Introduction to Microbiology

by: Chambukila R.P

RN,RCCN BSC NRS UNZA
 Introduction
• Microbiology is a very interesting and important course in
the field of nursing.
• so it is very important for a nurse to understand it, Your

clear understanding of this unit will create a milestone for

you to articulate terminologies and concepts used in
microbiology.
Cont.
• This unit is intended to assist you understand terms
used in microbiology, history of microbiology and
importance of microbiology in nursing.
• Let us start by reviewing our objectives for this
Topic.
General objective
• At the end of the lecture students should be

able to demonstrate understanding of

microbiology and its application in nursing.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lecture students should be able to;
1. Define terms related to microbiology.
2. Discuss the history of microbiology.
3. Explain the importance of microbiology in Nursing.
Definition of Terminologies used in
Microbiology
1. MICROBIOLOGY
• MICRO-------------which means: small or minute
• BIO-----------------which means: Life
• LOGY--------------which means: Study
• From the meaning of these three words, we can see
that microbiology is the study of small living
organisms.
Definitions Continue
• OR Microbiology is also the science that studies
micro-organisms and their effects on humans and
animals.
• OR Microbiology: it is the study of organisms which
are too small to be seen by the naked eye and these
include bacteria, viruses fungi and protozoa.
 Definitions Continue
2. MICRO ORGANISM (MICROBE)
• A microscopic cell
• Very small living organism
Micro-organisms: these are living organisms which are
too small to be seen by the naked eye. they can only be
seen by using a microscope.
Definitions Continue
3. MICROSCOPIC: Extremely small, visible only
with the aid of a microscope.
4. DARK GROUND MICROSCOPY:
A method of microscopy which allows unstained
microorganisms to be seen.
 Definitions Continue
5. PATHOLOGY: A branch of medical science that studies
the cause and nature and effects of the diseases.

6. PATHOGENIC: A disease causing organism

7.INFECTION: The successful invasion and

multiplication of pathogenic organisms
 Definitions Continue
8. PATHOGEN: A pathogen is a microbe that has the ability
to cause host tissue injury.

The host damage can be as a result of direct microbial activity

or arise from the host immune response.

This definition encompasses classical pathogens and

opportunistic pathogens.
Definitions continue
9. PATHOGENESIS: Pathogenesis is the steps or
mechanisms involved in the development of a
disease.
10. PATHOGENICITY: Pathogenicity is the
ability to cause disease.
Definitions Continue
11. VIRULENCE: This is defined as the level or
degree of pathogenicity. Thus, a pathogen has
greater virulence if its capacity to cause host damage
is high.
Definitions Continue
12. PARASITE: An organism living upon or within
another living organism deriving benefits as well as
causing harm to the host.

Or An animal or plant or microorganism which

depends on some other living animal or plant to
provide some or all necessities for its life process.
Definitions Continue
13. ECTO PARASITE: A parasite which lives on
the surface of its host e.g. a flea.

14. ENDO PARASITE: A parasite which lives inside

its host e.g. malaria parasite.
Definitions Continue
15. BACTERIOLOGY: This is a sub branch of
microbiology and is a scientific study of bacteria.

Or The branch of medical science that studies

bacteria in relation to disease
Definitions Continue
16. VIROLOGY: A sub branch of microbiology and is
a scientific study of viruses.

Or The branch of medical science that studies viruses

and viral diseases.
Definitions Continue
17. MYCOLOGY: The scientific study of fungi.
Or The branch of botany that studies fungi and
fungus-caused diseases.
18. PROTOZOOLOGY: The scientific study of
protozoa.
Definitions Continue
19. HAEMATOLOGY: The science dealing with the
formation, composition, functions and diseases of the
blood.

20. ONCOLOGY: The scientific and medical study of

tumours.
Definitions Continue
21. ATTENUATED STRAIN: A strain of micro-
organism which has diminished virulence/
weakened.

22. AUTOCLAVE: A device in which objects are

sterilized by steam under pressure.
Definitions Continue
23. CARRIER: A person who, though not suffering
obviously from a particular disease, continues to
harbor and to excrete the causative organisms which
may be passed on to others.
Definitions Continue
24. CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENT: A synthetic
substance which has a destructive action against
microorganisms and which is used to treat infection.
Definitions Continue
25. FERMENTATION: The incomplete splitting of
sugar by microorganisms to provide energy for their
growth which yields alcohol, acids and gases.

26. GENUS: A group animals or plants which though

not identical, have many characters in common.
Definitions Continue
27. GRAM STAIN: A method of bacteriological
staining which divides bacteria into gram-positive
and gram-negative types. The gram reaction depends
on the nature of the bacteria cell wall.

28. HOST: The animal or tissue on which a parasite

lives and multiplies.
Definitions Continue
29. INTERFERON: A substance released by cells
infected with viruses which renders other cells
resistant to virus infection.
 Definitions Continue
30. INFECTION: A state in which the body or part of
it is invaded by a pathogenic organism which under
favorable conditions multiplies and produces effects
which are harmful or injurious to the host.
Definitions Continue
31. MACROPHAGE: A large bacterium which has
the ability to ingest (phagocytose) bacteria and other
particles found in chronic inflammation.
Definitions Continue
32. ANTIBODY: A specific substance (a type of protein)
found in the blood that is formed in response to an antigen.

33. ANTIGEN: A substance that stimulates the production

of antibody or reacts with them when introduced in the
body.
Definitions Continue
34. ANTITOXIN: An antibody which can
specifically neutralize a particular toxin.
35. TOXIN: Poisonous substance released by certain
organisms which has damaging action on the tissues
36. ASEPSIS: Free from germs/from infection
Definitions Continue
37. ANTISEPTIC: An agent which prevents the growth
of micro-organisms.

38. BACTERIOCIDE: An agent that destroys bacteria.

39. ACID FAST BACILLUS: An organism which when

once stained will resist decolonization with acid.
 Definitions Continue
40. AEROBE (AEROBIC ORGANISM): A micro-
organism which can live or thrive (grow) in the
presence of oxygen.

41. ANAEROBE (ANAEROBIC ORGANISM): A

microorganism which can live or thrive in the absence
of oxygen.
Definitions Continue
42. FACULTATIVE ANAEROBE: A microorganism
which can grow under both anaerobic and aerobic
conditions.

43. MEDIUM: The mixture of substances in or on

which bacteria are cultivated in the laboratory
Definitions Continue
44. COMMENSALS (NORMAL FLORA): These are
harmless organisms in their normal sites but capable of
causing disease when transmitted to an abnormal site e.g.
Escherichia coli (Escoli) are the harmless resident of the
gut which can cause infection in the wound or urinary
tract.
Definitions Continue
45. MICRO AEROPHILIC: Bacteria which grow
best in the presence of a low concentration of oxygen
i.e. less than that found in the air.

46. MICRON: A unit of measurement of length

equals 1/1000th of a millimeter.
Definitions Continue
47. MOTILE: Able to move under its own power.

48. MUTATION: The spontaneous, random change

which sometimes occurs in the genetic constitution
of an organism.
Definitions Continue
49. NORMAL FLORA: The micro-organisms which are
found on the skin in the respiratory tract in the intestines
etc. of the normal healthy animal.
OR Organisms present in or on certain parts of the body
that are capable of producing infection if introduced to
abnormal sites.
Definitions Continue
50. IMMUNITY: The body’s ability to resist
invading organisms/to resist infection.

51. SAPROPHYTE: A micro-organism which is able

to live without parasitizing an animal or plant.
Definitions Continue
52. SEPTICAEMIA: The presence of bacteria and
their toxins in the blood stream.

53. SEPSIS: Infection of the body by pus forming

bacteria or pathogenic micro-organism in the body.
Definitions Continue
54. SPECIES: A group of micro—organisms or plants or
animals which have very much characters in common.

55. SPORE: A structure produced by some species of

bacteria which is very resistant to adverse conditions e.g.
heating or drying which could kill the average bacterium.
Definitions Continue
OR The spore is also able to survive the adverse
conditions and to germinate once conditions are
favorable.
 History of microbiology
• Science develops and advances through the continued

interest of man for knowledge.

• Early ideas of microbiology can be traced many

centuries ago.
 History of microbiology Cont.
• evidence of the existence micro-organisms was first
noted when organic matter decayed and purified more
than 2000 years ago by the father of medicine,
HIPPOCRATES.
• his observation could not be studied further due to
lack of equipment.
 History of microbiology continue
Microbiology has developed over a period of years.

The notable periods starts from 1500 to the year

1900+. The events were happening simultaneously in
different countries.

The following are the notable ones.

 Antonius Van Leeuwenhoek
(A Dutch [draper] merchant who lived from 1632-1723)
• He was the first to invent a primitive hand man MADE
microscope.
• (It consisted of a single magnifying lens held in a flame) he
was able to see objects which he called animalcules in rain
water from pools, scrapings (tartar) from teeth and in faeces.
 Cont.
• He noted that some were actively moving, and

described stick like shapes and spirals after that,

• the microscope raised a lot of media arguments to the

scientists as to whether the animalcules were

produced spontaneously.

•
 Cont.
• His observation raised interesting questions like where did

these minute creatures originate from?.

• Due to lack of equipment to investigate their origin, he came

up with “the theory of SPONTANEOUS GENERATION”.

• in this theory he believed that living things developed from

non-living things.
 Cont.
• he made this conclusion when he saw decaying meat
producing maggots.
• People believed that mice, maggots and micro-organisms
arose spontaneous from nowhere.
• The argument resulted in experiments which often gave
conflicting results.
FRANCECO REDI (1626-1697
• He lived between 1626 and 1697,

• In response to Leeuwenhoek’s observation.

• through his experiment he discovered that maggots

were not spontaneously formed in decomposed
meat but that larvae were the maggots which came
from the flies.
Cont.
• He discovered that boiling meat which has been

exposed over a period of time, render it free from

micro-organisms.

• he also discovered that when you remove air from

the heated organic materials, you can prevent them

from decaying.
 Cont.
• by this time it was becoming evident that air was the
source of contamination with micro-organisms
instead of spontaneous generation.
• Redi’s work was later confirmed by Lazzare
Spallanzani (1776).
 LAZZARE SPALLANZANI-1776
• He was an Italian priest; he was the first to cultivate
bacteria in a sterilized media with and without air.

• He also demonstrated that heating (boiling) meat for a

sufficient length of time and then sealed would not
contain bacteria.
Cont.
• His experiments excluded air from heated organic
materials. By this time, it was becoming clear that air is
the common source of microorganism.
• The theory of spontaneous generation was finally
thrown out and the idea of boiling as a means of
sterilization was generally accepted.
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
• Known as the Father of modern microbiology
• Developed attenuated vaccines for highly infectious
diseases like Anthrax Cholera and Rabies.
• He came up with the pasteurisation, thus heating milk
at a very high temperature then rapidly cooling it.
• This is also known as sterilisation.
 Cont.
• Discovered that yeast, a microscopic organism caused the

fermentation of sugar and starch to alcohol(fermentation).

while investigating a silk worm disease which was affecting the
silk industry, he came up with the “germ theory of disease”.it
states that some disease are caused by microorganisms and not

sins, bad character or poverty.

Cont.
• These microorganisms invade humans, animals and
other living host.
• their growth and reproduction within a host cause a
disease.
Joseph lister (1827-1912)
Inspired by Pasteur’s observation that living organisms
invisible to a naked eye can cause infection.

High rates of sepsis in post-operative patients made him

believe Pasteur.
 Cont.
• Lister then introduced spraying with carbolic acid
over the operative area.
• This reduced the rates of infection.
• He was a professor of surgery.
Robert Koch (1843-1910)
• Discovered that anthrax was caused by bacteria
• Introduced the use of dye to colour bacteria so that it
can be easily seen using modern diagnostic
bacteriology.
• Demonstrated that tuberculosis was a bacterial
disease, that is why TB is also referred as Koch’s
disease
• He came up with 4 postulates;
Koch’s postulates.
1. An organism should always be found in association
with its own particular disease.
2. An organism should be isolated and propagated in
pure culture in vitro.
3. Inoculation of the pure culture by a suitable route
into a susceptible host should produce the disease.
4. The organism should be able to be isolated from the
new host.
1796-EDWARD JENNER

• Introduced cowpox vaccine/vaccination

1546-Fracastoro(an Italian Physician)
• He first suggested that: infection is the same for who
received and who has given the infection (like other known
living things animalcules arose from others like them).
• Infection is caused by minute insensible particles and is
spread by means of them.
• He also introduced the idea of contagium vivum.
 1847 Semmelewes
• The Viennese obstetrician, he noted that puerperal
fever was transmitted from one patient to another
through hands of attendants.
• He showed that infection could be reduced by hand
washing in between patients using chlorinated lime
as an antiseptic.
• This discovery made the foundation stone of modern
antiseptic techniques being used in hospitals.
1854-John Snow
A scientist in London who demonstrated that cholera
was transmitted through drinking contaminated
water.
Klebs and Fredrick Loeffler (1852-1920)
• A German bacteriologist who with Klebs isolated the Diphtheria

Bacilli which they named after themselves as Klebs Loeffler Bacilli

(KLB)

• In 1888, they discovered that symptoms of diphtheria were not

caused directly by bacteria but by a substance known as toxin

produced by the bacteria, carried in the blood stream able to produce
tissue damage.
Emil Vanbehring (1854-1917)
• He discovered Diphtheria antitoxin in 1890.

• He showed that diphtheria could be prevented and

cured by the administration of serum from the horse
convalescent from diphtheria.
• This was the discovery of antitoxins.
 Virology
• It has developed more on the same line with bacteria

but the size of viral particles made it difficult to progress

fast.

• In 1898, it was found that some infectious diseases

were not caused by bacteria but by much smaller,

microscopically invisible filterable viruses.
 Theillers
•He discovered the vaccine for
yellow fever.
 Salk and Sabin
• They discovered the vaccine for poliomyelitis
History Cont.
• The progress was extremely rapid in the latter part
of the 19th century and the following years saw
much of the knowledge confirmed and extended the
detailed structure and physiology of bacteria were
investigated.
 History Cont.
• The best known antibiotic, penicillin was discovered by

Alexander Fleming in 1929.

• This was further developed by Florey and Chain in oxford in

1940. Penicillin is produced by the mould penicillium notatum.

• It was called the magical-bullet which cured anything at that

time.
Other Microbiologists
KIYOSHI SHIGA (1870-1959)
• He discovered the dysentery bacilli known as
shingella shiga
ALBERT NEISSER (1855-1916)
• He discovered the gonococco organism which
causes Gonorrhoea, It was named after him and
called it Neisseria Gonorrhoea
Cont.
EDWARD KLEIN (1844-1925)

• He identified streptococcus as the cause of scarlet fever.

• ANGUS VON WASSERMAN (1866-1925)

• He introduced the first use for diagnosis of syphilis which

is known as Wassermann’s Reaction

 Cont.
• LEON CALMETTE (1863-1933)

Together with CAMILLE GUREN, they introduced a BCG

vaccine (Bacillus Camille Guren) against tuberculosis.
• WILLIAM WELCHI (1850-1935)

He discovered and described the organism that causes GAS

GANGRENE as Clostridium Welchi
Cont.
PRINCE CHARLES CHAMBERLAND (1857-
1908)

• He discovered an instrument called an Autoclave

used in the sterilization of surgical instruments.

Cont.
Sir Alexander flemmings (1891-1955)-British
bacteriologist discovered the antibiotic penicillin in
1929.
 IMPORTANCE OF
MICROBIOLOGY TO NURSING
• To make the nurse understand the principle
underlined in the control of infection.
• 1. Understanding of microbiology is important if
they have to work safely in the community and
hospital in the control and prevention of the
spread of infection.
 Cont.
2. One of the roles of the nurse is to aid in the cure of
disease when it is established.
Therefore, in order to function effectively, the nurse
should know all the micro-organisms which cause
disease.
This is to give proper information to patients and
relatives.
Cont.
3.To make the nurse understand the principle
underlined in the control of infection.

4.Understanding of microbiology is important if

they have to work safely in the community and
hospital in the control and prevention of the
spread of infection.
THE
. END