EEE 441

Telecommunication Engineering
Dr. Md. Forkan Uddin
Associate Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET,
Dhaka 1000

1
 Course Objectives
• we pass a part of our daily life by using electronic
communications
• Telecommunication technologies are changing very rapidly
• In EEE 309, we have studied the fundamental theories and
systems of analog and digital communications
• In this course, we will focus on the analog and digital
telecommunication systems
• To provide the knowledge of analog and digital
telecommunication systems including the advanced
telecommunication technologies, e.g. IP telephony, ISDN, ATM
and cellular telephony

2
 Course Objectives
• To provide knowledge on telephone systems, switching and
tele-traffic engineering, and performance analysis of various
telephony systems
• The knowledge of this course will help the students (i) to work
in communication industries and (ii) to pursue research in
telecommunication systems

3
 Course Outline
Lecture Topic Comment
1-2 Background: Principle and evaluation of telecommunication networks,
Exchange and international regulatory bodies
3-5 Telephone apparatus: Microphone, speakers, ringer, Pulse and tone dialing
mechanism, side-tone mechanism, Local and central batteries and
advanced features
6-8 Telecommunication Systems: Analog system and digital system
9-15 Switching Engineering: Digital switching systems, Space division switching, Class Test:
Blocking probability, Multistage switching, Time division switching, and 01
Two dimensional switching.
16-23 Traffic Engineering: Traffic characterization, Grades of service, Network Class Test:
blocking probabilities, delay system and queuing 02
24-28 Modern telephone services and network: Internet telephony, Facsimile, Class Test:
integrated services digital network (ISDN), asynchronous transfer mode 03
(ATM), intelligent networks (IN)
29-32 Introduction to Cellular Telephony Class Test:
04
33-36 Introduction to Satellite Communication 4
 Books
Text Books:
• “Digital Telephony”, John C. Bellamy
• “Introduction to Telecommunications Network Engineering”,
2nd Edition, Tarmo Anttalainen
Reference Books:
• “Telecommunication Switching and Networks”, 2nd Edition, P.
Gnanasivam
• “Fundamentals of Telecommunications”, Roger L. Freeman
• “Telecommunication System Engineering”, Roger L. Freeman
• “Wireless Communications and Networking,” J. Mark and W.
Zhuang
• “Satellite Communications,” 3rd Edition, D. Roddy
5
 Marks Distribution
• Attendance: 10%
• Class Test and Assignments: 20% (Best 3 out of 4)
• Final: 70%

 Proxy in a class is a serious offence

 30% (CT& Attendance) marks of a student will be
considered as zero if proxy is given for his/her

6
 What is Telecommunication?
• Technology concerned
with communicating
from a distance
• Includes mechanical
communication and
electrical
communication
• We are interested in
electrical
communication
• Unidirectional vs
bidirectional

7
History of Electrical Telecommunication
• 1838–1866 Telegraphy
 Morse perfects his system;
 commercial service is initiated (1844);
 Multiplexing techniques are devised
 William Thomson calculates the pulse response of a telegraph line
(1855)
• 1864 Maxwell’s equations predict electromagnetic radiation
• 1876–1899 Telephony
 Alexander Graham Bell perfects acoustic transducer;
 First telephony exchange with eight lines;
 Edison’s carbon-button transducer;
 Cable circuits are introduced;
 Strowger devises automatic step-by-step switching (1887)

8
 History
• Microphone

9
History

10
 History
• 1887–1907 Wireless telegraphy
 Heinrich Hertz verifies Maxwell’s theory;
 Demonstrations by Marconi and Popov;
 Marconi patents complete wireless telegraph system (1897)
 Commercial service begins
• 1904–1920 Communication electronics
 Experiments with AM radio broadcasting
 Bell System completes the transcontinental telephone line with
electronic repeaters (1915)
 Multiplexed carrier telephony is introduced
 H. C. Armstrong perfects the superheterodyne radio receiver (1918)
 First commercial broadcasting station

11
 History
• 1923–1938 Television:
 Image-formation system demonstrated
 Theoretical analysis of bandwidth requirements
 DuMont and others perfect vacuum cathode-ray tubes
 Field tests and experimental broadcasting begin
• 1936 Armstrong’s paper states the case of frequency
modulation (FM) radio
• 1937 Alec Reeves conceives pulse code modulation (PCM)
• 1938–1945 Radar and microwave systems developed during
World War II

12
 History
• 1948–1951 Transistor devices are invented
• 1950 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is applied to telephony
• 1953 Color TV standards are established in the United States.
• 1955 J. R. Pierce proposes satellite communication systems
• 1958 Long-distance data transmission system is developed
for military purposes
• 1960 Maiman demonstrates the first laser
• 1962 Satellite communication begins with Telstar I

13
 History
• 1962–1966 Data transmission service offered commercially;
PCM proves feasible for voice and TV transmission; theory for
digital transmission is developed
• 1964 Fully electronic telephone switching system is put into
service
• 1968–1969 Digitalization of telephone network begins
• 1975–1985 High-capacity optical systems developed; the
breakthrough of optical technology and fully integrated
switching systems

14
 History
• 1980–1983 Start of global Internet based on TCP/IP protocol
• 1980–1985 Modern cellular mobile networks put into service
• 1985–1990 LAN breakthrough
• 1989 Initial proposal for a Web-linked document on the World
Wide Web (WWW)
• 1990–1997 The first digital cellular system, Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM), is put into commercial use
and its breakthrough is felt worldwide

15
 History
• 1997–2001 Performance of LANs improves with
advance of gigabit-per-second Ethernet technologies
• 2001–2005 Digital TV starts to replace analog
broadcast TV; second generation cellular systems are
upgraded to provide higher rate packet-switched data
service
• 2005–third generation cellular systems and WLAN
technologies will provide enhanced data services for
mobile users ; Global telecommunications network will
evolve toward a common packet-switched network
platform for all types of services

16
History

17
 Telecommunication Standards
• Telecommunication Industry around the world is regulated by
government, international organization and national
organizations
• The government, international organization and national
organizations built up different standards to regulate the
industries

18
 Why Standards?
• Communication networks are designed to serve a wide variety
of users who are using equipment from many different
vendors
• Standards are necessary
 To design and build networks effectively
 To achieve interoperability, interconnectivity and compatibility
of the products
 To design better products with reduced cost through research
under the same products

19
 Advantages of Standards
• Multiple vendors enter this new market and make products
more cost-effective, therefore providing low-cost services to
telecommunications users
• Assure the interoperability of products and services to the
users, manufactures of the telecommunication equipment
and the service providers
• Assure the quality of the products
• Help the user to have stability and confidence in a particular
technology or application

20
 Advantages of Standards
• Pave the suppliers and service providers for designing,
implementing and servicing their own telecommunication
functions
• Suppliers can work to a predefined specification
• Make international services available

21
STANDARDS-MAKING REQUIREMENTS
• Technical competence
 Should be technically superior and easy to implement
 Should be at the level of acceptance by any
telecommunication serving agency to implement and
maintain
• A good ocassion
 The early occurrence of the standardization results in the
restriction of research in the similar areas and results in waste
of time and money
 The late introduction in technological obsolation

22
 Standards-Making Requirements
• Consensus
 The standards set by the standard organizations should be
agreed by the telecommunication service providing agencies,
manufactures, government, policy makers, political forces and
public
• Less options and less complex
 The standards are to be easy to implement
 This implementation should be cost less and technologically
feasible

23
 Types of Standards
• De jure standard
 The standards developed by the national or international standards
making organizations
 The standards developed are open to the public for scrutinizing, debate,
modification, alteration or revision
• De facto standards
 Protocols and procedures developed or defined by the individual
organization or service providers
 Developed for the companies welfare to prefect its products, improve the
market and service facility and provide high competent to the related
companies
 These protocols are not open to the publics and companies to revise or
modify in any way
 The organization, which developed the protocols, only have full right to
make any amendment or total changes due to the expiry of technologies
24
 Types of Standards
• User or house standards
 These types of standards are developed by the request of
major suppliers or major users
 Generally the major user will be the government
organizations, and the major suppliers are referred to the
equipment suppliers to military and other government
agencies
 House standards are produced only when de facto standards
are not available

25
 National Organizations
• Many international standards include alternatives and options
from which a national authority selects those suitable for
their own national standards
• Sometimes some aspects are left open and they require a
national standard
• National authorities determine the details of their national
telephone numbering plan, for which international standards
give only guidelines
• International standards define usage of frequency bands (e.g.,
which frequency ranges are used for satellite and which for
cellular networks), whereas the national authority defines
detailed usage of frequencies side the country

26
 National Organizations
• Frequency allocation among the different operators are
provided by national authority
• British Standards Institute – BSI
• Deutsche Industrie-Normen (DIN; Germany)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI; United States),
Finnish Standards Institute (SFS; Finland).

27
 Organizations and Regulation
Authority in BD
• Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI)
 The only National Standards body of Bangladesh
 Playing an important role in developing and Promoting
industrial Standardization
 Focused on food and chemicals
 Recently, standardization is going on for communication equipments
• Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC)
 Bangladesh Telegraph and Telephone Board (BTTB) had the sole
monopoly until mobile phone technology flourished and foreign
companies (trans-national corporations) started operating in
Bangladesh
 Bangladesh Telecommunication Act (Act 18 of 2001) paved the way
for the establishment of Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory
Commission (BTRC) in 2002 28
 Functions of the BTRC
• To regulate establishment, operation and maintenance of telecom services
in Bangladesh
• To control and abolish discriminatory practice and ensure level playing
field for the operators for healthy competition
• To grant license for establishing, operating telecommunication system,
providing telecom services, using radio apparatus
• To issue technical acceptance certificates
• To allocate frequency, monitor and manage spectrum
• To renew, suspend or cancel license, permits and certificates
• To approve tariff and call charges among the operators
• To inspect telecom installation and terminal apparatus etc.
• To stop interference caused by one operator to the another's service
systems
• To seize illegal equipments and apparatus, arrest the offenders, investigate
into the commission of offence by its own officer and submit charge sheet
29
 International Organizations
• International telecommunication union (ITU)
 Formed by the agreement of 20 countries of standardize
telegraph networks
 Involved with telephony regulation, wireless radio
telecommunication and sound broadcasting
 In 1927, the union was involved in allocating frequency bands
for radio services
 In 1934, the union was named as ITU
 ITU activities include co-ordation, development, regulation,
and standardization of internal telecommunications, as well as
the co-ordination of national policies
 In 1993, the ITU went through reorganization into ITU-T
Telecommunication standard sector), ITU-R (Ratio
Communication sector) and ITU-D (Telecommunication
development center).
30
 International Organizations
• International organization for standardization (ISO)
 A worldwide federation of national standards bodies with
representatives from over 100 countries
 It is a non-governmental organization established in 1947
 Its mission is to promote the development of worldwide
the international exchange of goods and services and to
develop co-operation in the spheres of intellectual,
scientific, technological and economic activity
 OSI is a set of communication standards and protocols
that aims to establish an open environment for the
movement of data between devices
 The open system interconnection (OSI) reference model
is a seven layer decomposition of network function
published by the ISO
31
 European Organizations
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
• Formed in 1988
• Independent body for making standards for the European
Community
• Telecommunications network operators and
manufacturers participate in standardization work
• Example: digital cellular mobile system GSM standards
are made by ETSI

32
 American Organizations
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• One of the largest professional societies in the world
• Produced many important standards for telecommunications
• Some of these standards, such as the standards for LANs,
have been accepted by the ISO as international standards
• IEEE 802 defines physical network interfaces such as interface
cards, bridges, routers, connections, cables and all the
signalling and access methods associated with physical
network connections
• IEEE 802.11 Wifi, IEEE 802.16 WiMax etc

33
 American Organizations
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 American organization of electronic equipment
manufacturers
 Many of its standards, such as those for connectors for
personal computers, have achieved global acceptance
 Example, the data interface standard EIA RS-232 is compatible
with the V.24/28 recommendations of ITU-T
• Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
 Not actually a standards body but a regulatory body
 It is a government organization that regulates wire and radio
communications
 Played an important role in the development of worldwide
specifications for radiation and susceptibility of
electromagnetic disturbances of telecommunications
equipment
34
 American Organizations
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
 Its task is to adapt the global standard to the American
environment
 Developed global third generation cellular systems together
with ETSI

35
 EEE 441
Telecommunication System
Dr. Md. Forkan Uddin
Associate Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET,
Dhaka 1000

1
 Elements in Telecommunication
System
• End system/instruments
• Transmission
• Switching
• Signalling

2
 End System/Instruments
• End system or instruments are a transmitter or receiver
• Responsible for sending and receiving information

3
 Transmission
• Signals generated by the end system or the instruments
should be transported to the destination
• The transmission on links conveys the information and control
signals between the end system or the instruments and
switching centers
• To maintain signal quality, the signal must be regenerated
after a certain distance

4
 Transmission Medium
• The transmission links
include two-wire lines,
coaxial cables, microwave,
radio wave, optical fibers,
free-space optics
• A transmission link can be
characterized by its
bandwidth, link attenuation
and the propagation delay

5
Transmission Medium Applications
• Two-wire lines, coaxial cables used in LANs and telephone
subscriber lines
• Optical fiber is used for high data-rate transmission in
telecommunications networks
• Microwave and radio waves, such as cellular telephones and
satellite transmission
• Free-space optics for infrared remote controllers

6
 Switching
• What is switching?
 Dynamic connection between two wires
• Why is it needed in telecommunication?
 All telephones may be connected to each other by separate
cables
 As the number of telephones grew, the number of required
cables is huge
 It can be reduced by switching signals from one wire to
another
 Only a few cable connections were needed between
exchanges because the number of simultaneously ongoing
calls is much smaller than the number of telephones

7
Switching

8
 Switching
• The switching centers (exchange) receives the control signals,
messages or conversations
• Forwards to the required destination, after necessary
modification (link amplifications)
• In data communication, the switching technique used is
known as packet switching or message switch (store and
forward switching)
• In telephone network, the switching method used is called
circuit switching
• Some practical switching system are step-by-step, cross
barred relay system, digital switching systems, electronic
switching system etc

9
 Circuit Switching
• There is a dedicated communication path between two
stations (end-to-end)
• There are three phases in circuit switching:
– Establish
– Transfer
– Disconnect

10
 Circuit Switching
• The message is sent all together; it is not broken up
• The message arrives at the end in the same order that it
was originally sent
• The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the
entire data transfer and the entire message follows the
same path
• Circuit switching can be analog or digital

11
 Circuit Switching
Advantages:
• Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference, no sharing
• Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the call
• Guaranteed quality of service
Disadvantages:
• Inefficient
Equipment may be unused for a lot of the call
If no data is being sent, the dedicated line still remains
occupied
• It takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit
• During a crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable
or unavailable

12
 Packet Switching
• In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into
small data packets
• These packets are sent out from the source
• Packets travel around the network seeking out the most
efficient route to travel
• This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the
shortest route
• Each packet may go a different route from the others

13
 Packet Switching
Advantages:
• Security
• Bandwidth used to full potential
• Devices of different speeds can communicate
• Not affected by line failure (redirects signal)
• Availability – no waiting for a direct connection to become
available
• During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone
network might stop working, e-mails and texts can still be
sent via packet switching

14
 Packet Switching
Disadvantages:
• Under heavy use there can be a delay
• Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
• Efficient protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
• Not so good for some types data streams (e.g. real-time
video streams)

15
 Signalling
• There are three phases in circuit switching: Establish, Transfer
and Disconnect
• Signalling is the mechanism that allows network entities
(customer premises or network switches) to establish,
maintain, and terminate sessions in a network
• Signalling is carried out with the help of specific signals or
messages
• Each type of massage indicate a particular request

16
 Signalling Examples
• Off-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber
has raised the telephone hook (dc loop is connected) and
gives a dial tone to the subscriber
• Dial: The subscriber dials digits and they are received by the
exchange
• On-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber
has finished the call (subscriber loop is disconnected), clears
the connection and stops billing

17
 Operation of a Conventional
Telephone
• The ordinary home telephone receives the electrical power that it
needs for operation from the local exchange via two copper wires
• This subscriber line, which carries speech signals as well, is a
twisted pair called a local loop
• The principle of the power supply coming from the exchange site
makes basic telephone service independent of the local electric
power network
• Local exchanges have a large-capacity battery that keeps the
exchange and subscriber sets operational for a few hours if the
supply of electricity is cut off
• This is essential because the operation of the telephone network is
especially important in emergency situations when the electric
power supply may be down
18
 Operation of a Conventional
Telephone: Microphone

•When we raise the hook of a telephone, the on/off hook switch

is closed and current starts flowing on the subscriber loop
through the microphone that is connected to the subscriber loop
• The microphone converts acoustic energy to electrical energy
19
 Operation of a Conventional
Telephone: Earphone

•Alternating current, generated by the microphone, is converted

back into voice at the other end of the connection
•The earphone has a diaphragm with a piece of magnet inside a
coil
• The current generates a variable magnetic field that moves the
diaphragm that produces sound waves close to the original
sound at the transmitting end 20
 Operation of a Conventional
Telephone: Signalling
• The telephone network provides a dialled-up or circuit-
switched service that enables the subscriber to initiate and
terminate calls
• The subscriber dials the number to which he/she wants to be
connected
• This requires additional information transfer over the
subscriber loop and from the exchange to other exchanges on
the connection, and this transfer of additional information is
called signalling

21
 Signalling to the Exchange from the
Telephone
• Telephone exchanges supply dc voltage to subscriber loops,
and telephone sets use this supplied voltage for operation
• Setup and Release of a Call
• Each telephone has a switch that indicates an on- or off-hook
condition
• When the hook is raised, the switch is closed and an
approximately 50 mA of current starts flowing
• This is detected by a relay giving information to the control
unit in the exchange
• The control unit is an efficient and reliable computer(s) in the
telephone exchange

22
 Setup and Release of a Call

• Control unit activates signalling circuits, which then receive

dialled digits from source
• The control unit in the telephone exchange controls the
switching matrix that connects the speech circuit
• Connection is made according to the numbers dialled by
subscriber
23
 Setup and Release of a Call
• When the call is being routed to receiver subscriber, the telephone
exchange supplies to the subscriber loop a ringing voltage and the
bell of receiver subscriber telephone starts ringing
• The ringing voltage is often about 70V ac with a 25-Hz frequency,
which is high enough to activate the bell on any telephone
• After dialling it keeps us informed about whether the circuit
establishment is successful by sending us a ringing tone when the
telephone at the other end rings

24
 Setup and Release of a Call

• When receiver subscriber answers, the exchange switches off

both the ringing signal and the ringing tone and connects the
circuit
• Then an end-to-end speech circuit is connected and the
conversation may start
• At the end of the conversation, an on-hook condition is
detected by the exchange and the speech circuit is released
25
 Dialling
• The telephone set has a switch that is open in the on-
hook condition and closed when the hook is off
• This indicates to the telephone exchange when a call is
to be initiated and when it has to prepare to receive
dialled digits
• Types:
 Rotary/pulse dialling
 Tone dialling

26
 Rotary Dialling
• Local loop is closed and opened according to the dialled digits
• The number of current pulses is detected by the exchange
• This signalling method is also known as loop disconnect
signalling
• When a digit is to be dialled, the dialling plate with finger
holes is rotated clockwise to the end and released
• The switch is breaking the line current periodically and the
number of these periods indicates the dialled digit

27
 Rotary Dialling
• Disadvantage:
 Slow and expensive
 Does not support supplementary services such as call
forwarding

28
 Tone Dialling
• Currently telephones include electronic circuits that make
possible the implementation of better means for signalling
• Digital exchanges do not require high-power pulses to drive
the selectors as old electromechanical switches did
• Modern telephones usually have 12 push buttons
• Each button generates a tone with two frequencies
• One of the frequencies is from the upper frequency band and
the other from the lower band
• All frequencies are inside the voice frequency band (300–
3,400 Hz) and can thus be transmitted through the network
from end to end, when the speech connection is established

29
 Tone Dialling
• This signalling principle is known as dual-tone multi-frequency
(DTMF) signalling
• Tones are detected at the subscriber interface of the
telephone exchange and, if necessary, signalled further to the
other exchanges through which the connection is to be
established

30
 Tone Dialling
• Advantages:
 It is quicker and dialling of all digits takes the same time
 Fewer dialling errors result
 End-to-end signalling is possible
 Additional push buttons are available (*, #, A, B, C, D) for
activation of supplementary services (e.g. Call transfer)

31
 Local Loop and 2W Circuits
• Telephone channels involves two unidirectional paths, one for
transmission and one for reception
• The local loop, which connects a telephone to a local
exchange is a two-wire (2W) circuit
• Even ISDN and asymmetrical digital subscriber lines (ADSLs)
use this same 2W local loop

32
 Local Loop and 2W Circuits
• Early telephone connections through the network (exchanges)
were two-wire circuits
• Longer connections attenuate the speech signal and
amplifiers are needed on the line
• In two-wire circuits, amplification of a signal may cause
oscillation or ringing if the output signal of an amplifier loops
back to the input circuit of another transmission direction

33
 4W Circuits
• Transmission directions are independent from each other and
potential oscillation is avoided
• Easier to maintain than 2W connections
• To connect a 2W local loop to a 4W network 2W/4W hybrid
circuit is needed

34
 Operating Principle of hybrid 2W/4W

• Two separate transformers are needed

• Both of them consist of three similar, tightly coupled windings
• An alternating current in one coil generates alternating
current to all other coils of the same transformer
• Spots of coils indicate the direction of the current flow

35
Operating Principle of hybrid 2W/4W

•The current of the receive pair generates two currents with

opposite polarity through the two coils of transformer T2
• These currents have opposite directions in transformer T1
• Their magnetic fields in the iron core, cancel each other
•The signal from the receive pair is not connected to the transmit
pair

36
 Telephone Numbering
• Unique identification of each subscriber socket or mobile
phone
• Any telephone to any other telephone is made possible (An
international telephone connection)
• The numbering is hierarchical, and it has an internationally
standardized country code at the highest level
• This makes national numbering schemes independent from
each other

37
 International Prefix
• International prefix or international access number is used for
international calls
• Tells the network that the connection is to be routed via an
international telephone exchange to another country
• The international prefix may differ from country to country
• For example, all of Europe uses 00
• Bangladesh also uses 00

38
 Country Code
• Country code contains one to four numbers that define the
country of receiver subscriber
• Country codes are not needed for national calls
• There are a few hundred countries in the world, many country
codes have been defined by the ITU
• Country code in Bangladesh: 880

39
Trunk Code, Trunk Prefix, or Area Code
• The trunk code defines the area inside the country where the
call is to be routed
• The first digit is a long-distance call identification and other
numbers identify the area
• The first digit is not needed in the case of an international call
because that type of call is always routed via the long-distance
level of the destination network
• In the case of cellular service, the trunk code is used to
identify the home network of the subscriber instead of the
location
• With the help of this network code, a call is routed to the
home network, which then determines the location of the
subscriber and routes the call to the destination
40
 Subscriber Number
• The subscriber number in a fixed telephone network is a
unique identification of the subscriber inside a geographical
area
• The trunk code and the subscriber number together create a
unique identification for a subscriber at the national level
• This is called a national number and its maximum length is 10
digits

41
41
 EEE 441
Switching System
Dr. Md. Forkan Uddin
Associate Professor, Dept. of EEE, BUET,
Dhaka 1000

1
 Classification of Switching System
• In early days, the human exchange provided switching
facilities
• In manual exchanges, a human operator and the elements like
switches, plugs and sacks were used to connect two
subscribers
• Around 1890’s many electromechanical switching devices
were introduced
• Till 1940, different electromechanical switching system were
invented, of which strowger switching system and cross bar
switching system were still popular

2
 Classification of Switching System
• The later invention of electronic switching system (ESS) which
uses stored program control (SPC) and computer controlled
switching systems are presently dominating

3
 Functions of Switching
• Identity
 The local switching center must react to a calling signal from calling
subscriber
 The local switching center must be able to receive information to
identify the required destination terminal seize
• Addressing
 The switching system must be able to identify the called subscriber
from the input information (train of pulses or multiple frequency
depends on the dialing facility
 The address may be in same local centre or some other exchange
 If the terminal or trunk group is busy, a suitable signal must be
returned to the calling subscriber
 If more than one free circuit, particular one will be selected

4
 Functions of Switching
• Finding and path setup
 Once the calling subscriber destination is identified and the
called subscriber is available, an accept signal is passed to the
switching system and calling subscriber
 Based on the availability, suitable path will be selected
• Busy testing
 If number dialled by the calling subscriber is wrong or the
called subscriber is busy or the terminal may be free (lifting
the phone) but no response , a switching system has to pass a
corresponding voice message or busy tone after waiting for
some time .

5
 Functions of Switching
• Supervision
 Once the path is setup between calling and called subscriber, it
should be supervised in order to detect answer and clear down
conditions and recording billing information
• Clear down
 When the established call is completed, the path setup should be
disconnected
 If the calling subscriber keeps the phone down first, the signal
called clear forward is passed to the switching system
 If the called subscriber keeps the phone down first, a signal called
clear backward signal is passed to the switching system
 By clear signal, the switching system must disconnect the path
setup between calling and called subscriber

6
 Functions of Switching

• Billing
 A switching system should have a mechanism to meter to
count the number of units made during the conversation
 The cumulative number of units made for a particular
duration by the calling subscriber is calculated

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Requirements of Switching System
• High availability
 The telephone system must be very reliable

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Requirements of Switching System
• High speed.
 The switching speed should be high enough to make use of
the switching system efficiently
 The speed of switching depends on how quickly the control
signals are transmitted
 For instance, the seize signal from the calling terminal must
be identified quickly by the system to realise the need of path
setup by the subscriber
 The common control should be used effectively to identify
the called terminal or the free trunks to setup a path

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Requirements of Switching System
• Good facilities
 A switching system must have various facilities to serve the
subscriber
 For example, wake up calls, address identification on phone
number or phone number identification on address, recording
facilities, quick service for the emergency numbers, good
accessibility etc
• High security
 To ensure satisfied or correct operation provision should be
provided in the switching system
 Duplicated common control circuits, registers, processors and
standby systems are used provide high security
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 Classes of Switching
• Space division switching
 Provides fixed path for the entire duration of a call
 Simple, full bandwidth, no cross talk
 But slow to operate, bulky, and involves large amount of wiring
• Time division switching
• All inlets and outlet one connected to a common switch mechanism
• The switch is connected to the required inlet and outlet for short
durations
• Each input is sampled to change the connecting pattern
• Switch is fast and compact
• Limited applications for analog signal (sampling process should not
affect the signal)
• More practical value only when the signal is already in digital form
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 Classes of Switching
• Frequency division switching
• The incoming signal is modulated onto a difficult carrier
frequency
• Switching is achieved if each outlet is provided with a
demolulator
• Other than radio communication, until recently, there was no
practical applications with this switching
• Frequency division switching is now finding applications in
demand assigned satellite communication links

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 Simple Human Exchange
• In the manual exchange (until 1892), the control was provided
by a human operator and the elements of the switch
assemblies are plugs and jacks
• If a subscriber A initiates a call to the subscriber B, A lifts the
telephone handset from the cradle
• This action, closes the subscribers loop which includes
transmitter and receiver of the handset
• The closing circuit causes a dc current (from battery) to flow
through line relay and illuminates the lamp of subscriber A
• By seeing the light, the human operator, closes the speak key
and ask the subscriber A ‘‘number please’’
• By knowing the called subscriber is B, the operator throws
ring key B to the ringing generator
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 Simple Human Exchange
• The ringing generator provides a dc current to alert the
subscriber B
• If B does not pickup the phone after reasonable time, the
operator reports to A that the call cannot be connected
• If B lefts his phone from its cradle, the lamp of B glows, the
operator then connect jack A to jack B and then say to A go
ahead please
• Both lights of A and B are ‘on’ till their conversation
• If any one or both lamps goes off, the operator will disconnect
the jacks

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 Limitations of Human Exchange
• Language dependent
• Lack of privacy
• Switching delay
• Limited service

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 STROWGER STEP BY STEP SWITCHING
• The first automatic electromechanical switch was developed
by Connolly and Mcig the in 1879
• Strowger produced a working model of step by step switching
in 1888
• It was the most popular and widely used and even now in
some part of the world, it is in use
• Elements: a) Uniselectors and (b) Two motion selectors

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 Uniselector
• Has a single rotary switch with a bank
of contacts
• The contact arm (wiper) moves across
a fixed set of switch contacts
• In the case single uniselector, each
contact is connected to an outgoing
channel
• Wiper movement is performed by a
drive mechanism by energizing a
electromagnet with pulses

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 Two motion selectors
• A set of wipers is moved in two different planes by means of
separate mechanisms
• By mounting several arcs of outlets on top of each other, the
number of outlets can be increased significantly
• Wipers are required to move both horizontally to select a
bank and then vertically to move around that bank to the
required outlet

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