Scientia Horticulturae, 56 ( 1993 ) 107-117 107

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Effect of banana spray oil on banana yield in the

absence of Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella sp. )

Y. Israeli *'a, E. Shabi b, W.R. Slabaughc

aJordan Valley Banana Research Station, Zemach 15132, Israel
bDepartment of Plant Pathology, ARO-Volcani Center, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
cISK Biotech Corporation, 11098 W. Highmont Drive, Boise, ID 83709, USA
(Accepted 23 April 1993)

Abstract

A possible phytotoxic effect of banana spray oil (BSO) was studied on banana cultivar 'Grand
Nain' (Musa spp., AAA subgroup ) in Israel where no yellow or black Sigatoka was present. Texaco
Spraytex® CT774, at rates of 2.6, 5.2 and 7.8 1 h a - 1, was applied using simulated aerial application
during two consecutive production cycles. Twelve and ten spray cycles were applied during the first
and second production cycles, respectively. BSO treatments were compared with the chlorothalonil
treatment (BRAVO ® 720, 2 1 ha- t ) and an untreated control. No visual phytotoxicity or very subtle
symptoms resulted from BSO application even at the highest rate. However, the highest rate of BSO
reduced growth rate, delayed flowering by 4 days, and reduced bunch weight by 5.6% (P< 0.05 ) dur-
ing the first production cycle when compared with the untreated control. A decrease of 8.4% in bunch
weight (P< 0.05 ) was observed in the second production cycle when the highest BSO rate was com-
pared with the untreated control. Bunch weight losses were directly related to BSO application rates.
The number of green leaves at harvest and number of hands per bunch were also significantly re-
duced during the second production cycle. Chlorothalonil application did not significantly affect any
of the parameters measured in this test when compared with the untreated control. This study indi-
cates BSO usage causes a reduction in banana yield.

Key words: Banana leaf spot; Banana spray oil; Banana yield; Phytotoxicity; Sigatoka

Introduction

Mineral spray oils have been in use since the late 1950s in spray programs
to control banana leaf spot in most commercial growing areas (Stover, 1972;
Stover and Simmonds, 1987). These oils were generally used alone or in com-
bination with fungicides to control yellow Sigatoka caused by Mycosphaerella
musicola Leach ( Cercospora musae Zimm). Banana spray oil was combined
with fixed coppers or dithiocarbamates in areas with climates more favorable
to disease development (Calpouzos, 1968, pp. 367-393; Stover and Sim-
monds, 1987).

*Corresponding author.

© 1993 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved 0304-4238/93/$06.00

108 Y. Israeli et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-117

The emergence of black Sigatoka, caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis Mo-

relet, led to the use of mineral spray oil to obtain good disease control with
most sterol demethylation inhibitors (DMIs), the benzimidazoles, dithiocar-
bamates and morpholines (Stover and Simmonds, 1987).
The introduction of spray oils in the late 1950s resulted in varying levels of
phytotoxicity to banana foliage which was generally unacceptable at the com-
mercial grower level. Comprehensive studies on the phytotoxicity of banana
spray oil (BSO) conducted during the early 1960s have resulted in reduced
danger of phytotoxicity to bananas by defining spray oil characteristics which
optimize disease control and minimize phytotoxicity expression (Calpouzos
et al., 1960, 1961a,b,c; Delfel et al., 1962; Corke and Jordan, 1963; Reidhart,
1964; Calpouzos and Colberg, 1964). Spray oils were found to be acceptable
if they had unsulfonated residues of 90% or more, an aromatic content of 12%
or less and a 50% distillation range of 346-354°C at 760 m m Hg (Calpouzos,
1968, pp. 367-393; Stover, 1972). Oils with 50% distillation below 338°C
did not control Sigatoka and those above 365 °C were significantly more phy-
totoxic. Spray oils penetrate foliar surfaces and collect as droplets between
mesophyll cells (Brun, 1958; Laville, 1963 ). Physiological evidence of spray
oil phytotoxicity is also well documented, showing that the application of spray
oil to banana foliage reduced photosynthetic and transpiration rates (Reid-
hart, 1961; Corke and Jordan, 1963; Calpouzos, 1968, pp. 367-393).
The phytotoxic effect of banana spray oil has been a controversial subject
for three decades. Yield losses of up to 10% have been reported by some in-
vestigators (Pont, 1960; Price, 1960). Others reported no yield reduction re-
suiting from BSO usage when compared with water-copper sprays (Guyot
and Cuille, 1955; Desrosiers, 1958; Tolenaar, 1960; Anonymous, 1961; Cal-
pouzos, 1968, pp. 367-393). Most tests to determine if BSO usage in spray
programs causes yield loss have been conducted with low numbers of repli-
cates on relatively large plots (5 ha or more) in order to facilitate aerial ap-
plication, and in areas where leaf spot was present. The low numbers of rep-
licates and/or variable leaf spot control probably obscured yield differences
among treatments in past experiments, even when large numbers of bunches
were evaluated within each treatment. Leaf spot control is variable over large
plot areas and may introduce yield variability under field conditions.
We tested BSO for its effect on banana yield reduction using varied appli-
cation quantities over a 2 year period. The test was conducted in an area where
agronomic inputs such as fertilizer and water are closely controlled and no
banana leaf spot was present to obscure yield reductions related to BSO phy-
totoxicity. These studies were designed to determine the effects of a series of
BSO application rates on vegetative growth and yield.
Y. Israeli et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-117 109

Materials and methods

Location a n d culturalpractices. - The study was performed in the Jordan River

Valley of Israel, which is free from the most important banana foliage diseases
including yellow and black Sigatoka. Banana growth in Israel is seasonal and
typical for a subtropical climate (Ticho, 1970; Israeli and Lahav, 1986, pp.
45-73 ). Growth and flowering take place during the summer months, while
fruit is harvested during the fall and winter months.
Uniformly aged banana cultivar 'Grand Nain' plantlets generated through
tissue culture in vitro were rooted in 1 1 pots and transplanted to the field
when they reached approximately 30 cm in height on 28 July 1988. The plant-
ing design was a double row with 2.5 m between rows in each plot, 2.7 m
between mats within rows and 5 m between plots. Each mat contained two
plants for a total of 32 plants per replicate (2078 plants h a - l ) . Two border
mats were utilized to separate replicates and control interplot spray drift. The
experimental design was a completely randomized block with 11 replicates
and 16 mats per replicate (eight mats per row; two rows per replicate).
Plants were irrigated daily during the summer months using a conventional
drip irrigation system with two drip lines per row and 0.8 m between drip-
pers. The amount of water applied was about 3200 m m year- 1which was well
above normal consumptive use in Israel (Israeli and Nameri, 1987). Fertil-
ization practices included animal manure application prior to planting, sup-
plemented with one additional animal waste application on an annual basis.
Nitrogen, in the form of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate (350 kg
N h a - 1 year- ~), was also applied through the drip irrigation system. Phos-
phorus was applied as superphosphate at the rate of 40 kg P205 h a - ~year- ~.
No potassium was applied since potassium availability in Jordan Valley soils
and organic amendments is considered optimum for banana cultivation.

T r e a t m e n t s a n d application techniques. - Three rates of BSO in water emul-

sion were compared with chlorothalonil and the untreated control (Table 1 ).
The higher rates of BSO and that of chlorothalonil were in the range of com-
mercial applications (Stover, 1972; Fullerton and Stover, 1990). The BSO
used, Texaco Spraytex ® CT774 (Texaco, Dallas, TX), was a narrow range,
distillated petroleum mineral oil commonly used in Sigatoka spray programs.
Treatments were applied with equipment which simulated aerial applica-
tion, achieved with a Micro-Max ® (Micron Corp., Houston, TX) rotary at-
omizer operated at 3500 rev min-1 and positioned I m above the canopy on
a tractor-mounted boom. Flow rates were controlled with a manostat. A mini-
tractor was used to apply sprays from the 5-m-wide alleys, a practice which
minimized soil compaction. The spray machinery was driven through control
plots which minimized differences among treatments relating to soil compac-
110 Y. Israeli et al. /Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993.) 107-I 17

Table 1
Rates of banana spray oil (BSO), emulsifier and chlorothalonil application

Treatment ' Texaco Spraytex ® Adsee ® 775 BRAVO® 720

CT774 (ml ha -l) (lha -t)
(1 ha-')
BRAVO 720 - - 2.0
Control - -
BSO
2.6lha-' 2.6 13
5.21 ha-' 5.2 26
7.8 1ha- ~ 7.8 39
'The total volume applied was 251 ha- ~using water as the diluent.

29 Aug ]- FR
09 Aug ]_
19 Jul FL
J
22
05Jun
Jul t
07 Jun
24 May V
10 May
26 Apr
£3 17 Apr
¢- 20 Nov ]
O 02 Nov
(J 1 6 Oct [_
02 Oct FR

<
19 Sep
30 Jul
17 Jul
J
]- FL
19 Jun J
O_
09 05 Jun 1
22 May
04 May
03 Apr
30
02 Dec
Dec IV
07 Nov
24 Oct
12 Oct r
o lo 20 30 40 so 60 ¢o 8'o 90 100
Degrees C or Relative Humidity (%)
Fig. 1. Meteorological data and developmental stages of plants at spray application. Sprays were
applied during vegetative growth (V), flowering (FL, between floral initiation and shooting)
and fruiting (FR, between shooting and harvest) during 1988, 1989, and 1990.

tion. No spray drift occurred during applications. Spray coverage was good
on all exposed banana foliage.
Five spray applications every 2-3 weeks were made during the initial growth
period following planting in the autumn of 1988 (Fig. 1 ). Spray applications
were terminated when new leaf initiation ceased and restarted when new
growth occurred. Twelve and ten sprays every 2-3 weeks were applied during
the 1989 and 1990 growing seasons, respectively. Plants for the following sea-
son's production were approximately 1.5-1.6 m tall when spray applications
were terminated during each season except in 1990, when spray application
was terminated at the end of August. Termination was earlier than antici-
pated because of foliar overlap between plots which reduced application effi-
Y. Israeli et al. /Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-117 111

ciency to unacceptable levels. Second cycle production plants reached peak

shooting in August 1990.

C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . - Temperature and humidity data were obtained from a

standard meteorological station (Israel Meteorological Service) located about
1.0 km from the test site. Data for the spray dates are presented in Fig. 1.
Spray applications were made during morning hours to minimize spray drop-
let desiccation and interplot drift.

Data collection. - Vegetative growth was monitored using monthly measure-

ments of plant height, leaf emergence rates and total number of leaves per
plant during the first production cycle. In addition, pseudostem circumfer-
ence at 1.0 m at shooting and total leaf number at harvest were recorded.
Effects on the reproductive phase were monitored by recording shooting date
every 10 days, harvest date every week, number of hands per bunch and bunch
weight. Additional reproductive phase data in the form of finger length and
circumference (middle finger from the outer whorl of the third basal hand)
were also recorded. Harvest date was determined by fullness of the fingers.
All measurements, with the exception of plant height and leaf numbers, were
obtained during the second production cycle. Leaves were frequently in-
spected for flecking and bronzing which are typical symptoms of BSO phyto-
toxicity on banana foliage. Data were analyzed using the software of the Sta-
tistical Analysis Systems Institute (SAS, 1987).

Results

BSO application did not significantly reduce growth rates in terms of plant
height at flowering and pseudostem growth rates. However, leaf initiation rates
were significantly reduced at the high rate of BSO application (Table 2 ). Dif-
ferences were significant among treatments in terms of total leaf numbers at
flowering when comparing the highest BSO rate and the untreated control
(Table 3 ). However, a significant decrease in the number of green leaves at
harvest was observed in the high-rate BSO plots (4.7%) during the second
production cycle (Table 3 ).
A delay in flowering date was observed during the first production cycle
and was related to the rate of BSO applied (Table 4). The highest rate of BSO
application delayed the mean flowering date by 4 days and the mean harvest-
ing date by 16 days during the first production cycle with no difference being
detected between mean and median dates for these parameters (Table 4).
Although no significant differences within these parameters were observed
during the second production cycle, trends were similar to those noted above
with regard to flowering and harvest date.
The most obvious effect of BSO usage was the reduction in bunch weight
1 12 Y. Israeli et al. /Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-I 17

Table 2
The effect of banana spray oil (BSO) and chlorothalonil on growth and leaf initiation rate

Treatment Pseudostem No. of leaves Plant height at flowering2

heightl produced1 (cm)
(cm)
1989 1990

Chlorothalonil 129" 20.1" 253" 270 a

Control 128 ab 20.2" 253" 270"
BSO
2.61 ha -1 127 "b 20.2" 249 ~ 264"
5.21 ha -~ 125 b 20.1" 251 ~ 269 ~
7.8 1 h a - ~ 122 b 19.9 b 251" 266"

~Data reflect growth measurements from 13 October 1988 through 1 July 1989.
21989, first production cycle; 1990, second production cycle.
Values in each column followed by the same superscript do not differ significantly using Duncan's
multiple range test ( P < 0.05).

Table 3
The effect of banana spray oil (BSO) and chlorothalonil on the number of green leaves per plant at
flowering and harvest

Treatment Mean number of green leaves

At flowering At harvest

1989 1990 1989 1990

Chlorothalonil 11.2 ~b 10.6 a 7,6" 8.7"

Control 11.1 ab 10.6 a 7.3 ab 8.6 "b
BSO
2.61 ha -~ 11.6 a 10.5" 7.3 "b 8.3 be
5.21 ha-~ 11.3 ab 10.5" 7.0 b 8.3 be
7.81 ha -1 11.0 b 10.6" 7.2 b 8.2 ¢

Values in each column followed by the same superscript do not differ significantly using Duncan's
multiple range test ( P < 0.05 ); 1989, first production cycle; 1990, second production cycle.

(Table 5 ). The highest BSO rate significantly reduced bunch weight during
the entire 2 year test period. The bunch weight reduction was 5.6% and 8.4%
during the first and second production cycles, respectively. The reduction in
bunch weight appeared to be correlated with BSO application rate.
Finger length was slightly reduced by BSO application during the second
production cycle (Table 6 ). Finger circumference (equivalent to grade) was
not affected by BSO application. The number of hands per bunch was signif-
icantly lower (3.8%) during the second production cycle in plots treated with
the highest rate of BSO (Table 6). Plots receiving chlorothalonil sprays were
not significantly different from untreated plots in any of the growth or pro-
duction parameters measured during this experiment. No visual symptoms
of phytotoxicity were evident in any of the treatments, with the exception of
Y. Israeli et aL / Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-117 I 13

Table 4
The effect of banana spray oil (BSO) and chlorothalonil on flowering date, harvest date and interval
from flowering to harvst

Treatment Mean flowering date Mean harvest date Mean flowering to

harvest interval
(days)

1989 1990 1989 1990 1989 1990

Chlorothalonil 1 Aug. b 5 Aug." 30 Nov. b 14 Dec." i 19b 130"

Control 1 Aug. b 5 Aug." 26 Nov. b 14 Dec. a 117 b 130 a
BSO
2.61 ha -1 31 Jul. b 5 Aug." 26 Nov. b 16 Dec. ~ 118 b 130"
5.2 1 h a - l 2 Aug. "b 7 Aug. a 1 Dec. b 22 Dec." 121 b 134 a
7.8 1 h a - ' 5 Aug." 8 Aug." 12 Dec." 25 Dec." 129" 136"

Values in each column followed by the same superscript do not differ significantly using Duncan's
multiple range test ( P < 0.05 ); 1989, first production cycle; 1990, second production cycle.

Table 5
The effect of banana spray oil (BSO) and chlorothalonil on banana yield"

Treatment Mean bunch weight (kg)

1989 1990

Chlorothalonil 23.8" 25.4"

Control 23.4 "b 25. l"b
BSO
2.6 1 ha -~ 22.7 be 24.2 bc
5.21 h a - ' 22.7 bc 23.8 Cd
7.81 ha - t 22.1 c 23.0 d

Values in each column followed by the same superscript do not differ significantly using Duncan's
multiple range test ( P < 0.05 ); 1989, first production cycle; 1990, second production cycle.

Table 6
The effect of banana spray oil (BSO) and chlorothalonil on finger length, finger circumference and
number of hands per bunch

Treatment Mean finger length Mean finger Mean no. of hands per
(cm) circumference (cm) bunch

1989 1990 1989 1990 1989 1990

Chlorothalonil 22.0" 21.4" 11.8" 11.4" 9.3" 10.8"

Control 22.1" 21.3 ab i 1.8" 11.3" 9.1 ab 10.6 "b
BSO
2.61 ha -1 21.8" 21. i "~ 11.8" 11.3" 9.0 b 10.4 bc
5.21ha -~ 21.9" 20.9 ¢ 11.7" 11.4" 9.0 b 10.4 ~
7.81 ha -1 21.7" 21.0 be 11.7 a 11.3" 9.1 ~b 10.2 c

Values in each column followed by the same superscript do not differ significantly using Duncan's
multiple range test ( P < 0.05 ); 1989, first production cycle; 1990, second production cycle.
1 14 Y. Israeli et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-117

some occasional, mild leaf flecking occurring on the foliage treated with the
highest rate of BSO.

Discussion

Substantial bunch weight losses were observed in BSO-treated plots during

both the 1989 and 1990 production cycles. These bunch weight losses were
5.6% and 8.4% in plots treated with the highest BSO rate in the first and sec-
ond production cycles, respectively.
Yield losses of up to 10% were reported from early BSO application exper-
iments on banana cultivars such as 'Gros Michel', 'Lacatan' and Cavendish
varieties (Pont, 1960; Price, 1960; Tolenaar, 1960). However, these yield
losses were attributed primarily to the use of less refined oils. In contrast,
more recent experiments with highly refined BSO applied on Cavendish va-
rieties have not shown yield losses when applied at commercially used rates
and have been regarded, in general, as safe when properly utilized in Sigatoka
control programs (Fullerton and Stover, 1990). Data from this experiment
clearly demonstrated that yield losses occurred when highly refined BSO was
applied to the banana cultivar 'Grand Nain', a popular, short-statured Cav-
endish variety.
Possible explanations for differences between recent BSO-yield experi-
ments and this test are complex. Most recent experiments have utilized air-
craft equipped with rotary atomizers and have been conducted in areas where
Sigatoka was present. In contrast to the simulated aerial application used in
this experiment, tests utilizing aircraft required comparatively large areas.
Since test areas under most commercial conditions are limited by size and
cost, replication number and treatment randomization probably have been
suboptimal, which may account for the lack of statistical differences observed
among treatments in those tests. Banana bunch weights are inherently highly
variable under most commercial growing conditions, a fact which undoubt-
edly contributes to the inability to detect yield differences among treatments.
The uniformly growing plants used in this test, derived from tissue culture
in vitro, probably reduced the inherent variability normally associated with
banana plant growth and yield. In addition, within commercial banana plan-
tations, levels of black Sigatoka and other foliage diseases are usually vari-
able, even within relatively small areas. This intrinsic variability, confounded
by the effects of treatments in controlling such foliage diseases, can undoubt-
edly preclude statistical separation of treatment regimes. This experiment was
conducted in Israel where no black or yellow Sigatoka is present, thus elimi-
nating these diseases as factors in detecting yield losses associated with BSO
use.
Plant stress caused by high temperature and inadequate moisture are known
to increase BSO phytotoxicity in banana foliage which is expressed as bronz-
Y. Israeli et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-117 115

ing and/or flecking (Stover, 1972). No phytotoxicity symptoms were ob-

served in any BSO treatments in this study, except under the highest BSO
regime where some flecking was observed. Ample irrigation water (3200 mm
ha- 1year- 1) was applied to all test plots, thus alleviating possible plant stress
conditions which can develop under Israeli cultivation and climate.
Finger length was slightly reduced, whereas the number of hands per bunch
(hand class) was significantly reduced by BSO treatment. Hand class reduc-
tions and finger length reduction trends probably accounted for a major por-
tion of the bunch weight reductions observed in this test. Since a major im-
pact on bunch weight loss can be attributed to hand class reduction, plant
growth regulators may prove useful in improving hand class on plants sub-
jected to BSO sprays.
BSO usage also affected vegetative parameters as expected. Pseudostem
growth rates and the number of functional leaves at harvest were significantly
reduced by BSO application. A reduction in functional foliar area at harvest
was reported from previous experiments (Stover, 1972). Flowering and har-
vest dates were delayed by 4 days and 16 days, respectively, during the first
production cycle. This is the first report on flowering and harvest delay caused
by BSO usage. It has been shown that a short delay in flowering of banana
plants results in an even longer delay in harvest in the subtropics (Israeli and
Lahav, 1986). Generally, the delay in flowering can be ascribed to reduced
leaf initiation rate or increased leaf production. Leaf initiation rates were af-
fected by BSO usage, which suggests a prolonged depression of physiological
activity in BSO-treated plants. This prolonged depression of physiological ac-
tivity suggested by the leaf initiation rate results suggests conformity to some
of the mechanisms of BSO phytotoxicity proposed to occur in banana foliage
by earlier reports (Pont, 1960; Reidhart, 1961 ). The proposed mechanisms
included leaf longevity, photosynthesis and cellular necrosis. Most of the yield
losses associated with BSO usage and leaf initiation rates in this test can prob-
ably be ascribed to leaf longevity and photosynthesis in the form of reduced
carbon dioxide assimilation and/or assimilate transport. The effect of cellu-
lar necrosis on yield reduction in this experiment was minimal or non-exis-
tent since few visual symptoms were observed.

Conclusions

The data demonstrate that BSO usage in Sigatoka control programs reduces
yield. Yield reduction in this study was not correlated with visual phytotox-
icity symptom expression in the field which makes it difficult to assess ad-
verse effects from BSO usage and make appropriate spray treatment adjust-
ments to reduce yield loss. In addition to bunch weight reduction, flowering
and harvest dates were delayed during the first production cycle by BSO treat-
ment. This suggests that continuous cumulative increases in yield loss may
1 16 Y. Israeli et al. / Scientia Horticulturae 56 (1993) 107-117

occur under tropical conditions where harvesting is continuous throughout

the year.

Acknowledgments

The technical support of Asaf Arazi (field observations), Nimrod Nameri

(statistical analysis) and Solomon Elisha (treatment application) is sin-
cerely appreciated.

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