Quantum Mechanics

Angular Momentum
Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur

JURUSAN FISIKA UNIVERSITAS ANDALAS

The importance of angular momentum

Field of Physics The use

Atomic, molecular and nuclear classification of spectra

physics
Particle and high energy physics spin of elementary particles

Condensed matter physics Magnetism, spintronics

Mechanics Equation of motion
Astrophysics Rotation of galaxies

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 2

 What is Angular Momentum?
If a particle is confined to going around a sphere:

At any instant the particle

is on a particular circle

The particle is some

r distance from the origin, r

The particle has

angular momentum,
L=r×p

The particle or mass m

has some velocity, v and
v momentum p
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 3
 What is Angular Momentum?
So a particle going around in a circle (at any instant) has angular
momentum L:

L=r×p
Determine L’s direction from the “right hand rule”

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 4

 What is Angular Momentum?
Like any 3D vector, L has 3 components:
✓ Lx : projection of L on a x-axis
✓ Ly : projection of L on a y-axis
✓ Lz : projection of L on a z-axis L=r×p
z

p
x r

y
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 5
 What is Angular Momentum?
Picking up L and moving it over to the origin:

L=r×p L=r×p
z

p
x r

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 6

 Angular Momentum Operator

❑ L is important to us because electrons are constantly

changing direction (turning) when they are confined to
atoms and molecules

❑ L̂is a vector operator in quantum mechanics

✓ Lˆ : operator for projection of L̂ on a x-axis
x

✓ Lˆ : operator for projection of L̂ on a y-axis

y

✓ Lˆ : operator for projection of L̂ on a z-axis

z

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 8

 Angular Momentum
Classical
L =rp LJ
p
radius vector linear
from origin momentum r

iˆ ˆj kˆ
L= x y z determinant form of cross product
px py pz

Lx = y pz − z p y
Ly = z p x − x p z L  L = L2 = L2x + L2y + L2z
Lz = x p y − y px
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 9
 Q.M. Angular Momentum

pˆ x = −i xˆ = x
x

Substituting
ˆ    
L x = −i  yˆ − zˆ 
 z y 

ˆ    
iˆ ˆj kˆ L y = −i  zˆ − xˆ 
 x z 
Lˆ = −i xˆ yˆ zˆ
ˆ    
   L z = −i  xˆ − yˆ 
x y z  y x 

Lˆ  Lˆ = Lˆ 2x + Lˆ 2y + Lˆ 2z

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 10

 Commutators of Angular Momentum
Consider

Lˆ x , Lˆ y  = Lˆ x Lˆ y − Lˆ y Lˆ x substituting operators in units of 

 

ˆ ˆ       
L x L y = −  yˆ − zˆ   zˆ − xˆ 
 z y   x z 
         
= −  y zˆ −
ˆ ˆ
y x −
ˆ ˆ
z ˆ
z + ˆ
z xˆ 
 z x z z y x y z 
Similarly

ˆ ˆ          
L y L x = −  zˆ yˆ − zˆ zˆ − xˆ yˆ + xˆ zˆ 
 x z x y z z z y 
Subtracting
       
Lˆ x , Lˆ y  = −  yˆ  zˆ − zˆ  + xˆ  zˆ − zˆ  
 
 x  z z  y  z z  
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 11
 Commutators of Angular Momentum
       
Lˆ x , Lˆ y  = −  yˆ  zˆ − zˆ  + xˆ  zˆ − zˆ  
 
 x  z z  y  z z  
     
= −  y − x   , zˆ 
ˆ ˆ
 x y   z 
      
=  x − y   , zˆ 
ˆ ˆ pˆ z  
=   , z = 1
 y x   z  z −i  z 
ˆ  
= i L z  , zˆ 
 z  1
ˆ
1
ˆ
1
−  pz , zˆ  =  zˆ, pz  = (i ) = 1
i i i
Therefore,
Lˆ x , Lˆ y  = i Lˆ z
 
Lˆ x , Lˆ y  = i Lˆ z in conventional unit
 
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 12
 The commutators in units of  are
Lˆ x , Lˆ y  = i Lˆ z Lˆ y , Lˆ z  = i Lˆ x Lˆ z , Lˆ x  = i Lˆ y
     
Using these it is found that

Lˆ 2 , Lˆ z  = Lˆ 2 , Lˆ x  = Lˆ 2 , Lˆ y  = 0

     
❑ Components of angular momentum do not commute.
❑ L2 commutes with all components.

L2 and one component of angular momentum can be

measured simultaneously.
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 13
 What is the consequence?
❑ L2 and one component of angular momentum can be measured
simultaneously.

❑ Example, L2 and Lz can be simultaneously diagonalized by the

same unitary transformation.

❑ Furthermore,
 Hˆ , Lˆ  = 0 (L looks like rotation)
 
Therefore, H, L2, Lz are all simultaneous
 Hˆ , Lˆ 2  = 0 observables.
 
L2 and Lz commute, there set of vectors  m are eigenvectors
of both operators.
L2  m =   m Lz  m = m  m (in units of )
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 14
 Angular Momentum Operator
Lˆ + = Lˆ x + i Lˆ y Lˆ − = Lˆ x − i Lˆ y

From the definitions of Lˆ + and Lˆ − and the angular momentum

commutators, the following commutators and identities can be
derived.

Commutators Identities

Lˆ + , Lˆ z  = −Lˆ + Lˆ + Lˆ − = Lˆ 2 − Lˆ 2z + Lˆ z
 
Lˆ − Lˆ + = Lˆ 2 − Lˆ 2z − Lˆ z
Lˆ − , Lˆ z  = Lˆ −
 
Lˆ + , Lˆ −  = 2Lˆ z
 
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 15
 Spherically Symmetric Problems
❑ Consider this Hamiltonian: H=
2
P +V ( R ) =
1 2 1 2
2
P +V ( R2 )
❑ All components of L commute with H, because they commute with R2

❑ It makes sense to choose eigenstates of H, L2 and Lz n, l , m

H n, l , m = En n, l , m , L2 n, l , m = 2
(l 2
+ l ) n, l , m , Lz n, l , m = m n, l , m

❑ It seems sensible to switch to spherical coordinates:

x = r sin  cos 
❑ We write Schrödinger’s equation in spherical coordinates
y = r sin  sin 
2
E = −  2 + V ( r ) z = r cos 
2

 1 2
2
1     1  2 
E = − (  ) +   + 2 2 + V ( r )
2  r r 2 2 
r sin
r 2 sin      r sin   

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 16

 L in Spherical coordinates
❑ We need to write L in spherical coordinates x = r sin  cos 
y = r sin  sin 
❑ Start by writing angular derivatives out:
z = r cos 

  x  y  z    
= + + = r sin   − sin  + cos  
 x  y  z   x y 

  x  y  z     
= + + = r cos   cos  + sin   − r sin 
 x  y  z   x y  z


Lz = −i


❑ It’s not hard to get Lz from these equations:

       
Lz = ( XPy − YPx ) = −i  x −y  = −i r sin   cos  − sin  
 y x   y x 

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 17

 L in Spherical coordinates
          
= r sin   − sin  + cos   = r cos   cos  + sin   − r sin 
  x y    x y  z

x = r sin  cos  , y = r sin  sin  , z = r cos 

❑ Now it’s time to get clever: consider

     
sin  cot  − cos  = r sin  cos  − r cos  ( cos 2  + sin 2  ) =x −z
  z x z x

     
Ly = −i  z −x  Ly = i sin  cot  − i cos 
 x z   
❑ And we get clever once more:
     
cos  cot  + sin  = r cos  ( sin 2  + cos 2  ) − r sin  sin  =z −y
  y z y z
     
Lx = −i  y −z  Lx = i cos  cot  + i sin 
 z x   
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 18
 Other Operators in Spherical coordinates
   
Lx = i cos  cot  + i sin  Ly = i sin  cot  − i cos 
   

❑ It will help to get the raising and lowering operators:

 
L = Lx  iLy = cot  ( i cos  sin  ) + ( i sin   cos  )
 

     1     1  2 
 sin    sin    + sin 2   2 
 i
L = e  i cot    L =−
2 2

       

❑ And we need L2: L2 = L2x + L2y + L2z =

❑ Compare to Schrödinger:
 1 2
2
1     1  2 
2 (
E = −  r ) + 2  sin  + 2 2 2 
+ V ( r )
2  r r r sin      r sin   
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 19
Solving Spherically Symmetric Problems
❑ Rewrite Schrödinger’s equation: 2 2
1
E = − ( r ) + L2
 + V ( r )
❑ Our eigenstates will be n, l , m 2 r r 2
2 r 2

H n, l , m = En n, l , m , L2 n, l , m = 2
(l 2
+ l ) n, l , m , Lz n, l , m = m n, l , m

❑ The angular properties are governed by l and m  ( r ) = R ( r ) Y ( ,  )

❑ This suggests factoring  into angular and radial parts: L2Y = 2

(l 2
+ l )Y

L2 = 2
(l 2
+ l ) L2 ( RY ) = 2
(l 2
+ l ) ( RY ) LzY = mY

Lz = m Lz ( RY ) = m ( RY )
2 1 2
❑ Substitute into Schrodinger: ERY = − ( rRY ) + L2
RY + V ( r ) RY
2 r r 2
2 r 2

❑ Cancel Y: 2
d2 2
ER = −
2 r dr 2 ( rR ) +
2 r 2 ( l 2
+ l ) R +V (r ) R

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 20

 The Problem Divided:
d2 2 2
 ( r ) = R ( r ) Y ( ,  )
ER = −
2 r dr 2 ( rR ) +
2 r 2 ( l 2
+ l ) R +V (r ) R
L2Y = 2
(l 2
+ l )Y
❑ It remains to find and normalize R and Y LzY = mY
❑ Note that Y problem is independent of the potential V
❑ Note that the radial problem is a 1D problem
✓ Easily solved numerically
❑ Normalization:
  2 
1 =   ( r ) d r =  r dr  sin  d  d R ( r ) Y ( ,  ) =  R ( r ) r 2 dr  Y ( ,  ) d 
2 3 2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0

 2 2
f ( ,  ) d    sin  d  f ( ,  ) d =  d ( cos  ) 0 f ( ,  ) d
1
 0 0 −1

❑ Split this up how you want, but normally:


 Y ( ,  ) d  = 1  R ( r ) r 2 dr = 1
2 2

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 21

 Dependence on , and m restrictions
❑ We will call our angular functions spherical harmonics and label them
❑ We previously found: Yl m ( ,  )


❑ For general angular momentum we know: Lz = −i

Lz l , m = m l , m m = l , l − 1, , −l
❑ We can easily determine the  dependence of the spherical harmonics
 m
−i Yl = mYl m Yl m eim LzYl m = mYl m , m = l , l − 1, , −l

dYl m m
 m = d = im d  ln Yl m = im  Yl m eim
Yl −i

❑ Also, recall that  = 0 is the same as  = 2 Yl m ( ,  ) = f ( ) eim

f ( ) = f ( ) e 2 im

❑ It follows that m (and therefore l) is an integer l = 0,1, 2,

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 22

 Finding one Spherical Harmonic:
❑ We previously found: Yl m ( ,  ) = f ( ) eim
 i    
❑ For general angular momentum: L = e  i cot   
   
J  j, m = j 2 + j − m2 m j, m  1
LYl m = l 2 + l − m2 m Yl m1

❑ If we lower m = – l, we must get zero:

    − i − il  d 
0 = L−Yl − l = e − i  i cot  −  f ( ) e − il
= e e  l cot  −  f ( )
     d 
d df ln f = l ln ( sin  ) + k
f ( ) = f ( ) l cot  = l cot  d
d f f ( ) = N sin l 

❑ Normalize it:
2 4 2 ( l !)
2l 2
 2
1 =  Yl l ( ,  ) d  = N 2  sin l  e d  = N 2  sin 2l  sin  d 
2 − il 2
d = N
0 0
( 2l + 1)!
Yl − l ( ,  ) =
1 ( 2l + 1)! sin l  e−il
2l l ! 4
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 23
 Finding All Spherical Harmonics:
( 2l + 1)! sin l  e−il  i    
−l 1
Yl ( ,  ) = l L = e  i cot   
2 l! 4    

LYl m = l 2 + l − m2 m Yl m1

To get the others, just raise this repeatedly:

L+Yl m ( ,  ) 1     m
Yl m +1
( ,  ) = = ei  i cot  +  Yl ( ,  )
l 2 + l − m2 − m ( l − m )( l + m + 1)    

l +m
1 ( 2l + 1)( l − m ) !  i    
Yl ( ,  ) = l
m

2 l! 4 ( l + m )!  
e  i cot  + 
   
( sin  e )
l − il

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 24

 Properties of Spherical Harmonics:
❑ They are eigenstates of L2 and Lz L2Yl m = 2
(l 2
+ l ) Yl m
❑ They are orthonormal: ( )
 l l d  =  ll mm
* m
Y m
Y LzYl m = mYl m

❑ They are complete; any angular function can be written in terms of

them:  l
f ( ,  ) =   clmYl m ( ,  ) clm =  Yl m ( ,  ) f ( ,  ) d 
*

l = 0 m =− l
 l
f ( ,  ) =     Yl m ( ,   ) f ( ,   ) d  Yl m ( ,  )
*

l = 0 m =− l
 

❑ This helps us write the completion relation

 l m 
f ( ,  ) =     Yl ( ,   ) Yl m ( ,  )  f ( ,   ) d 
 l =0 m=−l 
 l
1
  Yl m ( ,  ) Yl m ( ,  ) =  ( cos  − cos  )  ( −  ) =
l = 0 m =− l sin 
 ( −   )  ( −   )

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 25

 More Properties of Spherical Harmonics:
❑ Recall: parity commutes with L

❑ It follows that L ( Yl ) = L Yl =

2 m 2 m 2
( l + l )( Y )
2 m
L2Yl m = 2
(l 2
+ l ) Yl m
l
LzYl m = mYl m
Lz ( Yl m ) = LzYl m = m ( Y )l
m

Yl m = ( −1) Yl m
l
❑ Hence when you let parity act, you  Yl ~ Yl m m

must be getting essentially the same state

L2 (Yl m ) = ( l 2 + l )(Yl m )
* 2 *

❑ Recall: L2 is real but Lz is pure imaginary

− Lz (Yl )
m *
= m (Yl m *
)
❑ Take the complex conjugate of our relations above:

❑ This implies (Y )
l
m *
~ Yl − m

❑ It works out to (Yl m ) = ( −1) Yl − m

* m

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 26

 The Spherical Harmonics
Y ( ,  ) =
0 1
Y20 ( ,  ) =
5

( 3cos 2
 − 1)
2 
0
4
3 15 e  i
Y10 ( ,  ) = cos  Y 1
( ,  ) = sin  cos 
2  2 2
2

2 i
3 e  i 15 e
Y11 ( ,  ) = sin  Y22 ( ,  ) = sin 2 
2 2 4 2

Y30 ( ,  ) =
4
7

( 5cos  − 3cos  )
3

21 e  i
Y 1
( ,  ) = sin  ( 5cos 2  − 1)
8 
3

2 i
105 e
Y32 ( ,  ) = sin 2  cos 
4 2
35 e 3i
Y 3
( ,  ) = sin 3 
8 
3

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 27

 Solving Radial Equation
ke e 2
V =−
R

❑ Because the problem is spherically symmetric, we will have states

n, l , m

❑ These will have wave functions  nlm ( r ) = R ( r ) Yl ( ,  )

m

❑ The radial wave function will satisfy:

2 2
d2 2
ER = −
2 r dr 2 ( rR ) +
2 r 2 ( l 2
+ l ) R −
k e

r
e
R

❑ Note that m does not appear in this equation, so R won’t depend

on it Rnl ( r )
 nlm ( r ) = Rnl ( r ) Yl ( ,  )
m

❑ We will focus on bound states E < 0

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 28
The Radial Equation: For r Large and Small
2 2
d2 2
ER = −
2 r dr 2 ( rR ) +
2 r 2 ( l 2
+ l ) R −
k e

r
e
R

Let’s try to approximate behavior at r = 0 and r = :

❑ Large r: keep dominant terms, ignore those with negative powers
of r: 2 2 2 2 2
ER = −
d
2 dr 2
R −
d
 r dr
R +
2 r 2 ( l 2
+ l ) R −
ke e
r
R

❑ Define a such that: E=−

2
R ~ er a R ~ e−r a , for large r
❑ Then we have 2 a 2
❑ That must be convergent
❑ Now, guess that for small r we have R ~ r  2 +  = l2 + l
❑ Substitute in, keeping smallest powers of r  = l or  = − l − 1
2 2
Er  = −
2
 (  + 1) r  − 2 +
2
( l 2
+ l ) r  − 2 − kee 2 r  −1
❑ Want it convergent R ~ r l , for small r
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 29
The Radial Equation: Removing Asymptotic
2 2
d2 2
ke e 2
2 (
− R=− 2 (
rR ) + l +l)R −
2
R R ~ e−r a , for large r
2 a 2
2 r dr 2 r r

❑ Factor out the expected asymptotic behavior:

• This is just a definition of f(r) R ( r ) = f ( r ) e−r a
❑ Substitute in, multiply by 2/2
1 d2 l 2 + l − r a 2  ke e 2 − r a
2 (
rfe ) + 2 fe −
1 −r a −r a
− 2 e f =− 2
fe
a r dr r r
1 −r a 1 d2 2 d 1 − r a l 2 + l − r a 2  ke e 2 − r a
2 (
− 2 fe = − rf ) e +
−r a
( rf ) e − 2 fe + 2 fe − 2 fe
−r a

a r dr ar dr a r r
1 d2 2 d l2 + l 2  ke e 2
2 (
rf ) − ( rf ) − 2 f + 2 f = 0
r dr ar dr r r
2

❑ Define the Bohr radius: a0 =

 ke e 2
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 30
 The Radial Equation: Taylor Expansion
1 d2 2 d l2 + l 2
2 ( ) ( )
rf − rf − f + f =0 R ~ r l , for small r
2
r dr ar dr r ra0
❑ Write f as a power series around the origin 
f =  fi r i
– Recall that at small r it goes like rl i =l

❑ Substitute in

2   

 f (i + i) r −  f i ( i + 1) r − ( l + l )  f i r i − 2 +
2
i =l
i
2 i −2

a i =l
i −1 2

i =l a0
fr
i =l
i
i −1
=0

❑ Gather like powers of r:

 
2 2  i −1
 f (i i
2
+i −l −l)r2 i−2
= f i  ( i + 1) −  r
i =l i =l a a0 

❑ On right side, replace i → i – 1, On left side, first term vanishes

 
2 2  i −2
 f (i i
2
+i −l −l)r 2 i −2
=  f i −1  i −  r
i =l +1 i −1=l  a a0 
2i a − 2 a0
fi = fi −1
❑ These must be identical expressions, so: i +i −l −l
2 2

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 31

 Are We Done?

2i a − 2 a0 2 2
R (r ) = f (r )e −r a
f =  fi r i
fi = 2 fi −1 E=− a0 =
i =l i +i −l −l
2
2 a 2
 ke e 2

❑ It looks like we have a solution for any E:

– Pick fl to be anything
– Deduce the rest by recursion 2i a 2
❑ Now just normalize everything fi  2
f i −1 = fi −1
i ia i
❑ Problem: No guarantee it is normalizable 12
fi  
❑ Study the behavior at large i: i! a 
i
1  2r  R ( r ) e−r a e2r a
f (r ) i i !  a  = e 2r a er a

❑ Only way to avoid this catastrophe is to make sure some f

vanishes, say fn
2
2n a − 2 a0 2n 2   ke e 2 
2
0 = fn = 2 f n −1 0= − a = na0 E=−  
n + n−l −l
2
a a0 2 n2  2 
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 32
 Summarizing Everything
❑ Because the exponential beats the polynomial, E = −  ke2e4 a =
2

these functions are now all normalizable 2 2 n2

0
 ke e 2
– Arbitrarily pick fl > 0
❑ Note that n > l, n is positive integer R 2 ( r ) r 2 dr = 1

n −1

❑ Include the angular wave functions

nl Rnl ( r ) = e
− r ( na )

i =l
f i r i 0

n = 1, 2,3, 2 ( i − n ) fi −1
 nlm ( r ) = Rnl ( r ) Yl ( ,  ) l = 0,1, , n − 1 fi =
n ( i 2 + i − l 2 − l ) a0
m

m = −l , −l + 1, , l

❑ Restrictions on the quantum numbers:

❑ Another way of writing the energy:
 ke2e4  2 c2 ke e 2 1
E=− 2 2
=−  
2 n 2n 2 c 137.04
❑ For an electron orbiting a nucleus,  is almost E=−
13.6 eV
exactly the electron mass, c2 = 511 keV n2
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 33
 Radial Wave Functions
2e− r a0 e− r 4 a0  r3 
R10 ( r ) = R40 ( r ) =
3r r2
a03 1 − + 2− 3 
4 a0  3 4 a0 8a 0 192 a0 

5 re−r 4 a0  r r2 
 r  R41 ( r ) =
− r 2 a0
R20 ( r ) =
e 1 − + 2 
1 −  16 3a0 5 4 a 80 a0 
2a0 
3 2 a0 
0

− r 2 a0 r 2 e− r 4 a0  r 
R21 ( r ) =
re R42 ( r ) = 1 − 
2 6a05 64 5a0  7 12 a0 

r 3e− r 4 a0
2e− r 3a0  2r 2r 2  R43 ( r ) =
R30 ( r ) = 1 − + 2 
768 35a09
3 3a0 3 3a0 27 a 0 

4 2 re− r 3a0  r  2 2 r 2 e− r 3a0

R31 ( r ) = 1 −  R32 ( r ) =
27 3a0  6a0 
5
81 15a07

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 34

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 35
Expectation Value of Angular Momentum
 m Lˆ 2  m   m Lˆ 2z  m
Because
 m Lˆ 2  m =  m Lˆ 2z  m +  m Lˆ 2x  m +  m Lˆ 2y  m

Positive numbers because L’s are Hermitian –

give real numbers. Square of real numbers – positive.
Therefore,
the sum of three positive numbers is great than or equal to one of them.
Now
 m Lˆ 2  m = 
 m Lˆ 2z  m = m 2
Therefore,
Eigenvalues of L2 is greater than or equal to
  m2 square of eigenvalues of Lz.
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 36
Lˆ + , Lˆ z  = −Lˆ +
  Lˆ z Lˆ + = Lˆ + Lˆ z + Lˆ +
Consider
Lˆ z Lˆ +  m  = Lˆ + Lˆ z  m + Lˆ +  m

= Lˆ + m  m + Lˆ +  m
= ( m + 1) Lˆ +  m 

eigenvalue eigenvector
Furthermore,
Lˆ 2 , Lˆ +  = 0 L2 commutes with L+ because it commutes with Lx and Ly.
 
ˆ
L 2 ˆ
 L  m  = ˆ
L ˆ
L 2
m
Then  +  +

=  Lˆ +  m 
eigenvalue eigenvector
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 37
 Raising Operator
❑ L̂ +  m is eigenvector of Lz with eigenvalue m + 1 and of L2 with
eigenvalue .
❑ L+ is a raising operator that increases m by 1, but leaves  unchanged
❑ Repeated applications of Lˆ + to  m gives new eigenvectors of Lz
(and L2) with larger and larger values of m.
❑ But, this must stop at a largest value of m, mmax because
  m 2 (m increases,  doesn’t change)
mmax = l

❑ For this value of m, that is, m = l

Lˆ +  l = 0 with l  0

Can’t raise pass max value.

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 38
 Lowering Operator
In similar manner can prove
Lˆ −  m
is an eigenvector of Lˆ zwith eigenvalues m – 1 and of L2 with
eigenvalues l.
Therefore, Lˆ − is a lowering operator. It reduces the value of m
by 1 and leaves l unchanged.

Operating Lˆ − repeatedly on  l
Lˆ −  l
largest value of m
gives eigenvectors with sequence of m eigenvalues
m = l , l − 1, l − 2, 
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 39
 Lowering Operator
But,   m2

Therefore, can’t lower indefinitely.

Must be some
l '
such that
Lˆ −  l ' = 0 with l '  0

Smallest value of m.
Can’t lower below smallest value.
Thus, Went from largest value to smallest
l = l' + an integer. value in unit steps.
largest value of m
smallest value of m
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 40
 largest value of m
We have Lˆ +  l = 0
Lˆ -  l ' = 0

smallest value of m
Left multiplying top equation by Lˆ − and bottom equation by Lˆ +
Lˆ − Lˆ +  l = 0 Lˆ − Lˆ + = Lˆ 2 − Lˆ 2z − Lˆ z
identities
ˆ ˆ
L+L−  l ' = 0 Lˆ + Lˆ − = Lˆ 2 − Lˆ 2z + Lˆ z
Then (
Lˆ − Lˆ +  l = 0 = Lˆ 2 − Lˆ 2z − Lˆ z  l)
Lˆ + Lˆ −  l ' = 0 = ( Lˆ − Lˆ
2 2
z + Lˆ )  l '
z

and operating
Lˆ − Lˆ +  l = 0 = (  − l 2 − l )  l
Lˆ + Lˆ −  l ' = 0 = (  − l '2 + l ' )  l '
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 41
 (
Lˆ − Lˆ +  l = 0 =  − Lˆ 2 − Lˆ  l) Lˆ + Lˆ −  l ' = 0 = (  − l '2 + l ' )  l '

Because  l  0 and l '  0

the coefficients of the kets must equal 0.
Therefore,
 = l (l + 1) and  = (−l ')(−l '+ 1)

Because l > l’
l ' = −l
and
2l = an integer

because we go from l to l' in unit steps with lowering operator L̂ −.

Thus, the eigenvalues of L2 are
 = l ( l + 1) and l = 0, 1 , 1, 3 ,
2 2 (largest m for a l)

The eigenvalues of Lz are m = l , l − 1, , − l + 1, − l

largest m change by unit steps smallest value of m

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 42
 Final results
Lˆ 2 lm = l (l + 1) l m

Lˆ z l m = m l m
There are (2l + 1) m-states for a given l.

Can derive

Lˆ + l m = ( l − m )( l + m+1) l m +1

Lˆ − l m = ( l + m )( l − m+1) l m −1

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 43

 Orbital Angular Momentum
❑ Not only energy, orbital angular
momentum (L) is also quantized.

L = l (l + 1) (l = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1)
❑ Electron cloud with L = 0 has a spherical
symmetry without rotational axis.
❑ L vector is allowed to have certain
orientation where the projection of orbital
angular momentum in z-direction is
quantized:
Lz = ml (ml = 0,  1,  2, ...,  l )
ml determines the z-component of allowed
orbital angular.
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 44
 Orbital Angular Momentum
❑ Orbital angular momentum (L) do not
point to a specific direction.
−If Lz component is known
−then Lx and Ly must be unknown.
Knowing all of three components
violates Heisenberg uncertainty
principle.

❑ L can be assumed to be on the surface of

cone with angle  with respect to z axis.
Lz ml
cos  = =
L l ( l + 1)  Is quantized
❑ because ml  l then   0
→ L will never be parallel to z-axis.
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 45
 Momentum Sudut Spin
❑ Electron has an intrinsic angular
momentum.

❑ Total angular momentum of electron

J = orbital angular momentum L +
spin angular momentum S.

❑ Spin is represented with quantum

number of s=1/2
3
S = s ( s + 1) =
2
❑ Z-component of spin angular
momentum is:
1
S z = ms =
2
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 46
 Spin-Orbit Coupling
❑ Electron is not independent of other electrons, spin and orbital
angular momentum interacts to each other (coupled).

❑ Russell-Saunders coupling (LS-coupling)

− For small atom (small Z)
− For weak spin-orbit coupling J = L+S, L+S-1,..., |L-S|

❑ JJ-coupling
− For heavy atoms (large Z)
− For strong spin-orbit coupling J = j 1 + j2
❑ Spin-orbit coupling causes: peak splitting (fine structure).

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 47

 Konsultasi? Diskusi?

Dosen : Dr.rer.nat. Muldarisnur

Ruangan : Jurusan Fisika

E-mail : mrisnur@gmail.com

Telpon : 081378971***

The best way to handle exams is to be well-prepared.

Push yourself, because nobody else will do that for you…

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 48