BLS 102: General Biology II (4 Units)

Course Synopsis:
- Species concept
- Environment
- Alternation of generation
- Biogenetic Law.
- A generalized survey of the plant and animal kingdoms based on the similarities and differences in the
external features
- Ecological adaptations of these forms.

Biogenetic Law

The term biogenetics was coined from the words ‘bio’ and ‘genesis’; Greek; bios for "life" and genesis
for "birth, origin or creation" as a result of Darwin evolution debates (‘Origin of species’). The biogenetic
law is a theory of development and evolution proposed by Ernst Haeckel in Germany in 1866. Ernst
Haeckel published a book in two volumes called, "Generelle Morphologie der Organismen" (General
Morphology of Organisms) wherein this was published. This theory was based on the theory of evolution
given by Darwin. This theory, also called, the ‘theory of recapitulation’ or ‘embryological parallelism’ is
often expressed using Ernst Haeckel's phrase, "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny", which posits that,
“the stages of development for an animal embryo are the same as other animals' adult stages or
forms” (which means the development of the animal embryo and young traces the evolutionary
development of the species or that, the embryonic development of an organism repeats the evolutionary
history of that organism). The biogenetic law theorizes that, ‘the stages an animal embryo undergoes
during development are a chronological replay of that species' past evolutionary forms’; that, each
embryo's developmental stage represents an adult form of an evolutionary ancestor. According to the
law, by studying the stages of embryological development, one is, in effect, studying the history and
diversification of life on Earth. The biogenetic law implied that, researchers could study evolutionary
relationships between taxa by comparing the developmental stages of embryos for organisms from those
taxa. Haeckel proposed the biogenetic law so that researchers could use the stages of embryological
development to help construct evolutionary (phylogenetic) trees. Haeckel claimed that phylogenesis, or
the process by which groups of organisms diversify from one another, influenced the development
(ontogeny) of embryos. He theorized that the stages in an organism's ontogeny reflected the successive
changes in form, from generation to generation, of that organism's evolutionary ancestors. Many
scientists saw Haeckel's work as a breakthrough in recapitulation theory because he offered a physical
mechanism of development that other biologists had not proposed. According to Haeckel, the biogenetic
law depends on three assumptions. He called the first assumption the law of correspondence, which
states that each stage of development in higher animals, such as humans, corresponds to adult stages of
lower animals, such as fish. For instance, gill slits in early human embryos correspond to the gill slits in
adult fish. The second assumption of the biogenetic law was that, phylogenesis must occur by the addition
of new characters to the end of the normal developmental process. Haeckel said that, the early stages of
different species' embryos look similar to each other because of developmental constraints present early
in development. These constraints disappear towards the end of development, which allow for the
addition of new characters and for subsequent evolution. The third assumption was the principle of
truncation. Haeckel argued that, if new characters were continuously added to the end of normal
ontogeny, the length of embryonic development would eventually become longer than gestation periods of
organisms in extant species. As a result, he theorized that, early stages of development must be faster in
higher organisms than in lower ones. Haeckel proposed the biogenetic law so that, researchers could use
the stages of embryological development to help construct evolutionary (phylogenetic) trees. Haeckel
claimed that, phylogenesis, or the process by which groups of organisms diversify from one another,
influenced the development (ontogeny) of embryos. He theorized that, the stages in an organism's
ontogeny reflected the successive changes in form, from generation to generation, of that organism's
evolutionary ancestors. Many scientists saw Haeckel's work as a breakthrough in recapitulation theory
because he offered a physical mechanism of development that other biologists had not proposed. For
example, the tadpole of amphibians (e.g. frogs) resembles the hatchling (newly hatched egg) of Pisces
(fishes) (Plates a, b and c; Figures d and e exemplify this theory).

Plates a) Tadpoles of Frog b) Hatchling of Fish c) Human Sperm Cell

Figure (d) Figure (e)

Haeckel cited Johann Wolfgang von Goethe from Germany, Jean Baptiste Lamarck from France, and
Charles Darwin from England as his main influences for creating the biogenetic law. This theory was
discredited by the Von Baer's Law (Karl Ernst von Baer, 1811-1828), a previous competing theory of
embryology which states that, “structures that form early in development are more widely
distributed among groups of organisms than structures that arise later in development”; also, “the
general characters of an animal group appear earlier in the embryo than the specialized characters
do”; which many biologists accepted having looked into the evidences Haeckel presented.

Ontogeny is the process of individual development from a single cell, an egg cell or a zygote, to an adult
organism. Ontogeny covers all the developmental stages. Aspects of ontogeny are morphogenesis, the
development of form and shape of an organism; tissue growth; and cellular differentiation. Development
of an organism happens through fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, gastrulation, organogenesis, and
metamorphosis into an adult.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of extant species or taxa or historical development of a group. This
can be shown using a tree (it includes ancestor species and descendant species. The two main types of
phylogenetic trees are cladograms and phylograms. Cladograms do not have scaled branches, so they
don't represent the amount of time between generations, while phylograms do have scaled branches)
which can explain how sequences evolved, their genealogical relationships, and therefore how they came
to be the way they are today. It shows the way different organisms and species are related to each other.
Its study is called phylogenetics which is the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities
– often species, individuals or genes (which may be referred to as taxa). Phylogenetics is important
because it enriches our understanding of how genes, genomes, species (and molecular sequences more
generally) evolve. Through phylogenetics, we learn not only how the sequences came to be the way they
are today, but also general principles that enable us to predict how they will change in the future. This is
not only of fundamental importance but also extremely useful for numerous applications.

Figure G: Showing a Cladogram Figure F: Showing a Phylograms

The biogenetic law implied that, researchers could study evolutionary relationships between taxa by
comparing the developmental stages of embryos for organisms from those taxa. The implication is that,
each embryo's developmental stage represents an adult form of an evolutionary ancestor. According to the
law, by studying the stages of embryological development, one is, in effect, studying the history and
diversification of life on Earth.

With respect to development and evolution;

Recapitulation – “Biogenetic Law” Late 19th Century concept of Ernst Haeckel: Ontogeny Recapitulates
Phylogeny Evolutionary history of a species is the cause of its embryonic development, therefore, during
embryonic development an organism passes through the stages of its evolution (phylogeny). Influence
from 1880s – 1920s and beyond:

1) stimulated a great deal of descriptive embryology (positively)

2) stimulated many speculative historical reconstructions (positively and negatively)

3) when applied to human anatomy and behavior served as support for a wide range of sexist and racist
ideas (negatively).

Rejected among biologists by 1920s as incompatible with our understanding of inheritance (Genetics),
embryology and development. Cultural applications continue well into the 1960s. Unfortunately some
authors continue to use the term ‘recapitulation’ when they discuss similarities in embryonic development
as means of identifying homologies.

 Heterochrony: ‘changes in the timing of development of different fields’ - one concept to emerge
from the controversy over recapitulation and genetics is that, of ‘rate’ genes – genes that
somehow control the rate of embryonic development and thus, can affect the relative timing of
embryonic events. During the 1930s and 40s some researchers argued that major evolutionary
changes (macroevolution) could occur if the relative timing of events were to change during
development = Heterochrony. Although, ignored at the time, by the 1960s and 70s the idea of
heterochrony (mutations in ‘rate’ genes) was revived. Evidence was provided from comparative
embryology - especially of larval forms and experimental manipulation of metamorphosis
(especially amphbians). Heterochrony still used as an explanation for certain events in
evolutionary history but now considered a small subset of the impact of changes in
developmental regulatory mechanisms.
 The Developmental Cascade and the Revival of the Bauplan: as progress in genetics unfolded, the
Watson-Crick DNA model, the triplet code, the ‘central dogma’ etc. – application of genetics to
embryonic development led to the concept of the developmental cascade. The directional nature
of development – cleavage, gastrulation, morphogenesis, organogenesis, cell differentiation –
suggested a sequence of a turning on and off of genes so that cells became increasingly
specialized to function at the right time in the right place. The notion was that mutations of genes
that functioned early in the cascade would greater effect than mutations in those genes that
function later. Selection on such early genes would be especially strong, tending to stabilize basic
body forms and thus tend to channel evolutionary change into modifications of common ‘body
plans’ (Bauplans).
 Raff’s Developmental Hourglass I: changes in the early development of sea urchins from indirect
development to direct development nevertheless yielded typical normal adults. Such evolutionary
changes occurred several times. Thus early development was more flexible than thought.

 Raff’s Developmental Hourglass II

 Raff’s Developmental Hourglass III
 Regulatory Genes as Focus for Macroevolution
 Amongst other works
 Fossil records also show just the opposite of Haeckel’s evolutionary tree. Due to lack of fossil
evidence, evolutionary tree can show relationship only at the level of phyla.

Biogenetic studies can be used for the investigation of biosynthetic pathway of primary and secondary
metabolites, study mutant strains, enzymatic studies, etc. using tracer’s technique method and
radioisotopes. Biogenetic factors include genetic influences, brain chemistry, hormone levels, nutrition
and gender. Biogenetic studies has given rise to genetic engineering in genetics, agriculture,
biotechnology (locating an organism with a specific trait and extracting its DNA, cloning a gene that
controls the trait, designing a gene to express in a specific way; transformation, inserting the gene into the
cells of a crop plant) with variety of techniques like microbial vectors, microprojectile bombardment,
electroporation, mcroinjection, transposons/transposable elements, etc. Biogenetics is the branch of
biology concerned with altering (manipulation) of the genomes of living organisms. For plants, such
alterations are done using plant tissues that fall into one of two general types: meristematic tissue and
permanent (or non-meristematic) tissue. Cells of the meristematic tissue are found in meristems, which
are plant regions of continuous cell division and growth. Genetic engineering has resulted in genetically
modified organisms (GMO); GMO crops like Corn, Soybean, Cotton, Potato, Papaya, Summer Squash,
Canola, Alfalfa, etc.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

All living things were usually classed into one of the two categories, plants and animals. This
categorization started with Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC), who prepared the distinction among plants
(which usually don't shift) and animals (which often can move to get their food). After a while, when
Linnaeus (1707–1778) formed the foundation of the fashionable scheme of scientific categorization, these
two groups became the kingdoms: Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and Animalia (also called
Metazoa). Plantae and Animalia are two kingdoms of living organisms. There are similarities between
plants and animals which are:

Plants
The multicellular eukaryotic forms of life, which are characterized by photosynthetic nutrition are known
as plants.
Animals
The multicellular eukaryotes whose cells are attached with the help of collagen are called animals.

The following are the similarities between plants and animals generally: they feed, respire, excrete, grow,
move, reproduce and are sensitive to their environment. Both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic. These
are the features that are found in both plant cells and animal cells: membrane-bound nucleus, which
contains the DNA, plasma membrane or cell membrane, cytoplasm in which other organelles are
suspended, nucleolus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), ribosomes, mitochondrion, golgi bodies or golgi
apparatus. Also,

 For the process of reproduction, both possess reproductive organs.

 Both are living and at some point in life, both die.
 Both possess DNA and RNA.
 Both possess energy-transforming and utilizing systems.
 Both possess complicated compositions for the process of transportation.
 For the development of the body, both possess cells, which require specific levels of pH,
nutrients, macromolecules, etc.

The major differences between these two kingdoms are that: 

-Plants are autotrophs while animals are heterotrophs. Plants are able to produce their own food through
photosynthesis while animals must consume other organisms to obtain their nutrients.

-A plant has a cell wall, chloroplast, plasmodesmata, plastids, and different organelles. Animal cells lack
cell walls but contain different organelles such as tight junctions and cilia.
-In the plants, the growth is done by the meristematic system located at the tip of roots and stems while
animals exhibit all-round growth.

Kingdom Plantae (Embryophyta) is classified into the ten divisions (phyla) amongst which are:
1. Thallophyta (algae)
2. Bryophyta: amphibians of plant kingdom, non-vascular.
 3. Tracheophyta subdivided into:
 Pteridophyta: true root, stem and leaves, vascular tissue present e.g. ferns.
 Spermatophyta: seed producing, vascular tissues present. Spermatophyta are further divided into:
o Gymnospermae: naked seeded plants. Seeds not enclosed in an ovary e.g., conifers and ginkgos.
o Angiospermae: seeds are enclosed in the ovary wall; and are divided into:
Dicotyledons: has embryo with two cotyledons e.g., rice, maize, etc.
Monocotyledons: has single cotyledon in the embryo e.g., orange, beans, etc.

BRYOPHYTA (BRYOPHYTES)
Bryophytes are ‘the amphibians’ of plant kingdom as they complete their life cycle in both water and on
land. These mainly grow in damp, shady places, especially in the hills. They are embryophytes that do not
have vascular tissues (neither xylem nor phloem), where multicellular sporophytes are always borne on
the gametophytes. No true leaves and roots, as their independent plant body is gametophytic (haploid).
Sex organs are jacketed as they are always surrounded by one or several layers of sterile cells. There are
three main types of bryophytes;
1. Flat, ribbon-like – Liverworts (Marchantia).
2. Small, leafy plant body – Mosses (Funaria).
3. Flat, thalloid plant body bearing a horn-like sporophyte – Hornworts (Anthoceros).

Figure 1: showing Liverworts, Mosses and Hornworts

The bryophytes are pioneers of vegetation, i.e. they are the first ones to grow on various habitats like
rock, lava, sand, water and act as soil binders. The mosses hold water better than the soil thus, improve
the microhabitat for seeds of other plants to grow. These are the sources of food for fish and birds and
their dried plant body is used as nesting materials by birds.
The main plant body is gametophyte, larger and more persistent and photosynthetically active which
bears the sex organs. In mosses, the gametophytic plant body is a leafy stem called ‘gametophore’ but in
liverworts and hornworts the plant body is usually a thallus that is ribbon-like or heart-shaped and
bilaterally symmetrical. The body is without roots, stems and leaves. The plants are anchored to soil by
rhizoids, which are unicellular in liverworts and hornworts and multicellullar in mosses. Rhizoids help in
anchorage and also in absorption of water and minerals from the substratum. The male sex organs are
antheridia and female sex organs are archegonia. The gametes are produced in the sex organs. Male and
female gametes fuse to give rise to a zygote which develops into a sporophyte. Sporophyte remains
attached to gametophyte and depends on it for food and minerals. The sporogenous tissue in the
sporophyte undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores. The spores, on dispersal, germinate to give rise
to a gametophyte again. Gametophyte undergoes mitosis- which is the gamete producing phase of the
plants. Sporophyte undergoes meiosis- which is the spore producing phase of the plants in all the three
types of bryophytes, this life cycle shows ‘alternations of generations.

Comparison of Gametophytic and Sporophytic phases of Bryophytes

Gametophytic Phase Sporophytic Phase
Haploid phase, generally autotrophic Diploid phase, heterotrophic or partially
 autotrophic
Has multicellular sex organs called antheridia and Has spore-producing structure
archegonia bearing sterile jacket surrounding the
gametes
Produces gametes Produces spores
Gametes are produced by mitosis Spores are produced by meiosis
Dominant phase, which occupies most of the life Short-lived phase, which remains attached to the
period gametophyte

Kingdom Animalia has the following phyla:

 Porifera (Includes sponges)
 Cnidaria (Includes hydroids, jelly fishes, sea anemone and corals)
 Platyhelminthes (Flatworms-trematode/liverfluke; cestodes/tapeworms; nematode-round worms,
pin worms, Hook worms, thread worms, guinea worms, etc;)
 Annelida (earthworms and leeches).
 Arthropoda (Crabs, scorpions, insects, spiders, etc).
 Mollusca (snails, slugs, oysters, mussels, clams, squids, and octopuses).
 Chordata further grouped into sub-phyla:
 Urochordata e.g., Herdmania
 Cephalochordata e.g., Amphioxus
 Vertebrata (all animals with backbone) which has the super classes: Agnatha and
Gnathostomata
 Agnatha (jawless vertebrate, e.g., lamprey)
 Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrate) which has the following classes:
 Pisces has Chondrichthyes (Greek- Chondro which means cartilage; ichtyes which means fish,
e.g., catfish) and Osteichthyes (Greek- os which means bone; ichthyes which means fish e.g.,
tilapia)
 Amphibia (frogs, newts, salamanders, etc.)
 Reptilia (turtle/tortoise, crocodiles, snakes, lizards, etc.)
 Aves (ostrich, peacock, hawk, pelican, penguin, etc.)
 Mammalia with three sub-classes: Prototheria (duck-bill platypus, Ornithorhynchus),
Metatheria (Marsupials with pouches e.g., kangaroo, koala bear) and Eutheria (has the orders;
Cetacean- aquatic mammals e.g., whales, dolphins, etc.; Rodentia e.g., rats, squirrels, etc.;
Chiroptera e.g., bats; Proboscidea e.g., elephants, anteater, etc.; Carnivora e.g., cats, dogs, etc.;
Ungulata-hoofed mammals e.g., antelope, deer, etc.; Primates e.g., monkeys, gorilla, man, etc.).

Amphibia in the Animal Kingdom

Amphi: double or both, “bios”: life referring to life on land as well as in water.
Main characters:
– The animal partly live in water and partly on land.
– Skin smooth or rough, rich in glands.
– Two pairs of limbs; pentadactyl (five-fingered), digits without claws.
– Body with distinct head and trunk, no neck.
– Two nostrils opening into the buccal cavity.
– Tympanum present on surface of body wall.
– Eggs are laid in water.
– In the early stage of life (larvae), they breathe by means of gills, but adults breathe by lungs.
– Heart three-chambered.
– Larval stage tailed and aquatic. Some are tailed (salamander) and some are tailless (Frog, Toad)
Figure 4: Salamander Figure 5: Frog- Bufo Toad Figure 6: Ichthyophis

The fundamental differences between plants and animals are:

 Plant cells have rigid cell walls made of cellulose. Animal cells never have cell walls.
Animal and plant cells are easy to tell apart in other ways.
 Plants never make chitin or melanin or elastin or collagen or keratin or haemoglobin.
Animals never make chlorophyll or cellulose. Some animals can make so-called plant
pigments, such as how aphids can make carotenoids, and some plants can make some so-
called animal pigments, such as how Ravenela madagascariensis can make bilirubin.
 All plants require O2 and CO2. Animals only require O2 (with one exception of only three
known species of Loriciferans, which are the only known animals that don’t need to breathe
oxygen, which is a recent discovery discovery and quite remarkable.)
 Animals are always heterotrophs, including Elysia chlorotica, which is the only known
animal that “steals” chlorophyll for photosynthesis, but it still needs to eat. Plants are
usually autotrophs, but sometimes also parasitic, hemi-parasitic, or “carnivorous”. All so
called “carnivorous” plants are also autotrophic.
 All plants have a complex lifecycle that involves haploid and diploid generations. No
animals do this, but some invertebrates do have alternation of sexual and asexual
generations, which is very different.
 Plants are always “cold blooded”, but some are thermogenic and can generate considerable
“body heat” in their flowers, such as Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum (Which used to
known as Philodendron bipinnatifidum until 2018 when it was put into a new genus because
of DNA phylogeny.)
 Obviously, animals don't have leaves or flowers or seeds or roots or fruits, and plants don't
have things like eyes or mouths or legs or bones.
Other “differences” have way too much overlap. For example, many animals are “cold blooded”, many
animals have no nervous system and no circulatory system. Many animals are sessile (stationary). All
plants can move, and some plants such as floating aquatics and walking palms are not even stationary,
although they have no means of propulsion, and likewise nor do many animals, including Portuguese man
o wars. Some plants such as cycads even have motile sperm, and it's so large that it's even visible
swimming to the naked eye and the species Zamia roezelii even has 40,000 tails, which is all quite
remarkable, but this is not well known.
Plants
Plants are green-colored living beings that are
able to make their food with the help of
photosynthesis.
Plants can't be in motion as they are deep-rooted
in the land. There are few exceptions like Volvox
and Chlamydomonas.
Plants take carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
They don't have any digestion system.
Plants perform asexual reproduction mostly.
The plants illustrate response with the help of
touch and light.
Plants perform respiration through stomata.
The food is stored in the form of starch.
A plant has a cell wall, chloroplast,
plasmodesmata, plastids, and different organelles.
In the plants, the growth is done by the
meristematic system located at the tip of roots and
stems.
They are less sensitive.
Few examples of plants are Cactus, moss,
conifers, flowering plants, vascular plants, etc.
Animals
Living organisms that feed on organic substances
and consist of an organ system are known as
animals.
The animals may shift freely from one place to
another. Exceptions are Sponges and Corals.
Animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon
dioxide.
They have a proper digestive system.
Animals perform sexual reproduction mainly.
The suitable nervous system permits reaction
rapidly.
Animal performs respiration through gills, lungs,
skin, and other respiratory organs.
The food is stored in the form of glucose.
Animal cells lack cell walls but contain different
organelles such as tight junctions and cilia.
Organs and organ systems help in enlargements in
the animals.
They are more sensitive in comparison to plants.
Few examples of animals are snakes, birds, fishes,
cats, dogs, etc.