Religion and Ethics

➔ Does God love goodness because it is good? or Is it good because God loves it?
➔ Do we do good deeds because we know these are good?
➔ Do we do good deeds because these are pleasing to our God?
1.1. Does morality depend on religion?
"Do the gods love holiness because it is holy, or is it holy because the gods love it?" (Plato
in his dialogue Euthyphro)
1.1.1. The Divine Command Theory (1)
Ethical principles are the commands of God.
● Their validity is from God's commanding them.
● Without God, there would be no universally valid morality.
1.1.1. The Divine Commandment Theory (2)
(They affirm that….)
● Morality (the right-ness and the wrong-ness) originates with God.
● Moral right-ness is what is according to God's will, and moral wrong-ness is
what is against God's will.
● Because morality is essentially based on divine will, not on independently
existing reasons for action, thus no further reasons for action are necessary.
(In opposition)
● Morality does not originate with God (although the way God created us may
affect the specific nature of morality).
○ Ex. If man were made as non-rational or non-free, then necessarily there
is no morality.
● Right-ness and wrong-ness are not based simply on God's will.
● Essentially, there are reasons for acting one way or the other, which may be
known independently of God's will.
(St. Thomas Aquinas)
● Eternal Law: God's will that all things be good, and that all things achieve their
ends or purposes.
● Natural Law: Man's interpretation of the Eternal law, and man's application of
it in his life.
● Natural moral law: Based on the Natural Law, man objectively classifies some
deeds as inherently good, or some deeds as inherently evil.
○ Ex. Good deeds: Praying to a god; charity or almsgiving.
○ Bad deeds: Murder; Telling lies; cheating; plunder.
1.1.2. Problems with the Divine Command Theory
a) It seems to make redundant the attribution of "goodness" to God. Goodness, or
goodwill, is inherent or basic in any civilized and reasonable idea of a God. (in
Jewish, Christian, Hindu, Taoist, Buddhist, and Muslim)
 b) It seems to make morality arbitrary: If a God, or a religion, suddenly commands
us to rape, plunder, kill the innocent, and be cruel just for fun; then these
deeds become good. God does not contradict
c) Himself.
● God's power does not include being able to override the laws of math. (Ex. =
6.1521; 2 × 3 = 10)
● The objective moral law, which may be internal to God's nature, is a law that
even God must follow (if He is to be a good God). (Ex. Thus, the rapist Zeus is a
false God.)
● God cannot change the moral law any more than He can change the laws of
logic; although God is the source of the moral law.

1.1.3. Immanuel Kant: God makes morality possible.

● The mere possibility of meaningful ethics depends on religion.
● No big difference between valid religious ethics and valid philosophical ethics.
● God and humanity both have to obey the same rational principles, and the
reason is sufficient to guide men to these principles.
● Religion completes morality, by directly linking morality with the immortality
of the soul and God's existence.

1.2. Secular philosophy:

1. Religion is not relevant to morality.
2. Religion is contrary to true morality.

Reactions to B. Russell:
1. Russell's secular morality cannot convincingly answer the question “Why
should I be moral?”
The common material goods or pleasures are not enough to make us sacrifice
our welfare or self-interest for our moral duty. (ex. Is the lifetime pension for
my family an adequate reason for me to die as a Filipino soldier defending the
Spratly islands against the Chinese invaders?)
(Lupang Hinirang: “...ang mamatay nang dahil sa iyo...”)
2. Secular morality is superficial and not deeply rooted. No metaphysical
foundation.
Russell's secular moral view is deep in matter and energy, natural law, chance,
or chaos. It starts in man, is for man, and ends in man; but not for something
greater than the man himself.
1.2.2. David Hume: The immorality of God and Religion.
Religious morality is an inferior type of morality that actually prevents deep
moral development.
A) The god in popular religions is an image of a tyrant who acts out with a
vengeance, severity, cruelty, or malice.
B) Religious practices are typically contrary to morality. In their attempts to
please God, the believers perform absurd religious rituals, not through
moral behavior.
1.2.2.1. Reactions on David Hume:
A) His moral views rest on some very broad generalizations. (The statistical mean
or average is not always true.)
● Some people have distorted views of God's nature and religious
observance. (only some, not everyone)
● Nonetheless, the believer assumes there is a true and morally pure idea
of God and religion.
B) To be truly moral (Hume suggests) I need to reduce my religious superstition
& fanaticism; to make religion just a minor hobby in my life.
1.2.2.2. Richard Dawkins follows David Hume.
➔ Dawkins (a non-believer, following Charles Darwin) :
a) Religion promotes immorality. (Ex. the O.T. story of Joshua's troops killing the
residents of Jericho. The Israeli children approved of it (66%), and disapproved
of it (26%). The same story but changed into a Chinese setting and characters,
got disapproved by 75%.)
b) Religion gives people a misguided loyalty towards members of their own
in-group and fosters suspicion and hostility toward outsiders.
Reaction to Dawkins:
a) The real issue now is not how ancient the Bible, the Koran, the Vedas, the
Upanishads, etc. But rather how religious traditions have interpreted these
sacred texts and whether those interpretations have kept up with evolving
standards of social justice.
b) Dawkins simplistically & directly blames religion. He misses out on the fact
that such immorality is perpetuated in a larger social and political
environment where religion is merely a part.
1.2.3. Nowell-Smith & Rachels: Religion conflicts with moral autonomy.
A) P.H. Nowell-Smith cites Jean Piaget's research in child development: Small
children, when taught to value rules of the game, hold on tenaciously to such
rules; even when there is an urgent reason to suspend such rules. Children
miss the wider purposes of the rules of the game. (Infantile morality)
B) James Rachels alleges that believers give up their autonomy in worship, and
so are immoral.
1.2.3.1. Reactions on Nowell-Smith and Rachels.
A) Some religious people and some secularists are rigidly and unreasonably
rule-bound, but not all religious people are. (Ex. Jesus Himself taught the
Sabbath was made for man; not vice-versa); so it was justifiable on a Sabbath
to heal, to do good, or to save property.
The rules do serve a purpose which is the human good.
B) A mature believer does not sacrifice his reason or autonomy to worship. God
wants us to be intelligent, discriminating, and sensitive in all of our
deliberations.
● My decision rests on the previous decisions of the experts (in this field). My
own decision, in itself alone, is not enough.
Consulting the view or opinion of another (in a similar scenario) is an exercise
of autonomy, rather than an abdication of it.
1.3. Does religion enhance moral life?
➔ 1.3.1. Affirmative: The Case for Religion.
Religion enriches morality in six ways:
a) If there is a God, good will win out over evil. We are not fighting alone; God is on
our side in the battle. We are not fighting in vain; we will eventually win!
The ultimate victory of goodness inspires us to fight against injustice or
cruelty, although many think that righteousness is not favored by the odds.
b) If God exists, then cosmic justice reigns in the universe. Divine grace goes
beyond what is legally deserved. God forgives the repentant sinner of his sins.
If we have goodwill, God will give us more than we deserve. The authentic good
is really good for us.
c) If theism is true, moral reasons always override non-moral reasons.
(Why should I adhere to a given moral principle when I can get away with
violating it?)
To be moral is to function properly, the way God intended us to live. God
ensures the reward for the good (and the penalty for the evil).
d) If theism is true, then there is a God who loves us and cares for us. God's love
inspires us!
The believer has an added reason to be moral, beyond rewards or penalties,
and more than what a secular person already has.
(Ex. The Muslim terrorist or Al Qaeda are somehow true in their complaint that
the USA has become an immoral, decadent, hedonistic selfish civilization.
Freedom and wealth in secular society have been misused.)
e) If there is a God who created us in His image, then all persons are of equal
worth.
We ought to treat one another benevolently because we belong to one and the
same humankind, on only one planet.
 Without the parenthood of God, it makes no sense (or least sense) that all
persons are innate of positive equal value.
f) If God exists, we have a compelling solution to the “posterity” problem.
By intuition, we all have obligations to future generations.
(I need to stay healthy for my spouse, live longer, and provide better comfort
for my kids & grandkids!)
All humans get depressed and hopeless; they commit mass- suicide; or they
take a drug that gives ecstatic happiness but renders each human sterile. The
End of humanity!
But the fact that we value our family, care for our children and wish to
procreate and take care of our habitat shows we are suitable to survive and
preserve our human species.
Religion gives us 2 reasons to care for future generations:
1) God commands us to continue the human species.
2) God knows who will be born and loves these people as if they already
existed. The whole life span of the universe (20 billion years ago, plus 20
billion years to go, that is 40 billion years) is good; it is worth it all!
● As good caretakers, we have the duty (to God) to be good to our planet and to
leave it healthy for future humans.
● In many ways, the world of the theist is far better and more satisfying than the
world of the atheist.
● Through religion, the believer has access to deeper moral truths which are not
realized by the non-believer.
1.3.2. Negative: The Case against Religion.
Religious morality makes the world worse.
a) A lot of evil has been done by religious people in the name of religion.
b) We do not know for sure whether a benevolent God exists.
c) Religious morality closes off dialogue.
d) Religious morality leads to group intolerance.
e) Religious morality threatens church-state separation.
Counter-reply:
a) Some people use religion as powerful means for good. (Ex. Mother
Teresa/Saint Teresa; St. Father Maximilian Kolbe)
Some people can use religion (or its wrong interpretation) to justify mass
murder (Ex. The Crusades; the Sept. 11 World Trade Center bombing)
b) Religion is based more on faith, than hard evidence. We cannot be sure if
our interpretation of God's will is the always correct one.
But, most of us are more certain about the core of our morality (than about the
central doctrines of theology).
 Thus, it is ill-advised to oblige society to give up a morality based on reason (in
favor of one which is totally based on revelation).
c) Religion can often be unrelenting on some issues; like premarital sex,
contraception, same-sex marriage, cloning, or the death penalty. The debates
ought to continue. But tolerance and respect are the reasonable options left
when each man is compelled to give his position (which may be partially
based on his religion).
d) Followers of different religions, or members of different sectoral groups,
must slow down in branding or condemning the non-members. If possible, it is
better to avoid or ignore, the issues of contest or conflict.
e) The church-state separation can be upheld; when the moral agendas of
religious organizations are not transformed into political efforts to change
society.
Easier said than done! Aim for inter-religious dialogue.
In ethics of belief, all humans must apply rational scrutiny to our religious
beliefs, and to all other beliefs, and then cooperate for a better understanding
of our belief systems.
What will eventually save our world and solve its persistent problems is a
deep, comprehensive ethical theory and moral living; not science, not
technology.
1.4. CONCLUSION:
1.4.1. God, if He exists, loves the good because of its intrinsic value.
Morality has independent value.
Moral truth exists, whether or not God does.
1.4.2. Religion can enhance moral life by providing motivating reasons to be
moral.

The Rise of Social Media and The Problem of Fake News

● Decline of print media, due to: - rise of cable TV (mid 80s)
○ rise of internet use (mid 90s)

● Fact-based investigative reporting was costly. Opinion-based local news

coverage was cheaper.
● Bonanza: 2016 Presidential Elections
○ CNN gained $ 1 billion
○ Fox TV gained $ 1.7 billion.

● The saturated TV coverage of Trump.

○ “Sleeping with the (potential) enemy” ?? CNN regrets helping
Trump get elected!!
 ● The printed broadsheets were dying;
○ The cable TV news was bought by the liar Trump; The citizens
ended up relying on Social Media.
○ Facebook (2004) YouTube (2005) Twitter (2006)

● 10,000 ‘likes’ = trending stories

○ Social media searches for, and displayed the news stories that
subscribers most likely want to see.
○ Social media blurred the lines separating factual news from
opinions.
○ Accuracy got lost, in favor of: - convenience or speed, and -
likeability or appeal.
○ The blinded social media addicts desire confirmation bias.
Which one will I tell you?? The truth (bare and painful), or What do you
want to hear (edited truth)?
Social media made it convenient:
● For people not to think, not to analyze, not to verify.
● Easier to click, and faster to like, accept, to confirm; or
● To delete, cancel, unfriend, and
● To copy paste, etc.

The internet is...

● The most accessible source of reliable data;
● The effective ‘echo’ chamber; the echo is re- echo-ed.
● Manipulating the users by half-truths, or fake news!!
True, False or puede na rin?!?

Don’t
believe everything you read on the Internet. - Thomas Jefferson
(the opening words of this chapter 5 of the book of Lee McIntyre)
In times of universal deceit, telling the truth will be a revolutionary act. - George
Orwell
 (the opening words of chapter 1 of this book of Lee McIntyre)

Factual news is not Propaganda.

- Propaganda is news ‘spinned’, pinaganda on one side only, which
advances the specific agenda, for that given time, to favor a chosen
group or sector (ignoring the others muna).

The Problem of Fake News

● It is true that Trump is not the origin of fake news.
● With the birth of real news, also emerged fake news.
● The sorting out: to separate the facts from the less reliable sources
(partisan politics, religious bias, eyewitness accounts, etc.)

Fake news in French or USA revolts: Propaganda: done by reformists/rebels,

so the people will blame the ruling party.
● Myth: Spreading exaggerated stories of exploits of the warrior-leader, to
sow fear among the opponents. (Achilles, John Rambo, G.I. Joe)
● Hearsay = tsismis = gossip?
● Gossip is an unfounded speculation; Only a probability, but not a fact.
● “Her friend told him, to tell me, so now I tell you that....”

Objective news = non-biased

● reporting The Associated Press (1848):
○ The idea of responsible journalism;
○ From different political views, to produce objective news acceptable to
all clients.
○ The practice of factual non-partisan reporting, instead of the
sensationalized/scandalous.
○ The readers got used to objective news reporting, by the mainstream
broadsheets.
○ Then, the values of objectivity and nonpartisanship were eroded with
the coming of internet-generated news. (ex. Mocha’s)
○ The alleged truth is dictated by economists and/or politicians. (ex.
Cronies of Marcos; the new oligarchs of Duterte)

The price we must pay for...

● We took for granted that vigilance for objectivity.
● We presume it is always there, but we did not work for it; we did not do
enough to sustain it.
 ● Our feeling of entitlement stagnated our critical thinking.

Not slip of the pen, or slip of tongue

- Fake news is news deliberately created false for a given purpose.
- Ex. The clickbait (in the 2016 USA elections)
- More clicks, more likes = more ads, more income online. (Very probable
Trump supporters paid many trolls to click more, making Trump more
popular, and marketable; Cayetano did the same for Duterte.)

The Maker of Fake News:

● Just did it for the big money;
● Did not think people do consider as real the fake news he made;
● Thought he made only a satire, a joke, or a myth; not fake news.
(freedom of expression is his escape or alibi).
● Justified it, saying anyway fake news is done by both contending
parties.

Fake news is...

● Intentional
● Telling a lie
● Propaganda, in partisan politics
Propaganda is
- At best, to re-package an alternative ideology.
- At worst, a means to exploit and strengthen a flawed ideology.
- Thus, it is to deceive, and then to rule.

Propaganda tactic
● Stirring up emotions;
● Ad hominem attacks, or threats on critics;
● Scapegoating;
● Fabricating;
● Evading the issue that pulls down the ratings; • Seeking division;
● Usurping power (pakialamero na sya) (dictator like Trump, Duterte,
Marcos, Saddam)

The powerful dictator defies, and denies reality, to stay on top!

- (Marcos, Peron, Mubarak, Hitler, Stalin, Assad)
“We are an empire now, we can create our reality.” - Pres. George W. Bush
● The ideal subject of totalitarian rule is those people who can no longer
distinguish facts from fiction, the true from the false.
 ● Propaganda works best when those who are being manipulated are
confident they are acting of their own free will. (Goebbels)
● Deception, manipulation, and exploitation are tools to create an
authoritarian rule.

The mainstream media is gagged... Or bought or discredited.

- Thus, people are forced to rely on their own closed views and to believe
only what fits their prejudices.
Belief can be tribal:
- Yes, go ahead. But our tribe is not your clan. Kayo lang; kami ay kaka-iba.
- (Sorry po. Sarado iglesia ni Cristo po kami! - yet some Muslims are more
christian than them.)
● Who needs censorship when the truth can be buried under a pile of lies?
● In post-truth, feelings matter more than truth.
● The tyrant loves it when the people cannot see the truth from the false.
● social media is an effective cheap tool for fake news and alternative
facts (edited truth).
● The tyrant does not need our consent; he just imposes on us directly, or
via subtle means. (ex. Train laws 1 and 2)
● The dictator uses FN to soften us, subdue our critical thinking (mental
conditioning); confuse us; to make us doubt objective news sources.

How do we fight back??

● We use fact-checker websites, to see which is a reliable source.
● We must accept this as a systemic problem, and see how it is exploited.
● Let fake news be flooded with actual news, objective news. (Strength in
numbers!)
● We subscribe to investigative newsgroups; we patronize more the
evidence-based reporting.
● Especially, we educators must advocate and practice critical thinking
with our students.
● Fake news and post-truth are not one and the same but are very much
related
● Social media is only a tool, not the outcome.
● Lies spread faster than the truth; thus, we need to educate internet
users.
● We stop using social media to attack, deceive, to manipulate.
● We must use it to spread the truth; unify the vibrant pluralism; to
include more of the marginalized and disempowered.
 THE TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIUS

CONFUCIUS
● Born in eastern China in 551 B.C.
● A philosopher and teacher
● Become entwined with the identity of China
● He loved to learn
● Moral transformation and handling government problems
● Education and reflection led to virtue
● Famous sayings are relatable in modern times
● Served as an advisor
● Helped shape Chinese culture
● His students preserved his teachings
● Basis of Governments and Influencing Chinese History

LUNYU OR ANALECTS
● Recorded exchanges with his disciples
● Lessons are transmitted from antiquity
● Reliance on and love for the ancients
● Claims were antique precedents for his ideology
● Contained several original works considered radical
● EXAMPLE
○ 7:29 The Master said, "Is humaneness far away? If I want to be
humane, then humaneness is here.”
ON ETHICS
A. REN
● "compassion" or "loving others"
● Simple in manner, slow in speech
● Devotion to parents and older siblings
● Multigenerational lineages are the most important
● Understand your role within your lineage & social constructs
● Family is at the center of hierarchies
● This contrasted with the Mohists' idea of jian ai or impartial love
○ EXAMPLE
○ do not do to others what others do unto you
B. Li
● Specific forms and rules of rituals and propriety
● A way to express respect for superiors
 ● To enact one's role in society
● Reconcile desires with the needs of family and community.
● Strong sense of empathy and concern
● Rites require complete devotion and sincerity

ON POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
● Must possess self-discipline and lead by example
● Treat subjects with care and affection
● Enforcing laws and punishments would not lead to genuine morality
● Claim a title that's theirs and live up to it
● Change has to start from the top of the government
● Leading by example will create great leaders

CONCLUSION:
● Good Citizens Come To Good Families
● He exemplified BENEVOLENCE and INTEGRITY through his teachings and
became one of China’s greatest Philosophers
● He believes that human character is formed in the family and by education in
ritual, literature, and history
● A person who cultivated this way works to help others, guiding them by moral
inspiration rather than brute force.
● To put his teachings into practice, Confucius became an advisor to the wise
ruler of his home state of Lu.
● He believes that a good ruler inspires others to spontaneously follow him, by
virtue of his ethical charisma
● He also believes that because love and respect, we learn in the family, are
fundamental to all other virtues, personal duties to family sometimes
supersed obligations to the state.
● He was the living embodiment of a sage who leads others through his virtue,
and they recorded his sayings, edited into a book, the analects

TAOISM
WHO IS LAO TZU
● "Master Lao" or"Old Master"
● Founding philosopher of Chinese Daoism
● Name:
○ Surname: Li
○ Given name: Er
○ Nickname: Dan
 ● Author of the Daodeijing

TAO TE CHING
● Also known as the Dao De Jing
● Compilation of 81 chapters about living in harmony with "the Tao"
● Three pillars
○ Simplicity
○ Patience
○ Passion

DAOISM
● One of China's two primary religious/philosophical systems.
● Sometimes used to refer to other naturalistic or mystical faiths.
● Premise
○ Help people understand that the only human behaviors that ultimately
make sense are those that are in accordance with the flow of Nature -
the Dao or the Way.
YIN YANG:
- Taoists believe that by living in harmony with the way, a person will not have to
fight against the universe’s flow.
- Ex. listen more, talk less
- Do not worry about being the best be who you are
- Live simply, complications take you away from the DAO.
- A wise person is flexible.

- Yin and yang cycle of life= the inverted S in YIN which means we should not
block, (WU WEI) = do not impede/do not block.
- Yin and yang are not totally opposite, they are relative to each other.
- Taoists believe that the universe is made up of energies, vibrations, and matter
which behave differently, in different contexts, something can be yin and yang
depending on lots of things.
- YANG = Harder, stronger, brighter, faster but one can turn into the other or two
sides of the same coin.
- YIN = the darker swirl, the female, while the dot in it
- YANG = is the lighter, the male, but it has a black dot.
- Water flowing calmly in a river is YIN, but when it goes over the waterfall, it
becomes YANG.
- Daoism teaches that there is a power in the universe. It’s higher and deeper
and truer than any other force, they call it DAO = means the way, like the force
in star wars, the DAO has two sides.
 ● QI - ENERGY
● YIN - HEAVIER
● YANG - LIGHTER

Question:
➔ If the yin and the yang are not balanced, does it automatically equate to "bad
luck" since in each thing, there is always a different kind of force in power?

DAO de qing
DAO = The way
- Or the right/proper course
- Or pathway
- Or the beginning/the end
Dao (capital D) = the source
dao (lower case D) = things emanating from the source

Dao DE qing
DE = Virtue
- Or potentiality
- Or the capacity to become
Dao + de = The way towards the capacity to become
● De is your capacity to improve, not to improve; to do good, not to do good

Dao de QING
qing/qi = Energy
- Or the consequence of the Yin and Yang

INFINITE
● DAO > ONE
● ONE > TWO
● THREE > TEN THOUSAND

➔ WU - To do nothing
➔ XUAN - mystery
➔ WU WEI - Do not block/ Do not impede

● Be like water because water is free flowing

CONCLUSION
● To live a contented life, we must have a flowing or effortless action
 ● Who to rely on if not on an external god? Nature's path.
● Can you keep smiling even when life turns sour?
● LAO TZU = telling us we do not need to rely on external gods because, through
our own actions, we can find balance
● We should follow nature's path
● Life itself is our teacher, we are in a state of constant learning.
● Dao is nothing but it leads to something, we called that the QING, the DAO
speaks unity but it will lead to multiplicity which is the QING again, the DAO
seems like emptiness but it will go to the QING which is fullness.
● dE is a virtue, the potential to be good and not to become good. To better
ourselves and not to better ourselves
● Virtue is unique to human beings. It is something NATURAL: pagpapakabait,
paggawa ng mabuti, paggawa ng kanais-nais.
● Its a second nature but it can be corrupted. But when it is realized, it radiates,
inspires and influences and positively contaminates.
○ Ex. during the campaign of the angat buhay, group of Leni it continues
to expand.

MENCIUS
Mencius (born c. 371, ancient state of Zou, China— died c. 289 BCE, China)
● regarded as the "second sage” after Confucius
● He lived during the Warring States Period (475-221 BCE)
● born in the state of Zou.
● His given name was Meng Ke.
● He later adopted the name Mencius, meaning "Master Meng”.
● His father was a government official.
● His mother is revered and regarded as an ideal mother
● It takes a village to raise a child

INTRODUCTION:
● Mencius studied under the philosopher and Confucian scholar Gaozi.
● Later, Mencius rose to prominence as a scholar and teacher.
● Mencius wandered for the next 40 years as a sage.
● He visited several states and provided advice to kings.
● He advocated four cardinal virtues.
● He held that human nature is inherently good.
● He believed that leaders had a responsibility to promote the welfare of their
subjects.
Philosophies of Mencius: Ethical Dispositions
➔ Concept of the "four sprouts"
● Benevolence, or "ren" (仁 rén)
- the innate kindness and compassion
- the most important virtue because it formed the basis of all other virtues

● Righteousness, or "yi" (義 yì)

- the virtue of acting in accordance with moral principles
- the disposition to disdain or see a shameful or dishonorable action

● Wisdom, or "zhi" (智 zhì)

- the innate intelligence and ability to reason feelings of approval and
disapproval
- necessary for making moral decisions
- necessary for understanding the consequences of one's actions.

● Propriety, or "li" (禮 lǐ)

- the innate sense of respect, manners, and etiquette
- the virtue of behaving in a socially appropriate manner

The analogy of a Sprout:

- Just as a sprout will grow straight when given the proper nutrients and
conditions, human nature will flourish when given the right environment.

Human Nature
- Mencian Extension
● Extending one's inherent goodness to others refers to the extension
● To become genuinely virtuous, one must "extend"
● The key to actualizing this principle is through reflection
● Reflection is the mental activity required for full extension

Three prerequisites for extension:

1. An environment that meets people's basic physical needs
2. Ethical Education
3. Individual Effort

Human Nature
- Inherent Goodness
Mencius' writings to support the innate goodness of humans:
● "The heart of compassion is inherent in all human beings." (Mencius 2A2)
 ● "All men have a mind which cannot bear to see the suffering of others."
(Mencius 2A6)
● "The nature of man is like the willow tree, which is naturally inclined to be
straight. When it is bent, it can be straightened again, but if it is left to grow
crooked, it will never be able to become straight." (Mencius 6A15)

Legacy of Mencius
● People are the most important element of a nation
● Human nature when properly cultivated will develop into four cardinal virtues
○ Benevolence (Ren)
○ Righteousness (yi)
○ Decorum (li)
○ Wisdom (zhi)

Criticisms of Mencius’ Views

- “the nature of man is evil; his goodness is only acquired through training.” -
Xunzi
- For Mencius, it is a matter of cultivation or nourishment, while for Xunzi it is a
matter of transformation.
- Mencius is all about internal goodness while Xunzi discusses external
influences that transform man

Relevance in Modern Times

- The teaching of Mencius makes us reflect that we are not naturally evil, but
rather victims of a society that forces us to do evil. Mencius makes us believe
in innate human kindness in which everyone is inherently good.

Conclusion
- “Human nature is good, just as water seeks low ground. There is no man who is
not good, just as there is no water that does not flow downward.”

SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA - 4 Noble Truths & 8 Fold Path

● Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, was a philosopher and
spiritual teacher who lived sometime during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.
in India.
● He is credited with founding Buddhism and teaching such concepts as
enlightenment, nirvana, and the "middle way."
● The word "Buddha" is derived from the Sanskrit word budh which translates as
"one who is awake."
● The story of his life, however, does not form a single, unvarying narrative.
 ● Siddhartha Gautama was born around 567 B.C.E. Gautama was born as a prince
into a wealthy family in Lumbini, which is also known as modern-day Nepal.
● At age 16, he married the beautiful princess Yashodhara, and together they had
a son.
● Despite his comfortable life, Gautama was moved by the world's suffering,
after encountering three things: an aged man, a sick man, and a dead man.
● He made the decision to forego his opulent lifestyle and live in poverty.
● He met two teachers – Arada Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra but felt that he
did not achieve liberation.
● When a life of poverty did not satisfy him, he popularized the concept of the
"Middle Way, " which meant existing in the middle of two extremes.
● As a result, he desired a life devoid of both social luxuries and deprivation.
● Buddhists say Gautama attained enlightenment while meditating under a
Bodhi tree after six years of searching. He spent the rest of his life instructing
people on how to attain this spiritual state.
● Gautama died in 483 B.C., at the age of 80 due to old age and illness.
● Last words: “Now then, bhikshus, I address you: all compound things are
subject to decay; strive diligently.”
● His followers began to form a religious movement.
● Buddha's teachings laid the groundwork for what would become Buddhism.

OVERVIEW
● Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions with about 500 million
followers.
● Its practice has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia,
but its influence is growing in the West.
● Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, also considered a philosophy and moral
discipline.
● They focus on achieving enlightenment—a state of inner peace and wisdom.
● When followers reach this spiritual echelon, they’re said to have experienced
nirvana.
● The path to enlightenment is attained by utilizing morality, meditation, and
wisdom.
● Karma is a Sanskrit term that means "action" or "doing"
Wheel of life - BHAVACHAKRA
OVERVIEW
● The wheel of life, also known as The Bhavachakra, is a symbolic representation
of the cycle of existence that Buddhists believe in.
● Buddhists believe in the continuous cycle of birth, life, and death.
 ● The wheel is divided up into 6 realms into which a soul can be reborn.
● The wheel itself is depicted as being held by a demon, which represents
impermanence.

Three Main Schools of Thought of Buddhism:

SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM PREVALENCE:

THERAVADA BUDDHISM THAILAND, SRI LANKA, CAMBODIA,

LAOS AND BURMA

MAHAYANA BUDDHISM CHINA, JAPAN, TAIWAN, KOREA,

SINGAPORE AND VIETNAM

VAJRAYANA BUDDHISM TIBET, NEPAL, MONGOLIA, BHUTAN,

PARTS OF RUSSIA AND INDIA

The Four Noble Truths

● The truth of suffering (Dukha) - (existential suffering)
● The truth of the cause of suffering (Samudayan) - saan nanggaling ang
suffering. Suffering is not pass on
● The truth of the end of suffering (Nirhodha) - katapusan ng suffering.
Detachment, letting go is where you attain free from suffering
● The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga) or the 8 fold paths

NOTE: these will show up in the exam

● I exist due to three things
 ○ Impermanence
○ Suffering
○ Non self - you are not what other people thinknof you; you are not your
favorite color; you are not what you see on social media.

● Ignorance - kamangmangan, original ignorance leads to selfishness.

○ Remedy: learning/education eliminate ignorance
● Middle Path - in between; extreme
● Eternalism - forever mabubuhay; extreme nor reality
● Annihilationism - nothing will remain to you once you die, however, Gautama
says the there are some will remain and there is some that will perish
● Middle Path - there is a need for a middle path using the 3 indicators of
existence which are: Impermanence, this too shall pass, suffering and
non-self.
● Conventional truth - they are things that as they appear to us
○ 31 mil voters, they are not persons.
● Ultimate truth - the things as they really are
● Present pleasure
● Pain in the future
THE 8-FOLD PATH
OVERVIEW
● The 8 fold path is the principles or way of life that should be followed to end
suffering.
● It is the 4th Noble Truth.
○ Can be divided into three divisions or categories:
1. Wisdom (Right View, Right Intention)
2. Moral Conduct (Right Speech, Right Action Right Livelihood)
3. Mental Development (Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration)

● RIGHT VIEW - Seeing the world as it is and objectively, not as we wish to see it
or subjectively
○ Knowing the truth; right understanding; free from superstitions.
● RIGHT CONCENTRATION - A core practice in meditation where the mind is
cleared to achieve the ultimate happiness as it is free from worldly suffering.
○ Focus on the supreme being; meditate on life mysteries, control your
thoughts, feelings,and action.
● RIGHT INTENTION - This path decides what our hearts want
○ Right result,no malice it must be goodwill.
 ● RIGHT MINDFULNESS - Keep our mind on the phenomena going on in
consideration of our thoughts, words, and actions
○ Focus on the moment; carpe diem seize the day; capture the moment;
focus on the here and the now; practice to meditate
● RIGHT SPEECH - Promotes truth and diplomatic or peaceful conversations
instead of rash and unnecessary ones
○ No lie, no slander. We must say good things and watch your words.
● RIGHT EFFORT - Striving for positive and balanced thinking which in turn is
followed by focused action
○ Four Stages:
■ Prevent bad thoughts
■ Abandon bad thoughts
■ Develop good thoughts
■ Maintain good thoughts
○ Developing enthusiasm; the effort.
● RIGHT ACTION - Rightful and decent way of life
○ Ethical behavior, abusive sexuality is not right action
● RIGHT LIVELIHOOD - Advocates for decent livelihood
○ No harm to living things, yes to spiritual progess not in economics; they
do not want to be greedy.

The Lotus Flower

● The lotus flower represents purity, spiritual awakening/enlightenment, and
faithfulness
● The lotus flower for the buddhist is a symbol of a triumph of the human spirit -
yung d naggive up,nagpersevere despsite the suffering
● To pessimism to optimism - an antropocentrism

PLATO
● Ancient Greek Philosopher
● Born on 427 BCE in Athens, Greece
● Plato's real name was Aristocle
● He was a student of Socrates
● Founded the academy of Athens
● Developed Platonism

THEORY OF FORMS
● The world we live in today is not the real world. It is the imperfect version of an
ideal world of forms where there is a world of permanence.
 ● We rely on our senses to understand what is going on.
● Our ability to recognize the form of a thing varies on how we visualize it.

Human Nature
● "The Republic" is composed of 10 books pertaining to the dialogue between
Socrates and a group of scholars.
● Justice is the essential requirement for a good life.
● A just society is composed of individuals with different social roles
○ One job - one person
● An ideal ruler is a Philosopher-king.

● In terms of the social structure, Plato was greatly influenced by the Spartans.
● The highest blocks on both their structures are reserved for people who have
the political power to govern.
● The lower structures are reserved for people being governed by them.

Spartan Social Structure

● Spartiates
○ Born into or adopted by a Spartan family,
○ Could hold office and vote in the Assembly,
○ Owned land and paid community lees.
○ Were full-time soldiers, supported by estates.

● Periocci
○ Had no Spartan parents or was an untrained adult Spartan.
○ Had legal protections.
○ Could not own land or vote.
○ Were merchants and artisans.
● Helots
○ Born as slaves, descended from the first inhabitants of the region.
○ Severely oppressed by Spartiates.
 ○ Worked the land and supported Spartiate families
○ Could own some personal property.

HUMAN NATURE
● In education, Plato believes that it should not be accessible fall.
● Injunctions to secure a harmonious yet spirited class of soldiers:
1. Right kind of muses (poetry, music, etc.) must be combined with the
appropriate physical training to procure the right attitude of soldiers.
2. Imitation of bad persons is forbidden.
3. All stories about Gods are banned, along with tales that instill fear of death.
4. Physical exercise must fit the harmonious soul.

VIRTUES
● Four cardinal Platonic virtues - they play a role in maintaining social order
1. Wisdom (sophia) - excellence on the rational part
2. Courage (andreia) - excellence of the spirited
3. Justice - individuals mind their own businesses
4. Moderation - consent of all three on who should rule and obeyed

Three parts of the soul (corresponding Each class has different desires and
to the classes in the city) needs:

● Rational (logistikon) Philosophers - lovers of wisdom

● Spirited (thumoeides) Soldiers - lovers of honor

● Appetitive (epithumetikon) Workers - lovers of material goods

 ● Each class has its specific kind of desire and its respective good.
● Human beings are happy insofar as they achieve the goals they cherish.
● Plato despises democracy.
● If it performs its function well, it does well = happy

HAPPINESS
● There are two dialogues:
● prioritize the conditions of the indivídual soul
○ Symposíum - scala amoris
● Self-preservation and completion
● Creativity
● Each person's own particular desire for the beautiful
● Phaedrus - immortality of the soul
● Idepiction of the enchantment by beauty +
● methodological explanations of the nature of rhetorictied by Eros
● Thís anticipates liberation through the uplifting forces of love

ARISTOTLE'S HAPPINESS & POLITICS

● born in 384 bc in stagira , a smal town in greece
● was a son of a court physician
● moved to athens to study at plato's academy

ACADEMY LIFE
● Developed his own philosophical ideas separate from Plato
● Became the tutor to the king's son, Alexander
● Established his own school, the Lyceum

ETHICAL THEORY
● centered around the concept of "eudaimonia"
● this is the ultimate goal of human life.
● achieving "eudaimonia" required cultivation of virtues.
● acts in accordance with reason.
● courage, wisdom, and justice were essential to make decisions in line with
their rational nature.
● EUDAIMONIA - "happiness" or "flourishing"
● focuses on the importance of practical wisdom
- ability to make good decisions in specific situations
● this involves balancing values and virtues and finding
 ● the mean between excess and deficiency.
● "the golden mean"
○ The Golden Mean - Virtue is a mean between two extremes, one excess
and one of deficiency
■ EXAMPLE: Courage is the mean between the excess of
recklessness and deficiency of cowardice
● emphasizes the importance of moral responsibility
- virtues can be learned through practice and habits
● family, community, and society play a crucial role in the moral education of
individuals.
● individuals are responsible for their actions and they would be judged based
on choices and behavior
● Friendships are essential, described as perfect friendships as made up of men
who are good and alike in virtue

ARISTOTLE'S POLITICS
● Word bank
○ Human nature
○ Good living
○ State
○ Form of government
○ Citizenship

POLITICAL SCIENCE
- The study of politician's (politikos) tasks, systems of government, and analysis
of political activity and behavior.

HUMAN NATURE
- He believed that “humans are social and political animals” who naturally live
in communities.
- He believed that humans have a natural capacity for reason and that are
capable of making moral judgements.

GOOD LIVING
- He believed that the goal of politics is to create better conditions for humans.
Good
- Life is a life of virtue, happiness, and fulfillment. A balance of intellectual and
moral values.
STATE
 - He believed that the state is a natural institution that arises from the needs of
individuals.
- Believed that state exists to promote common good, which is the highest good.

POLITICS ETHICS

● State was a natural institution ● Eudaimonia

that arose from the needs of
human beings/ human nature.
● State is a way to promote the
common good and lead people to
virtuous lives.
● The Golden Mean
● Happiness was the ultimate end,
or telos, of human existence.
● True happiness could only be
achieved by living a virtuous life.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

example of example of
different forms different forms
CORRECT of government DEVIANT of government

Kingdom of Saudi Tyranny Regime of

One Ruler Kingship Arabia Saddam Hussein
in Iraq

Few Rulers Aristocracy Monarchy in the Oligarchy Russian

United Kingdom Oligarchs

Switzerland, The United

Many Rulers Polity Swiss Cantons Democracy States,
and Philippines
Political Parties

CRITERIA FOR GOOD GOVERNMENT

● Virtuous
● Common Good
● Meritocratic / Citizen Participation
● Stability
● Flexibility

CITIZENS
● Multitude of citizens
● Distinguished by rights
● He believes that the best constitution is one controlled by numerous
middle-class citizens.
CITIZENSHIP
● Communal Participation
● Common Good
● Exercise of Rights and Duties

POLITICAL JUSTICE
- a virtue that enables individuals to act with fairness and give others what is
due to them
- TYPES OF JUSTICE
- Distributive Justice
- Corrective Justice

ROLES IN POLITICS
INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION LEADER/S

● Promote Good Life ● Produce virtuous ● Should possess

on a personal citizens. wisdom and
level. virtues.
● Individual ● Should be
excellence and committed to the
virtue. common good.
● Implement sound
policies.

EPISTEMOLOGY
● Knowledge is based on perception, that it is the primary source of knowledge.
● Perception is not only the ability to see, hear, touch, and smell, but also ability
to perceive qualities and characteristics of things we sense
● "EPISTEME" translated as scientific knowledge and "LOGOS" translated as
reason.
● Episteme is a type of knowledge based on universal truths.
● Grounded on the principles of logic and reason.
○ REASON:
■ Reason is necessary for making connections between concepts
and for understanding different pieces of knowledge.
■ Reason is important for evaluating the evidence and arguments
that support our beliefs.
● Perception is an active process that involves mind and senses working
together.
● Knowledge is built on perception through a process of abstraction and
generalization.
 ABSTRACTION GENERALIZATION

When we abstract the concept of
"dog" from our perception of a
particular dog, we isolate the
essential features, such as its fur, tail,
bark, and behaviour.
Once the concept of "dog" has been
abstracted, we can extend it to other
animals that share the same essential
features.

We then create a concept that For example a concept of "dog" to

represents those features which we include wolves, which have similar
apply to other instances of dogs. appearances and behavior, but are larger
and wild.

ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS
● deals with nature and reality of existence
● provides fundamental principles of the universe

METAPHYSICS
● everything in the world has a purpose or a function
● every object and substance is made up of matter and form
● matter is the substance or material that makes up an object
● form is the structure or organization of that matter.

FOUR PRINCIPLES OF EXISTENCE

● Believe in the existence of a first cause or prime mover
● Umvoed mover
● Universe is in a state of constant motion and change
● MATERIAL CAUSE - refers to the matter of substance that makes up an object
● FORMAL CAUSE - refers to the structure
● EFFICIENT CAUSE - refers to the agent or force that brings the object to existence
● FINAL CAUSE - refers to the purpose or function of the object

ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS
● METAPHYSICS IN ARISTOTLE'S POLITICS
○ Material Cause - population in a territory
○ Formal cause - constitution
○ Efficient cause - rulers
○ Final Cause - good life
CONCLUSION
● Aristotle's ethical philosophy is centered around the concept of eudaimonia, or
"happiness" in Greek. He believed that the ultimate goal of human life was to
achieve eudaimonia, which he defined as a state of flourishing or well-being
that arises from living a virtuous life. Virtue, according to Aristotle, is a habit or
disposition that enables [dividuals to act in accordance with reason and
morality. In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle identifies several key
virtues,including courage, justice, wisdom, and moderation.
● In the field of politics, Aristotle's ideas on the nature of the state and the role of
government continue to be influential. He believed that the state was a natural
entity that arose out of the need for individuals to live together in
communities. According to Aristotle, the purpose of the state was to promote
the well-being of its citizens, and he believed that the best form of government
was a constitutional government that balanced the interests of different
groups within society.
● One of Aristotle's most famous phrases in politics is "man is by nature a
political animal," which he discusses in his work Politics. By this, he means
that humans are naturally inclined to live together in communities and to
engage in social and political life. He also argues that the purpose of the state
is to promote the common good, which he defines as the well-being of all
citizens, rather than just the interests of a privileged few.
● Aristotle's ideas on ethics and politics continue to be studied and debated by
scholars today. His emphasis on the importance of virtue, reason, and the
common good has influenced many subsequent thinkers and has had a
lasting impact on the development of Western philosophy and political
thought.
● Aristotle's epistemology is based on the idea that knowledge comes from
observation and experience. Senses are the primary source of knowledge and
reasoning plays a key role in interpreting information. Difference of practical
knowledge and theoretical knowledge.
● He studied and focused on the being and existence. Everything is made up of
matter and form and objects have essence and nature that determines their
behavior.

ST. AGUSTINE
○ He is also known as Aurelius Augustinus
○ A bishop and influential Christian thinker.
○ Born on November 13, 354
○ Born in Tagaste, Numidia.
○ Adapted classical philosophy to Christian theology.
JUSTICE ORDER - LIBIDO DOMIDANDI

HIS WORKS
- Confessions - is a spiritual autobiography, written in the form of a prayer to
God.
- The City of God - Contains his ideas on the nature of God, sin, and salvation.
- On the Free Choice of the Will - delves into the concept of evil and the dilemma
of evil in God's omnipotence and benevolence.

UNMERITED GRACE
● It cannot be earned through human merit.
● God has already chosen those who will be saved.
● Importance of human effort
● Cooperation with God's grace.
● Humans cannot earn grace but can respond to it.

ORIGINAL SIN
● The concept of original sin.
● Original Sin was inherited from Adam and Eve.
● Original Sin resulted in:
○ spiritual death;
○ physical death;
○ and a propensity to sin.
● Original Sin is passed down.

● Original Sin is passed down.

● To overcome sin is through the grace of God.
● Jesus' death and resurrection:
○ made way for humans to be reconciled.

MASSA DAMNATA
● "One Condemned Mass"
○ God can easily put the human race to hell.
○ Is rooted upon Original Sin

VIEW ABOUT MASSA DAMNATA

● Many reject this concept
● Many say that God only does reprobation
○ after he has seen our demerits or sin.
FREE WILL
● Independent upon Lord’s Will
● Two kinds of goodwill and bad will
○ Good will - aligned with God’s will.
○ Bad will - not align with the will of God
● There is an inner struggle - in human life according to Augustine: ignorance,
struggle against temptation, I am the existential fulcrum.
● It must be like this: I decide... I am responsible....
● Will is a faculty, not a habit - your choice

DIVINE FOREKNOWLEDGE
● Connected with the concept of Free Will
● From 'Omniscience' - knowledge about everything
● God is not responsible for our actions.
● Can be analogous to a rock
● God determined man to be free or indeterminate.
● We are morally responsible
● The universality of Origin Sin - Adam and eve and in order to overcome this the
necessity of Grace and that grace is prayers

HIS LEGACY AND IMPACT

● Development of Christian Doctrine
● Influence on Western Philosophy
● Impact on the Church
● Influence on Literature

CONCLUSION
● Teaches us the consequences of our actions
● Emphasized the bridge between theology and philosophy

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

MORAL DOCTRINE- Eudaimonistic (good spirit and acquisition of happiness)
Virtue-based
● eudaimonia (Aristotle) = living well
● beatitudo (STA) = happiness

RATIONAL APPETITE
● Informed by an intellectual apprehension of the world and the goods within it
appropriate to human flourishing.
 ● Will is a rational appetite.
● Actions are judged to be good or bad in relation to real human goods for which
they are either conducive (good) or detrimental (bad).

ARISTOTLE
● function arguments
● If then man as such has a function, we will have a basis for deciding whether
someone is a good human being.
● The activity that sets the human agent apart from all others is rational activity.
● Moral virtues are habits of appetite brought about by the direction of reason.
● Temperance is to seek pleasure rationally; courage is to react rationally to the
threat of harm.
● The virtues of practical intellect are art and prudence; the virtues of theoretical
intellect are insight, science and wisdom.

SUMMA THEOLOGIAE
● Imperfect happiness in this life and the perfect happiness of the next life in
beatitude or union with God.
● Happiness consists of a complete life lived in accord with reason and virtue.
● Thomas never abandons the fundamental affirmation of the human capacity
to understand.

VIRTUE AND NATURAL LAW

● VIRTUES
● Virtues are developed habits of powers disposing agents to good
actions.
● A virtue is a kind of meaning between excess and defect in the lexercise
of a power.

TWOFOLD OF HAPPINESS
● One
○ Achievable through man's use of powers endowed to him.
○ Discovered in the present life
○ Does not need the assistance of the divine
○ Proportionate to human nature

● Two
○ Achievable through man's use of powers endowed to him.
 ○ Discovered in the present life
○ Does not need the assistance of the divine
○ Proportionate to human nature

NATURAL VIRTUES vs. THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES

● natural virtues - Virtues that pertain to the happiness of this life that is
"proportionate" to human nature.
○ natural virtues (moral virtue) - Habits that perfect the various powers
concerned with human appetites, including rational appetite, conferring
upon them an aptness for the right use of those appetites.
○ natural virtues (intellectual virtue) - Perfect the intellect and confer an
aptness for the good work of the intellect which is the apprehension of
truth.

CARDINAL NATURAL VIRTUE

● PRUDENCE - Intellectual Virtue as it bears the goal of truth
● JUSTICE - Virtue of the rational appetite or will

2 GENERIC SENSITIVE APPETITE

● CONCUPISCENT - temperance; inclines towards what is suitable and away from
what is harmful
● IRASCIBLE - Courage: Resisting those things attack human bodily life.

THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
● Not proportionate to human nature, the supernatural good of life with God.
● Faith, hope, and love

INFUSED NATURAL VIRTUES VS. ACQUIRED NATURAL VIRTUES

● INFUSED NATURE VIRTUES
○ Cannot be acquired by human effort
○ Spring from Charity
○ Point toward supernatural end
○ Mean is according to divine rule
○ A single sin destroys it

ACQUIRED NATURAL VIRTUES

 ○ Virtues that can be acquired by human effort without the help of the
divine
○ Mean fixed by human reason
○ A single sin does not destroy it.

CHARITY, HOPE, AND FAITH

● CHARITY
○ Love of God and neighbor of God
○ Resides in the will

● HOPE
○ Desire for the difficult but attainable
○ Resides in the will

● FAITH
○ Intellectual assent to reveal supernatural truths that are not evident in
themselves.
○ Resides in the intellect
○ There is a God and believing in God.

ETERNAL LAW VS. NATURAL LAW VS. NATURAL MORAL LAW

● ETERNAL LAW
○ God's will that all things be good, that all things achieve their ends or
purposes.
● NATURAL LAW
○ Man's interpretation of the Eternal Law, and man's application of it in
his life.
● ETERNAL MORAL LAW
○ Man objectively classifies some deeds as inherently good, or some
deeds as inherently evil.

● NATURAL LAW
○ The peculiarly human participation in the eternal law, in providence: All
creatures are ordered to an end.
○ Natural law implies a rational creature's natural understanding of
himself or herself as a being that is obligated to do or refrain from doing
certain things.
○ Any choice is a choice under the aspect of the good.
○ The first principles or starting points of practical reasoning.
KNOWLEDGE OF THE SIMPLE
● A concept that is expressed in a definition or description.
KNOWLEDGE OF THE COMPLEX
● Affirmation or negation of one thing or another.
● There is a conception that is prior to and presupposed by all other conceptions
and a judgment that is prior to and presupposed by all other judgments

BEING
● Whatever concept one first forms and expresses verbally is a specification or
an instance of that which is, being.
● What is generically grasped is an instance of being.
● Analogous to being in the theoretical order and it is good.

GOOD
● What is sought as fulfilling of the seeker
● Constituents of our complete good existence, food, drink, sex and family,
society, desire to know
● Moral judgments express means to achieve our overall good.

ULTIMATE END
● Not all means are necessarily related to the end.
● Moral philosophy reposes on natural law precepts as common
presuppositions.
● There is one and the same ultimate end for every human agent- the integral
human good

RELEVANCE
● on a reason and objective truth
○ Reason is placed by Nature to guide him in his acts.
○ Use reason to pursue the truth
○ Seek, love, and defend the truth

● On the dignity of the human person

○ Union with God
○ Union of love

● On the value of human life

○ Gift from God
 ○ Must be nurtured

TWOFOLD HAPPINESS:
● CONCUSCIPICENT
Whether it can be achieved by human power alone or not.
● IRASCIBLE
Towards what is suitable and resisting what attacks the human bodily life.

INFUSED NATURAL & ACQUIRED NATURAL VIRTUES

Whether it can be acquired by human effort alone or not.
NATURAL & THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
Whether it is proportionate to human nature.

REVIEW
● There is one single end for all human beings - that it is happiness.
● Aristotle himself says that perfect happiness is to be associated with the
divine.

MORAL TEACHING
● Acts of a human are activities truly found in human agents, but also found in
other non-human agents too.
● Human act is one which proceeds from and is under the control of reason and
will.

● IS THERE SOME OVERALL GOOD SOUGHT BY HUMAN AGENTS? IS THERE AN

ULTIMATE END TO HUMAN ACTION?

NOTES: from sir

● Rational activity - the good as perceived knowingly and willingly
● On earth- imperfect happiness
● Faith Illumines reason - The light of faith illumines all our relationships and
helps us to live them in union with the love of Christ, to live them like Christ.
● Ratio bonitatis - always a reason of the good
● The real good is not the apparent good. - real good is on reason, priorities,
higher good
● Fortitude - inner strength
● NATURAL MORAL LAW - DO GOOD AND AVOID EVIL according to practical reason

IMMANUEL KANT
● German Philosopher
 ● Works in epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics;
● Greatly influenced all subsequent philosophy, especially the various schools of
Kantianism and idealism.
● One of the foremost thinkers of the Enlightenment.
● Rationalism of René Descartes and the Empiricism of Francis Bacon.
● New era in the development of philosophical thought.

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
● A rule of conduct that is unconditional or absolute for all agents, the validity or
claim of which does not depend on any desire or end
● It is a command addressed to agents who could follow it but might not
● Applying to us unconditionally, or simply because we possess rational wills
without reference to any ends.
● It does not apply to us on the condition that we have antecedently adopted
some goal for ourselves.
● "We will buy you the latest Iphone" vs. "We shall buy you the latest Iphone if you
graduate with latin honors"

HYPOTHETÍCAL IMPERATIVE
● A hypothetical imperative is a command that also, applies to us in virtue of our
having a rational will.
● Exercise our wills given we have antecedently willed an end.
● A hypothetical imperative is a command in a conditional form
● It fails to be a hypothetical imperative if the conditional command does not
apply to us in virtue of our willing some end, but only in virtue of our desiring
or wanting an end
● Willing an end involves more than desiring; it requires actively choosing or
committing to the end
● It is not irrational in failing to will means to what one desire.
● The condition under which a hypothetical imperative applies to us, then, is
that we will some end
● The ends we will we might not have willed, and some ends that we do not will
we might nevertheless have willed.

TWO KINDS OF HYPOTHETIC ALIMPERATIVE

● PROBLEMATIC IMPERATIVE
○ If the end is one that we might or might not will, but it is a merely
possible end.
○ Almost all non-moral, rational imperatives are problematic,
 ○ The only (non-moral) end that we will is our own happiness.

● ASSERTORIC IMPERATIVE
[skipped]

MAXIMS
● The will as operating on the basis of subjective volitional principles
● Intentions are expressed.
● Form of means-end reasoning.
● Anything dignified as human willing is subject to rational requirements

The Formula of the Universal Law of Nature

● Kant's first Formulation of the Categorical Imperative:
- You are to "act only in accordance with that maxim through which you
can at the same time will that it become a universal law”

Basic outline to summaríze a decision procedure for moral reasoning

● Formulate a maxim that enshrines your reason for acting as you propose.
● Recast that maxim as a universal law of nature governing all rational agents,
and so as holding that all must, by natural law.
● Consider whether your maxim is even conceivable in a world governed by this
law of nature.
● Ask yourself whether you would, or could, rationally will to act on your maxim
in such a world.

Four Categories of Duties

1. Perfect duties toward ourselves
2. Perfect duties toward others
3. Imperfect duties toward ourselves
4. Imperfect duties toward others.

HUMANITY FORMULA
● Kant's second Formulation of the CI:
- "We should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether in
ourselves or in others, as a means onlv but alwavs as an end in itself.
This is often seen as introducing the idea of "respect" for persons, for
whatever it is that is essential to our humanity.
● First, the Humanity Formula does not rule out using people as means to our
ends.
 ● Second. it is not human beings per se but the "humanity" in human beings
that we must treat as an end in itself.

How are the teachings of Immanuel Kant applicable in our life?

1. Concept of the categorical imperative.
2. Concept of autonomy.
3. Essence of human rationality
4. Consistency and determination
5. Kant's teachings are also applicable in the field of politics

Kari Marx:
● Karl Heinrich Marx
● Born in Trier, Germany
● German philosopher, economist, historian, political theorist, and revolutionary
socialist who lived from 1818 to 1883
● Best known for his ideas about communism and his criticism of capitalism

Marx's Principles
● Marxism
● Capitalism results in an unequal distribution of wealth and power.
● Marx arqued that communism, where the means of production are collectively
owned and controlled by the people, would result in a more equal and just
society.
● The proletariat (working class) would eventually rebel against the bourgeoisie
(owning class) in a revolution that would result in the formation of
communism.

Marx's famous Writings

● The Communist Manifesto
● Das Kapital
● The German Ideology
● The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte
● A mode of production in which capitalists own all means of production.
● The workers are hired for wages, have no ownership stake and no share in
profits.
● It is distinctive and involves not only the exchange of commodities.
● It has the purpose of generating profit.
● Capitalism
● • Marxian economics focuses on the criticism of capitalism.
 ● Marx condemned capitalism as a system that alienates the masses.
● He argues that capitalism is inherently flawed and will ultimately fail to be
followed by socialism.

Commodity
● Useful external object produced for exchange on a market.
● Its qualities satisfies human needs of whatever kind.
● Products of human labor that are bought and sold.
● Has a use-value and an exchange-value.

Use-Value
● A commodity that has a value in utility.
● It satisfies human wants of some sort or another.
● Tied to the physical properties of the commodity.
● The material uses as to which the object can be put and the human needs it
fulfills.
● Realizes itself only in consumption.

Social Use-Vale
● A commodity that has a generally accepted use-value for others in society
--and not just for the producer.

Exchange-Value
● Value a product has when offered in exchange for other products.
● The proportion at which a use-value of one commodity can be exchanged for
the use-value of another entity.

Conditions for Commodity Production

Social Division of Labor
Separation of activities and the special allocation of which to different individuals.

Commodity and Human Labor

● Inherent in the commodity is the character of human . abor, it being the first
product of the worker commodity is directly related and dependent upon the
human labor it is composed of
● The value of the labor is materialized when the product becomes an object of
utility.

Socially Necessary Labor Time

 ● The amount of labor time performed by a worker of average skill and
productivity, to produce a given commodity.
● This is an "average unit labor- cost"measured in working hours.

Surplus kabor
● The labor performed in excess ofthe labor produce relinsor of the wrorkure the
means of
● The additional labor a worker has to do in their job, beyond earning their keep.

Labor Theory of Value

● The value of a commodity can be objectively measured by the average number
of hours required to produce that commodity.
● The amount of labor that goes into producing an economic good is the source
of that good's value.

Commodity and fetishism

● The economic relationships of production and exchange as being social
relationships that exist among things and not as relationships that exist
among people.
● Fetishized commodities are not viewed in terms of their "use-value" but only of
their "exchange-value"

Alienation
● The process whereby the worker is made to feel foreign and disconnected to
the products of his own labor.
● The worker is alienated from his/her product because he no longer owns that
product, which now belongs to the capitalist who has purchased the
proletariat's labor-power.

Four way ys workers are alienated:

● Alienation from the product of labor.
● Alienation from the process of labor.
● Alienation from the self.
● Alienation from other workers.

Alienation from the product of labor

● Instead of working from the initial idea to completion, under capitalism, the
product is entirely directed by someone else.
● Thus, the final product does not feel like the worker's own and is creatively
unrewarding.
Mlienation from the process of labor
● Instead of having the freedom to choose how and when they work, workers
under a capitalist system must work as and when their employer requires.
● Thus, the process of labor is something external to the worker.

Alienation from the self

● To Marx, satisfying work is an essential part of being human.
● Since workers under capitalism feelalienated from the product and the
process, it is not satisfying.

Mienation from other workers

● Under capitalism, workers are encouraged to compete against each other for
jobs, better products, and higher profits.
● This pits individuals against each other in a competition instead of developing
class consciousness.

On Morality
● Although Marx was against the bourgeois capitalist society and supported
future communist society, he did not explicitly describe capitalism as unjust
or communism as a just form of society.
● He consciously avoided making direct moral commentary, although his
writings contain indirect moral commentary.

§ Questions to Consider
1. Did Marx think capitalism unjust?
2. Did he think that capitalism could be morally criticised on other grounds?
3. Did he think that communism would be just?
4. Did he think it could be morally approved of on other grounds?

Initial Argument
● Capitalism is unjust is based on the observation that all capitalist profit is
ultimately derived from the exploitation of the worker.
● Capitalism is a system in which one class systematically extracts profit from
another.
● Note: Marx never concluded this.

Mien Wood's Argument

● Marx took this approach because his general theoretical approach excludes
any trans-epochal standpoint from which one can comment on the justice of
an economic system.
 ● While it is possible to criticize specific behaviors within a system, it is not
possible to criticize the system as a whole.

Zigad Husami's Argument

● Husami goes as far as to argue that members of the proletariat under
capitalism have an account of justice which matches communism.
● From this privileged standpoint of the proletariat, which is also Marx's
standpoint, capitalism is unjust, and so it follows that Marx thought
capitalism unjust.
● Husami's argument fails to account for two related points.
● First, it cannot explain why Marx never described capitalism as unjust.
● Second, it does not account for the distance Marx wanted to place between his
own scientific socialism, and that of the utopian socialists who argued for the
injustice of capitalism.

G.A. Conen's Proposal

● Marx believed that capitalism was unjust, but did not believe that he believed
it was unjust.
● In his explicit reflections on the justice of capitalism he was able to maintain
his official view.
● In less guarded moments his real view slips out, even if never in explicit
language.

Marx's Critique on Capitalism

● Marx thought that capitalism was not the best way for human beings to live.
● Marx's critique is a moral one.
● Capitalism impedes human flourishing.

Marx's Assessment of Communism

● Question: Would communism be a just society?
● Two possibilities: either he thought that communism would be a just society
or he thought that the concept of justice would not apply: that communism
would transcend justice.

Marx and Morality

● In a moral and ethical perspective, it seems that communism can be assessed
favorably.
● Marx believed communism advances human flourishing.

Concrusion
 ● Karl Marx largely remins controversial, but his writings still remain relevant
today.
● Marx critiqued capitalism for wealth inequalities and class struggle.
● Marx's predictions on the collapse of capitalism and the communist
revolutions that would follow were proved incorrect.
● The issues between Marx and morality presents an impending and vague
dilemma.
● Marx's critique is a moral one – - having to assess that capitalism inevitably
impedes human flourishing.
● Communism can be assessed favorably as it advances human flourishing, in
Marx's view.

NOTES FROM SIR

laissez faire
bourgeois
bourgeoisie
Proletariat
the worker, the laborer is alienated from his output (the capitalist gain most of the
profit at the expense of the laborer's creativity)
Truths on Work that we must face:
1. We are slaves at work.
2. We need to work, to earn money which we use to buy items or services to
satisfy our needs.
3. We work to have money to save time or to buy time; for us to rest or to enjoy
life with our loved ones.
4. In the end we realize, what makes us work is the sense of self-fulfillment and
self-worth; the salary is important but not the top priority.
material abundance must be shared to all.

not on virtue,
but on fitness!
Practice makes P...
Permanent!
EMERITO GONZALES8:36 AM
amor fati
love of my fate
acceptance
carpe diem
cease the day
EMERITO GONZALES8:37 AM
seize the day
capture the moment
the Wow of the Now!
RIKI MAE ESGUERRA8:38 AM
yes po
EMERITO GONZALES8:41 AM
eternal recurrence?
EMERITO GONZALES8:43 AM
Truth hurts, it can kill or harm you or others!
Reality bites!
EMERITO GONZALES8:44 AM
courage
Art and Artistry
we need some illusion to survive life
EMERITO GONZALES8:51 AM
fanaticism
pluralism
EMERITO GONZALES8:53 AM
each must practice tolerance and mutual respect
EMERITO GONZALES8:54 AM
yes, we are human
but are humane?
human- E
E mpowered
E ducated
E mpathetic??
EMERITO GONZALES9:31 AM
co-responsibility
solidarity
EMERITO GONZALES9:54 AM
religious pluralism
we must practice tolerance and mutual respect!
EMERITO GONZALES9:57 AM
inter-faiths dialogue