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N. Egypt. J. Microbiol. Vol. 17, January, 2007.

EFFICACY OF SOLARIZATION AND SEAWEEDS AMENDMENT IN THE

CONTROL OF FABA BEAN FUSARIAL ROOT ROT

BY

M E Ibrahim1, A M Abdel-Azeem2, M M Hegazi3

FROM
1
Department of Geological and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Education, Al-Arish,
University of Suez Canal.
2
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Suez Canal, Ismailia 41522,
Egypt.
3
Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Science, University of Suez Canal, Ismailia
41522, Egypt.

ABSTRACT
The role of soil solarization with or without seaweeds (Caulerpa prolifera and
Ulva lactuca) amendment on the faba bean root rot caused by Fusarium solani f. sp.
fabae was evaluated under field conditions. Soil temperature in solarized plots reached a
maximum of 55, 53 ºC at the two depths 5 and 10 cm respectively. These temperatures
were 10 to 13 ºC higher than in corresponding unsolarized plots. Solarization alone or in
combination with Caulerpa and Ulva amendment reduces disease severity from 35 %
(control) to 85 %, 88 % and 80 % respectively. While combination of Caulerpa with
solarization exerts a sort of synergistic effect, by increasing number of healthy plants
from 80 % in unsolarized amended soil to 88 % in solarized amended soil, combination
of Ulva with solarization showed antagonistic effect by decreasing number of healthy
plants from 85% in solarized soil to 80 % in Ulva amended soil.

INTRODUCTION
Soil solarization is one alternative disinfestations method, which is effective and
reliable in many countries (Katan and DeVay, 1991; Katan, 1996). Recent decision to
phase-out use of methyl bromide, make soil solarization more appealing to growers,
crops, especially with its compatibility with IPM systems (Garibaldi and Gullino, 1995;
Katan, 1996). Soil solarization is a hydrothermal process in which moist soil is covered
with transparent plastic and exposed to sunlight, especially in hot months, allowing it to
rise soil temperature to the extent that are lethal or sublethal to many plant pathogens,
insects, nematodes and weed seeds (Souza, 1994).

Solarization is a novel very effective approach because it targets mesophyllic

organisms, which include most plant pathogens and pests, without destroying the
beneficial mycorrhizal fungi and growth-promoting Bacillus spp. (Stapleton and
DeVay, 1982; 1984). Increased soil temperatures result in decreased population of
weeds (Katan, 1981) and a range of plant pathogens, including fungi (Katan, 1980),
bacteria (Raio et al., 1997), and nematodes (Stapleton and Heald, 1991). If not directly
inactivated by heat, soilborne plant pathogens may be weakened (Freeman and Katan,
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N. Egypt. J. Microbiol. Vol. 17, January, 2007.
1988) and become vulnerable to soil fumigants, to other organisms, or to changes in the
soil atmosphere in solarized soil (Stapleton and DeVay, 1982; 1983).
Pullman et al., (1981) reported the effectiveness of solarization against
Verticillium wilt of safflower and cotton. Katan et al., (1983) showed long term effects
of soil solarization against Fusarium oxysporum f sp vasinfectum in cotton. Solarization
has the added advantages of being safe and nonchemical and may enhance the
effectiveness of other pest management approaches, such as biological control
(Stapleton and DeVay, 1986) and soil biofumigation (Davis et al., 1996).

On the other hand, soil solarization alone may not be consistently effective for
the control of soilborne pathogens. In such case, soil amendments have been used to
enhance the performance of solarization (Gamliel and Stapleton, 1993a; Keinath, 1996
and Ramirez-Villapudua and Munnecke, 1988). The efficacy of various organic
amendments for controlling soilborne plant pathogens has been attributed to the
formation of toxic volatile compounds, increase nutrient availability, reduce ground
water contamination, and stimulate beneficial microflora in the soil (Baker and Cook,
1974; Ramirez-Villapudua and Munnecke 1988).

As rich and varied source of bioactive natural products seaweeds have been
studied as potential biocidal and pharmaceutical agents (Ara et al., 1998, 1999, 2002a
and 2002b). Seaweeds are also known to aid and promote growth of different crops
(Blunden, 1991; Crouch, et al., 1994 and Washington et al., 1999). They contain all
major and minor plant nutrients as well as biocontrol properties and contain many
organic compounds such as auxins, gibberellins and precursor of ethylene and betaine
which affect plant growth (Wu, et al., 1997). Seaweeds have also shown cytotoxic (Ara,
et al., 1999), nematicidal and fungicidal (Ara, et al., 1998) hypoglyceamic (Ara et al.,
2002a) and antibacterial (Ara et al., 2002b) activities.

The beneficial effects of different organic amendments with solarization on the

incidence of wilt disease caused by F. oxysporum were reported by many investigators
(Ramirez-Villapudua and Munnecke, 1988; Souza, 1994; and Huang, 2006).

The present study describes the efficacy difference among soil solarization,
Caulerpa and Ulva seaweeds in the control of faba bean root rot disease caused by
Fusarium solani f. sp. fabae.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental design
Trials were carried out over two years from 2004 to 2006 on three consecutive crops
of faba bean (local cultivar) at the Botanical garden of Faculty of Science, University of
Suez Canal at Ismailia, in a field artificially infested with the pathogen.

Infested field was divided into two plots (12m2 each) in which both plots were
further divided into six sections each measuring 1 x 2 m (six solarized and six
unsolarized). For both solarized and unsolarized plots, eight sections were amended
with dried powdered thalli of Caulerpa prolifera and Ulva lactuca at a rate of 200 g-2
(Fig. 1).
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N. Egypt. J. Microbiol. Vol. 17, January, 2007.

12 m

Unmulched Control Caulerpa Ulva Control Caulerpa Ulva

Mulched Control Caulerpa Ulva Control Caulerpa Ulva

Fig. (1): Experiment design and different treatments.

Soil solarization and soil temperature:

Out of twelve plots only six were solarized (four amended, two remain without
amendment). Mulching was carried out on soil moistened by irrigation for the purpose
of increasing thermal sensitivity of resting structures, and improving heat conduction.
Soil was tilled before mulching and covered with transparent polyethylene sheets (5 µm
thick) in summer months. The polyethylene remained intact for 7 weeks. Soil
temperatures, recorded with a soil thermometer, were 49 – 54 ºC and 46 – 50 ºC at
depths of 5 and 15 cm respectively in mulched soil and 9 – 13 ºC lower in the
unsolarized plots.

Preparation of the pathogen and planting:

Inoculum of Fusarium solani f. sp. fabae was prepared in 250 ml flasks
containing 30 gm of barley grains and 5 ml water (autoclaved for 30 minutes). Five–
mm agar plugs of actively growing mycelium of isolate FSF1 from seven days old PDA
plate were transferred to each flask. The flasks were incubated at 29 ºC in the dark for 7
to 11 days and were shaken twice a week to ensure uniform growth of the isolate.
Inoculum of F. solani f. sp. fabae was incorporated into the soil by mixing barley grains
with soil at 100g-2 to a depth 5–15 cm before solarization.

Faba bean (local cultivar) was sown then planting. The crop was seeded at 25
seeds per row, irrigated routinely and amended with inorganic fertilizer. The plots were
planted at 40 centimeter apart from each other. After a growth period for 12 weeks
under field conditions, diseased plants have been sorted out and the incidence
percentage of root rot is calculated.

Soil analyses:
To study the effects of soil solarization and seaweeds amendments on the
chemical characteristics of the soil, various analyses pertaining: pH, organic matter,
total nitrogen, extractable phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium and chloride
were done by using standard methods according to Jackson (1958). The pH value of
fresh soil was determined potentiometrically in water (1: 2.5, soil: water, w/v) by using
electronic pH meter, model HI 8014 Hanna Ins. Italy).
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N. Egypt. J. Microbiol. Vol. 17, January, 2007.

Data analysis:
Data were analyzed with standard ANOVA technique using analysis of variance
to test the statistical significance of difference between means.

RESULTS

Soil temperature monitoring:

Soil solarization led to a strong increase in soil temperature. The maximum soil
temperatures recorded in the upper 15 cm of soil were 10 to 13 Cº higher in solarized
plots than that of unsolarized plots (Table 1). Maximum soil temperature recorded in
solarized plots were 55 and 53 oC, at 5 and 10 cm depths respectively; while unsolarized
soil revealed only 40 and 35 oC at the two mentioned depths.

Table (1): Soil temperature, in solarized and unsolarized plots in 2005 & 2006

soil temperature C

Solarization period Depth (cm) Solarized plots Unsolarized plots

Mean maximum mean maximum

5 35.8 55 27 35.1
July – August 2005
10 34.3 53 26 34.3

5 36.3 55 29.3 37.5

July – August 2006
10 35.2 54 29.1 36.8

Effects of organic amendments on root rot:

In field soil, the dried powder of Caulerpa and Ulva amendments reduced the
severity of faba bean root rot when they added in solarized or unsolarized soils. The
addition of Caulerpa and Ulva with or without solarization resulted in comparable
reduction in rot severity (Table 2). While mixed amendment (Caulerpa and Ulva) with
solarization revealed 88 %, 80 % healthy plants, unsolarized soil obtained 66% and 80%
healthy plants.

Table (2): Effects of solarization and amendment with Caulerpa and Ulva on
root rot of faba bean in field soil.

Percentage number of healthy plant

Amendment Soil type
Solarized plot Unsolarized
Caulerpa 88 80
Ulva 80 66
Control 85 35

Effect of soil solarization on root rot severity:

Solarization with or without the addition of Caulerpa and Ulva reduced the
disease incidence significantly, whereas infected plants only 12 and 20 % respectively,
 218
N. Egypt. J. Microbiol. Vol. 17, January, 2007.
as compared with 65 % for the unsolarized control (LSD, P = 0.05). However,
solarization combined with Ulva did not reduce the disease incidence to a significantly
greater extent than did solarization alone (Table 3).

Table (3): Efficacy of solarization with or without amendment on the faba bean
root rot.

Treatment Disease incidence (%)

Control 65
Solarization 15
Solarization + Caulerpa 12
Solarization + Ulva 34

Effects of solarization and amendment on chemical properties of field

soil:
Organic materials contained variable but generally higher levels of plant
nutrients, organic carbon, and salts than did field soil (Table 4). OM % was highest for
the Caulerpa and Ulva amended soil in both solarized and unsolarized soils. Caulerpa
and Ulva amended soils generally contained higher concentration of NPK and Mg than
that of untreated soils in both solarized and unsolarized soil.

Table (4): Some chemical properties of solarized and unsolarized sandy loam
field soil amended with organic materials.

Ca Mg Na Cl K P N
Plot OM
pH
Parameter (meq/l %
(meq/l) (meq/l) (meq/l) (ppm) (ppm) (µg/kg)
)
Solarized 8.85 2.35 1.2 10.70 10 2.31 590 425 1.7
Solarized + Caulerpa 8.75 3.43 1.37 8.0 6 2.73 616 585 2
Solarized + Ulva 8.45 2.81 1.38 18.90 20 2.85 990 650 1.5
Unsolarized 8.95 2.3 0.83 11.28 15 2.1 475 385 1.1
Unsolarized + Caulerpa 8.35 3.95 0.9 14.29 11 2.25 490 490 1.3
Unsolarized + Ulva 8.55 3.95 2.42 14.63 11 2.24 833 420 1.1

DISCUSSION
The efficacy of soil solarization is depended on the thermal dose, a product of
the temperature and exposure time, the thermal sensitivity of the organisms, and the
chemical, physical and biological characteristics of the soil (Pinkerton et al., 2000;
Pullman et al., 1981; Stapleton and DeVay, 1984). In our study, thermal dose in upper
10 cm, approximately 50 days above 50 oC was observed. This temperature is in the
range of those found to be lethal to many pathogens (Pinkerton et al., 2000). Soil
solarization gave significant reduction in faba bean root rot incidence caused by
Fusarium solani f. sp. fabae. It has been documented that conidia and chlamydospores
of Fusarium species were completely inactivated by exposure to 48 to 55 oC in moist
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N. Egypt. J. Microbiol. Vol. 17, January, 2007.
soil (Freeman and Katan, 1988; Ramirez-Villapudua and Munnecke, 1988; Pinkerton et
al., 2000; Zasada et al., 2003). Our data by using solarization (85 % healthy plants) are
in line with those obtained in Egypt (Abdel-Rahim et al., 1988; El-Shami et al., 1990)
and elsewhere allover the world (Pinkerton et al., 2000; Zasada et al., 2003; Gullino et
al., 1998; Assaf et al., 2006; Tamietti and Valentino, 2005).

Although solarization is very effective control measures for reduction soilborne

pathogens, it still inadequate for many pests. Solarization can be improved or reduce of
the time of solarization by combination of solarization with other control measures.
Combining organic amendments with soil solarization is a non-chemical approach
improving the control of soilborne pests. Heating of soil, covered with plastic film and
amended with appropriate organic material, activates chain reaction of chemical and
microbial degradation leading to the generation of toxic compounds in the vapor and
liquid soil phase. Generation of toxic compounds is increased with temperature
(Gamliel, 2000; Lodha and Burman, 2004).

The effect of combination of organic amendment and soil solarization as a

control method was tested in field experiment. Combining solarization with Ulva,
Caulerpa dried powdered thallus proved the efficacy of solarization subsequently
enhance the control of faba bean root rot. However, soil amended with Caulerpa
resultant in significant increase in healthy plants (reduce disease severity ) in
unsolarized soil, a sort of synergistic effect between Caulerpa amendment and
solarization was observed by increasing the number of healthy plants from 80 % in
unsolarized Caulerpa amended soil to 88 % in Caulerpa amended solarized soil. This
observation was reported by many investigators, Zasada et al. (2003) reported that use
of brassicaceous amendments in combination with solarization significantly controls
diverse soilborne organisms. Choi et al. (2006) demonstrated that combination of
solarization with spent mushroom effectively reduce pathogen population and disease
development, resulting in 16 – 53 % disease incidence, as compared to 81 % in the
untreated control.. Pinkerton et al., (2000) observed that solarization with or without
combination with cover crops resultant in reduce disease severity for Verticillium spp.
on eggplant and Phytophthora spp. on snapdragons. Ramirez-Villapudua and Munnecke
(1988) showed that solarization enhanced the activity of amended cruciferous residues
in controlling cabbage yellows caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans.
They were suggested that fungitoxic gases from the decomposing plant residues trapped
under the plastic trap were responsible for disease reduction.

However, although soil amended with Ulva dry powder reduce the disease
severity in unsolarized soil, antagonistic effect results from the combination of Ulva
with solarization decreasing the number of healthy plant from 85 % by solarization
alone to 65 % in solarized amended soil. This result agrees with those obtained by
Coelho et al,. (1999) who showed that combination of solarization with cabbage failure
to control Phytophthora spp. These results indicating that organic amendment may lead
to increase disease severity or failure to control certain soilborne disease. It is probable
that this might be due to either to amounts of amendment used or to the preparation of
the Ulva amendment and its incorporation into the soil.

The present research suggests that seaweeds (Caulerpa & Ulva) amendment
alone or in combination with solarization may be utilized for the control of faba bean
root rot. We speculate that Caulerpa and Ulva amendment may enhance antagonistic
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N. Egypt. J. Microbiol. Vol. 17, January, 2007.
fungal populations against Fusarium solani f. sp. fabae, increase nutrient availability,
and produce fungitoxic compounds. This assumption would be tested in future work.

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‫فاعلية التشميس و التسميد بأعشاب البحر فى مقاومة عفن الجذور الفيوزاريومى فى نبات الفول‬
‫البلدى‬

‫للسادة الدكاترة‬
‫محسن ابراھيم‪ -‬احمد عبد العظيم‪ -‬محمد حجازى‬
‫من‬
‫قسم العلوم الجيولوجية والبيولوجية‪ -‬كلية التربية‪ -‬جامعة قناة السويس‪ -‬العريش‬
‫قسم النبات‪-‬كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة قناة السويس‪ -‬االسماعيلية‬
‫قسم علوم البحار‪ -‬كلية العلوم‪ -‬جامعة قناة السويس‪ -‬االسماعيلية‬

‫فى ھذا البحث تم تقييم دور التشميس و التسميد بأعشاب البحر ) طحلبي الكوليربا وأولفا( وذلك بصورة مفردة أو‬
‫مزدوجة على مقاومة مرض تعفن الجذور الفيوزاريومى فى نبات الف ول البل دى‪ .‬أوض حت نت ائج ھ ذا البح ث ق درة‬
‫التشميس والتسميد على الحد من ھذا المرض بصورة ُمرض ية حي ث زادت ن سبة النبات ات ال سليمة م ن ‪ %35‬ف ى‬
‫التجربة الضابطة إلى ‪ % 88 : 80‬فى الترب ة المعالج ة بالت شميس و الت سميد‪ .‬كم ا أوض حت النت ائج أي ضا وج ود‬
‫نوع من التأزر بين التشميس والتسميد بطحلب الكوليربا حيث زادت نسبة النباتات ال سليمة م ن ‪ %85‬ف ى الترب ة‬
‫المشمسة فقط إلى ‪ %88‬فى التربة المشمسة و المسمدة‪.‬‬