
where u; F; q; vi ; e; p denote, respectively, the vector of
unknowns, the flux vector, the density, the velocity, the
energy and the pressure. The Galerkin finite element dis-
cretization of the Eqs. (5) and (6), written in edge-based
form Luo, Baum, and Löhner (1994), yields a discrete set
of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) of the form:
u;tj ¼ C ij F ij
M ij ^
j ij ij
Here, M; ^ u ; C ; F denote the mass-matrix, the vector of
nodal unknowns, edge coefficients for fluxes, and edge
fluxes, respectively. The Galerkin edge-fluxes are replaced
by numerically consistent fluxes, typically given by approx-
imate Riemann solvers (van Leer, Roe, HLLC,. . .). Mono-
tonicity is imposed either by limiting the variables before
flux evaluation (van Leer, van Albada, minmod,. . .), or
after flux evaluation via flux-corrected transport (FCT)
techniques (Boris & Book, 1973; Kuzmin, Löhner, &
Turek, 2012; Rainald Löhner, Morgan, Peraire, &
Vahdati, 1987; Zalesak, 1979). The ODEs given by Eq.
(5) are integrated in time using explicit Runge-Kutta
schemes of higher order (typically 3,4), or via Taylor-
Galerkin techniques. The runs shown were conducted with
FEM-FCT techniques.
The pressure is obtained from various equations of
state. For the gas we have used, either the ideal gas equa-
tion of state, given by
 
1
p ¼ ðc  1Þq e  vj vj ð6Þ
2
or a table look-up p ¼ pðq; ei Þ, which may also be inter-
preted as a non-constant c.
The high explosive material (HEM) is modeled with the
Jones-Wilkins-Lee (JWL) equation of state (Kury et al.,
1965; Lee, Hornig, & Kury, 1968), given by:
ð2Þ V q
v¼ ¼ 0 ð8Þ
V0 q
ð3Þ
It is note worthy that the equivalent ideal gas value of c is
ð4Þ given by c ¼ 1 þ x. However, for many materials x is quite
far from cair ¼ 1:4. Therefore, a combination of EOS is
employed once the density of the HEM falls below a
threshold or switch value.
Afterburning is modelled by adding energy via a burn
coefficient k that is obtained from
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
k;t ¼ ap6 1  k ð9Þ
ð5Þ after updating k, the energy added is given by
qejnþ1 ¼ qejn þ qQðknþ1  kn Þ ð10Þ
where Q is the afterburn energy.
3 Coupled gas-solid solution via embedded mesh technique
At each timestep, the computational solid dynamics
(FEM-DEM) code transfers to the compressible gas flow
solver by the ‘‘wetted faces” of the (cracked) domain.
The flow solver detects the edges crossed by the wetted
faces and applies proper boundary conditions. A number
of embedded grids for solvers of this kind have been devel-
oped over the last two decades; see (Aftosmis, Berger, &
Adomavicius, 2000; Dadone & Grossman, 2002;
Landsberg & Boris, 1997; Löhner, 2008; Löhner et al.,
2004; Löhner, Baum, Mestreau, & Rice, 2007; Melton,
Berger, & Aftosmis, 1993; Mittal & Iaccarino, 2005;
Pember, Bell, Colella, Crutchfield, & Welcome, 1995) for
a detailed description.
4 Examples
Many examples in 2D and 3D have been performed in
order to verify the accuracy and robustness of the FEM-
DEM formulation for analysis of multifractures in solids,
all of them exhibiting excellent results (Zárate et al.,
 F. Zárate et al. / Underground Space 3 (2018) 310–316
2018; Zárate & Oñate, 2015). Herein some examples related
to rock blasting problems are present to demonstrate the
usefulness of the FEM-DEM procedure in this field.
4.1 Pressure loading rate effect
It is well known that the mechanical properties of rock
materials are affected by the strain rate. This effect presents
a significant influence in the rock fracture pattern. Higher
strain rates produce a crushed zone and short fractures,
while lower strain rates produce a small crushed zone
and fewer and longer radial fractures (Cho et al., 2003;
Donzé et al., 1997).
To verify these observations of the strain rate effect, two
different waveforms of the blast loading have been simu-
lated numerically with the FEM-DEM technique and com-
pared with literature results (Ma & An, 2008). Figure 2
shows the pressure time record used for the numerical sim-
ulation. The 2D model consists of a borehole (/ ¼ 0:005
m) in a circular rock mass (/ ¼ 0:140 m) modeled with
35 046 elements. The material properties are E = 21.0
GPa, m ¼ 0:22; c ¼ 25 000 N/m3, thickness = 0.1 m,
rt ¼ 5:23 MPa and G ¼ 22 J/m2. The pressure rising time
t0 varies between 5 and 100 ls. The peak pressure is kept
constant to 100 MPa. while the loading rates are 20 and
1.0 MPa/ls, respectively.
Fig. 3. Open air quarry analysis. Damage zone and cracks around the
boreholes. Four different spacings (in meters) are shown.
Fig. 4. Aguas Teñidas tunnel front. (a) Blasting sequence. (b) Crack and damage pattern.
313
The simulated fracture patterns with different loading
rates are compared in Fig. 2. When the loading rate of
the pressure is high (20 MPa/ls), only a small crushed
zone is created (Fig. 2(a)). The blast energy is primarily
dissipated in creating the crushed zone. When the load-
ing rate decreases to 1.0 MPa/ls, a central crushed zone
and longer radial fractures appear, as shown in Fig. 2(b).
The results agree with those reported in Cho et al.
(2003), Donzé et al. (1997), and Ma and An (2008).
4.2 Open air quarry analyst
The geometry analyzed corresponds to a 4:0  6:25 m
2D domain constrained at all its edges except the lower
one. The cutting line was set at 1.0 m from the free side.
Different spacings of the boreholes (/ ¼ 0:175 m) were
analyzed (0:25; 0:50; 0:75 and 1.0 m). The load pressure is
defined as in curve (b) of Fig. 2. The material properties
are E ¼ 10 GPa, m ¼ 0:2; c ¼ 78 000 N/m3, thick = 1.0
m, rt ¼ 0:10 MPa and G ¼ 100 J/m2.
The results obtained show a clear correlation (>90%) of
the width of the damaged zone respect the borehole spac-
ing, which goes from 0.2 m for the 0.25 m spacing up to
0.6 m for 1.0 m spacing, as shown in Fig. 3. These results
are as expected, and confirm the good prediction capabili-
ties of the FEM-DEM simulation.
4.3 Aguas Teñidas tunnel front
Aguas Teñidas is a mine located in the province of
Huelva, Spain. It is a conformant sulfide deposit of the Ibe-
rian Pyrite Belt. This mine produces copper and polymetal-
lic. Exploitation is performed using primarily conventional
drilling equipment for blasting.
A front blasting sequence is analyzed with the pressure
rising time of 100 ls. and a peak pressure of 100 MPa.
The material properties correspond to E ¼ 10 GPa,
m ¼ 0:2; rt ¼ 0:10 MPa and G ¼ 100 J/m2.
The tunnel front has 57 boreholes classified in 8
blasting groups as shown in Fig. 4(a). The blasting delay
314 F. Zárate et al. / Underground Space 3 (2018) 310–316

is 15 ls between each group. No initial pressure is applied
at the rock mass; this implies that the tunnel is assumed
to be at an extremely low depth. As shown in Fig. 4(b),
the damage at the final time of analysis is presented.
It is remarkable the sub-excavation at the base of the
tunnel which matches the real problem. The horizontal
damage zone is due to the zero initial pressure in the rock
mass.
4.4 Coupled blast-crack problem
A simple example is shown for the coupled solution
between the cracking in a square solid rock mass and the
CFD analysis in which the explosive state equations
are solved coupled to the FEM-DEM solution. The
example corresponds to a 2D granite rock sample of
0:2 m  0:2 m and a borehole of / ¼ 0:02 m. The explosive
used corresponds to a C4 kind. Besides the simplicity of the
example, it proves the usefulness of the coupling blast-
cracking scheme proposed.
In Fig. 5 the cracks and damage zone for two different
times (41 ls and 82 ls) are presented. The cracked domain
is passed to the CFD solver at each time step to compute
the pressure evolution in the gas zone whose value is
returned to the FEM-DEM solver for the solid mechanical
analysis.
Figures 6 and 7 show the CFD results for the same
times. Figures 6(a) and 7(a) show the fluid velocity,
whereas Figs. 6(b) and 7(b) show the pressure evolution
in the gas zone within the cracks. We highlight the
shockwaves produced by the explosion within the gas
domain.

Fig. 5. Damage zone and cracks on the specimen at (a) 41 ls and (b) 82 ls.

Fig. 6. (a) Velocity and (b) pressure distribution in the gas domain at 41 ls.
 F. Zárate et al. / Underground Space 3 (2018) 310–316
Fig. 7. (a) Velocity and (b) pressure distribution in the gas domain at 82 ls.
5 Conclusions
We herein presented a simple FEM-DEM methodology
has been presented for reproducing the cracking pattern in
rock blasting problems. The good results obtained indicate
that the FEM-DEM technique is an efficient and promising
procedure for solving rock excavation and blasting situa-
tions in tunnels.
In addition to the standard pressure–time functions, the
effect of gas forces within the fractures in the underlying
rock mass was modeled with an embedded fluid-structure
interaction method. This coupled procedure predicted the
progressive multiple fractures of the rock accurately,
accounting for the penetration of gas in the fractured
domain modeled with the FEM-DEM procedure described.
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author
states that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the
Tuñel project funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science
and Innovation. (2015–2019) via the subprogram CIEN
(IDI-20150705) and also the support of the EZUANA pro-
ject (BIA2016-78544-R), funded by the Spanish Ministry of
Education and Science of Spain.
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