Machining

Many of this lecture slides are adopted from

the Text book
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Read in Textbook:
DVD video – Machining Processes:
Turning and Lathe Basics
Milling & Machine Centre Basics
Fundamentals of Machining
THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

1. Overview of Machining Technology

2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal
Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in
Machining
5. Cutting Temperature
 Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material
from a starting workpart so the remaining
part has the desired geometry
 Machining – material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
 Abrasive processes – material removal by
hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
 Nontraditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to
remove material
 Material Removal Processes

 Many manufactured items are made by

removing material from a stock blank
(steel bar, aluminum plate, etc).
 This material removal process is called:
Machining
 Why because you need to use a machine
to remove the stock material.
 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
 Why Machining is Important
 Variety of work materials can be
machined
 Most frequently used to cut metals
 Variety of part shapes and special
geometric features possible, such as:
 Screw threads
 Accurate round holes
 Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish
 Disadvantages with Machining

 Wasteful of material
 Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
 A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
 Machining in Manufacturing
Sequence
 Generally performed after other
manufacturing processes, such as casting,
forging, and bar drawing
 Other processes create the general shape of
the starting workpart
 Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
 Types of machining operations
Common machining types:
•Turning
•Drilling
•Milling

Other machining types:

•Sawing
•Shaping and planing
•Broaching
•Grinding
 Turning

Single point cutting tool removes material

from a rotating workpiece to form a
cylindrical shape

Speed: surface speed of work

piece
Feed: Tool is fed parallel to the
work axis
Depth of cut: Tool penetrated
beneath original work surface
 Drilling

Flow of chip through

Speed: Rotating tool, drill the flute
bit diameter determines
hole diameter
Feed: Tool is fed parallel
to the tool axis
Depth of cut=depth of
hole
 Milling

(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across

work to cut a plane or straight surface
 Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

Speed: Rotating tool, speed=surface speed of tool

Feed: work feeds in direction perpendicular to the tool axis
Depth of cut: tool penetrates beneath original work surface
 Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius
 Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work achieved by
rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools
 Cutting Tool
 Single point cutting
tool
 Multiple edge tool

Rake face directs the flow of

newly formed chips-oriented at
an angle called rake angle
Flank of the tool provides the
clearance between the tool and
the newly generated work
surface –flank surface oriented
at an angle called the relief
angle
 Cutting Conditions in Machining
Cutting speed (m/sec/ft/min), v: Relative motion between
the tool and the workpiece
Feed (mm/inch), f : Tool is moved laterally across the
work
Depth of cut (mm/inch), d: penetration of the cutting tool
below the original work surface
 Three dimensions of a machining process:
 Cutting speed v – primary motion

 Feed f – secondary motion

 Depth of cut d – penetration of

tool below original work surface

 For certain operations, material removal rate can be
computed as
RMR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
 Cutting Conditions for Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

 Roughing vs. Finishing
In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken on
the part, followed by one or two finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of material from
starting workpart
 Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves
some material for finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds

 Finishing - completes part geometry

 Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish

 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds

Rough cut+ Finish cut = accurate size and good

surface finish
Cutting Fluid: Applied to cool and lubricate the
cutting tool (Depends on work material and tooling)
 Basics of Cutting Process
 To remove material in the form of
chips, we need:
 Cutting Tool, which is harder than the
workpiece material.
 Relative motion between the tool and
the workpiece. •
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
 Most cutting operations are three
dimensional.
 To simplify our analysis we first look at
orthogonal cutting (2D problem).

•Orthogonal cutting:
• Tool Edge perpendicular to the movement of the tool
• Chip slides over the face of the tool•
 Two-
Dimensional
Cutting
Process
Schematic illustration of a two-
dimensional cutting process, also called
orthogonal cutting: (a) Orthogonal
cutting with a well-defined shear plane,
also known as the Merchant Model.
Note that the tool shape, depth of cut,
to, and the cutting speed, V, are all
independent variables, (b) Orthogonal
cutting without a well-defined shear
plane.
 Orthogonal Cutting model
to=Thickness of the
chip prior to chip
formation
tc,= thickness of
chip after
formation
ls=length of the
shear plane

Orthogonal cutting uses wedge shaped tool-cutting edge perpendicular to the

direction of cutting speed
Chip is formed by shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane

Chip thickness
to
ratio/chip ratio=
(always <1 )
r 
tc
 Orthogonal Cutting model

t o  l s sin 

tc  ls cos(   )
The shear angle has
great significance in
l s sin  sin 
r  mechanics of cutting.
l s cos(   ) cos(   ) It affects force and
Rearranged as power requirements,
r cos  chip thickness, and
tan   temperature. •
1  r sin 
Background-Normal Stress &
Strain
Background- Shear Stress &
Strain
 Ideal Orthogonal Chip Model

 This simple model assumes that the chips are

formed by forcing the tool to shear the
material along the “Shear Plane.”
 Metal ahead of the cutting tool is compressed.
 This results in a shearing of the metal.
 The metal above the cutting edge is forced along the
“chip-tool” interference zone and is moved away form
the work. •
 Chip Formation by Shearing

Figure 21.4 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip

formation by shearing. (b) Velocity diagram showing angular relationships
among the three speeds in the cutting zone.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
 Shear strain

Deflection of the element/orthogonal

distance over which deformation occurs
AC AD  DC BD tan(90   )  BD tan(   )
  
BD BD BD
Can be reduced to
  tan(   )  cot 
 Problem-1
 Problem A: In a machine operation that approximates
orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle =
10o . The chip thickness before cut = 0.5mm and chip
thickness after cut = 1.125mm. Calculate shear plane
angle and shear strain in the operation.

 Problem B: In a machine operation that approximates

orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a shear plane
angle of = 30o and the shear strain of 2. The chip
thickness after cut is 1mm. Calculate the rake angle,
chip thickness ratio and chip thickness before cut.
 Example – Shear strain

 Determine the shear

stain for the lathe tool at
right (12º rake). If your
initial cut is 0.3 mm deep
and the resulting chip is
0.48mm thick, what is
the chip thickness ratio,
shear angle and shear KBC 2006 tool catalogue
strain?
 Actual Chip Formation
 In the real world, a
number of problems
occur: Secondary
 Strain-hardening due Shear Zone
to deformation.
 High interface
pressure on the tool
face.
 Plowing around the Tool
tool edge.
Effective 

Primary Shear
Zone Work
 Chip Formation

Primary shear zone- where

deformation of the material
takes place
Secondary shear zone -due
to friction between the chip
and the tool (tool chip
interface)

Types of Chips
•Discontinuous chip
•Continuous chip
•Continuous chip with buildup edge
•Serrated chips Brass at Secondary
3.4m/sec shear zone
 Continuous chip
Material: Ductile
sharp cutting edge on the tool and low
tool-chip friction
Cutting condition: high cutting speed
or high rake angle, small feed and
depth of cut
Machined surface: good surface finish
Chips are herder, less ductile and
stronger than the work piece
material due to strain hardening-
caused by shear force
Rake angle decrease- shear strain
increase-herder and stronger chips
Problem: Chip disposal and tangling
about the tool (chip breakers are
used)
 Chip Breakers
 Long, continuous chips are a safety hazard
and could interfere with cutting operation.
 When all the independent variables are under
control, chip breakers are used to control the
length of the chips.

• The ideal chip is in the form of the letter C or the

number 9 and fits in a 1 in. square. •
 Chip
Breaker
(a) Schematic illustration of the
action of a chip breaker. Note
that the chip breaker decreases
the radius of curvature of the chip
and eventually breaks it. (b)
Chip breaker clamped on the rake
face of a cutting tool. (c)
Grooves in cutting tools acting as
chip breakers. Most cutting toold
used now are inserts with built-in
Manufacturing,
chip breaker features.
Engineering &
Technology, Fifth
Edition, by Serope
Kalpakjian and Steven
R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. ©
2006 Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ
 Built-up Edge Chips

 Same process as continuous chip.

 As the metal begins to flow up the chip-tool zone,
small particles of the metal begin to adhere or
weld themselves to the edge of the cutting tool. •
Continuous chip with buildup edge (BUE)
Material: Ductile material
Cutting condition: low to medium
cutting speed cutting speed.
Cause: Due to local high temperature and
extreme pressure in the cut zone cause
portion of the work material adhere to
the rake face of the tool near the
cutting edge called build up edge (BUE)
Problems: BUE takes portion of the tool
rake face while –reduces tool life time-
BUE imbedded with the work surface-
rough surface finish
Advantage: Thin stable BUE protects the
tool surface
Solution: Reduce depth of cut, Use
positive rake angle, applying coolant,
altering cutting speed BUE –
sintered
tungsten
 Built-up Edge Chips
 BUE can be reduced by:
 Increasing the cutting speed
 Decreasing the depth of cut

 Increasing the rake angle

 Using a sharp tool

 Reducing friction (by using an effective

cutting fluid) •
 Serrated chip
Material: Difficult to
machine materials
(Titanium alloy, nickel
based superalloys etc.)
Cutting condition: high
cutting speed
Chip formation: Have saw
tooth appearance –
alternate high and low
shear strain Machined
surface: Irregular texture Stainless steel
at 1.25m/sec
 Discontinuous chip
Material: brittle (e.g. cast irons)-cannot
undergo high shear strain developed in
cutting
Cutting condition: low cutting speed,
large feed and depth of cut, Impurities
and hard particles, low rake angle, lack
of effective cutting fluid, low stiffness of
machine tool, high tool chip friction
Machined surface: Irregular texture
Problems: machine tool vibrate and
chatter-affects the surface finish and
dimensional accuracy –excessive wear
on the cutting tool.
Solution: high cutting speed-high
temperature and material is more
ductile

Brass at
0.25m/sec
 Chips Produced in
Orthogonal Metal
Cutting

Figure 21.5 Basic types of chips produced in orthogonal metal cutting, their schematic representation, and
photomicrographs of the cutting zone: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight, and primary shear zone; (b)
continuous chip with secondary shear zone at the cip-tool interface; (c) built-up edge; (d) segmented or
nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous chip. Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
Chip Formation and Surface Finish

Intro to Manufacturing Processes – Schey p624

 Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to
friction N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear
Fn
Forces in metal cutting: (a)
forces acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
 Force in cutting metal

Shear force, Fs -force that cause

Friction force F – friction shear deformation in the shear plane
force between tool and chip
resisting the flow of chip along Normal force to shear, Fn- normal to
the rake face shear force
Shear stress=
Normal force to friction N,-
Where t w
force normal to the friction Fs
force S As=area of As  o

F As shear plane sin 

Coefficient of friction=  
N Cutting force Fc -direction of cutting
 = F/N = tan  Thrust force, Ft -perpendiculat to
cutting force
 Friction Zone
Force Diagram
chip
F
R Ft
Fc V

Fs 
N tool 
R 

Fn Shear Zone
Workpiece

R is the resultant force Ft can be + or - depending on

consisting of rake angle and friction
thrust force, Ft and cutting

R is balanced by an equal and
force, Fc
opposite force which
 OR
resolves into
 F, Frictional force, and N
normal force perpendicular  Shear force, Fs and
to friction force  Shear normal force Fn •
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly
measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be
measured:
 Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces in metal
cutting: (b) forces
acting on the tool that
can be measured
 Resultant Forces

 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
 Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance:
 R' must be equal in magnitude to R

 R’ must be opposite in direction to R

 R’ must be collinear with R

 Cutting Forces

Figure 21.11 (a) Forces acting on a cutting tool during two-dimensional cutting. Note
that the resultant force, R, must be collinear to balance the forces. (b) Force circle to
determine various forces acting in the cutting zone.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
.
 Fc cos 
Ft sin 
Fc sin 

Ft cos 

 Ft cos 

Fc sin 

Ft sin 
Fc cos 
 Force Diagram
For a given cutting force and thrust force, shear force, friction force,
normal force to friction, shear stress and coefficient of friction can be
determined

 Equations can be derived to relate the

forces that cannot be measured to the
forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear
stress and coefficient of friction can be
determined
 Fs  R cos(     )

Fs
R
cos(     )

Fc  R cos(   ) 1

Ft  R sin(    ) 2

Substitute R in 1&2

Fs cos(    ) Fs sin(    )
Fc  Ft 
cos(     ) cos(     )

Shear strength of the material is given, cutting

force and the thrust force can be calculated
 Forces in Cutting

 Given the shear strain put on the stock

material, the forces involved in chip
formation can be derived.
 The shear stress acting along the shear
angle is the shear force over the shear
area.
 The Merchant Equation
Fs
t
 Shear stress As to w
As 
 Shear Plane Area sin 
 Shear stress: Fc cos   Ft sin 
t
to w sin 
 Merchant’s Assumption: Shear plane
angle will form to minimize energy
 After differentiate t w.r.p ,
Merchant’s Equation:   45 
 

2 2
 The Merchant Equation
• Merchant postulated that the angle, , at which the
material first begins to shear is equal to the shear
strength of the material, this gives:

 Of all the possible angles at which shear

deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle  that minimizes
energy, given by  
  45  
2 2
 Derived by Eugene Merchant
 Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity
extends to 3-D machining
 Implication of Merchant’s Eq.
 An increase in rake angle causes the shear
plane angle to increase.
 A decrease in friction angle cause the shear
plane angle to increase.
 The analysis from orthogonal cutting can be
used in a typical turning if the feed is small
relative to depth of cut.
•Higher shear plane angle-smaller shear plane
area
•Increase shear plane angle by increasing rake
angle and decreasing friction angle
Relationship of Cutting Angles because of the
Merchant Eqn.
 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which
means lower shear force, cutting forces, power, and
temperature
 As your rake angle, , increases so does your shear angle,
, resulting in a smaller shear plane area.

GOOD – smaller area to BAD – larger area to

shear across. shear across.
Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
 Measuring Cutting Forces
 Direct measurement
of Fs and Fn are not
possible.
 However, using a
device at the right,
the:
 Fc, the cutting force
 Ft, the thrust force
can be measured.
 Example
The cutting operation shown in Figure has
the following characteristics: chip width =
0.2 in.,  = 28, rake angle  = 0, and
cutting speed v = 3 m/s. Determine:
a) Chip thickness t sin 
r 0 r
b) Shearing force tc cos(   )

c) Friction force sin 28 t

r  0.5317  tc  0  0.188 in.
d) Friction angle cos(28) r

Fc = 500 cos 20  470 lb

Fs = Fc cos   Ft sin 
Ft = 500 sin 20 = 171 lb
Fs = 470 cos 28  171 sin 28  334.7lb

F = Fc sin   Ft cos   171 lb

N = Fc cos   Ft sin   470 lb
Fs cos(    )   F/N = 0.364
Fc 
cos(     )   tan-1(0.364)= 20°
 Problem:2
 Problem A: The cutting force and thrust force
measured during the operation with values 1559N and
1271N respectively. The width of the orthogonal cutting
operation = 3mm and chip thickness before cut =
0.5mm. The rake angle and shear plane angle is 10o
and 25.4o respectively. Determine the shear strength of
the work material and friction angle.
 Problem B: The rake angle and friction angle are 15o
and 40orespectively. The friction force is 1100N.
Calculate the shear plane angle, cutting force and thrust
force.
 Cutting Force Example

 Using a force sensor on the lathe tool, a

cutting force of 350 lbf and a thrust force
of 285 lbf was measured. If the chip was
¼” wide, what was the shear force and
shear stress? (assume tool rake 8º and a
depth of cut of 0.125”, chip thickness of
0.183”)
 Example – Merchant’s Eqn.

 Given a tool with an rake angle of 8, and

a coefficient of friction of 1.18 of the
cutting tool and the work material,
determine the shear angle, .
 Power Requirements

 From 1st year physics we know:

 Force over an distance is the definition of
work (or energy)
F M

d
 Power is Energy over time (ie. Watt=J/s)
Power and Energy Relationships

 A machining operation requires power

 The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting
force; and v = cutting speed
Power and Energy Relationships

 In U.S. customary units, power is

traditional expressed as horsepower
(dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)
Fcv
HPc 
33,000

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

Power and Energy Relationships

 Gross power to operate the machine tool

Pg or HPg is given by

Pg 
Pc or HPg 
HPc
E E

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

 Typical E for machine tools  90%
 Unit Power in Machining
 Useful to convert power into power per
unit volume rate of metal cut
 Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower,
HPu
 Often for different materials the power per
unit volume (or specific energy) required
to cut the material is listed.
Pc Fc
Pu  U  
Pc HPc MRR t 0 w
PU =
RMR or HPu =
RMR
where: Pu is the Unit Power
U is the Specific Engergy
MRR is matrial removal rate
 Unit Power

Groover – p497

The table should be multiplied by a correction factor between 1.00-1.25

Sharp tool=1
Tools for finishing operation (nearly worn out)=1.1
Tool for roughing operation (nearly worn out)=1.25
Size effect: Chip thickness before cut affects the specific energy and unit
horse power (as to reduces, unit power requirement increase)
In grinding where the chips are extremely small: specific energy is very high
Example – power consumption
 A lathe is operating at a cutting force of
1557 N, determine the cutting power and
the specific energy in machining operation
if the cutting speed=100m/min and to
=0.5mm, w=3mm.
 Pc = Fc v=1557N(100m/min)=155,700n-
m/min=155,700j/min=2595j/s=2595W
 Specific energy PU =
Pc
RMR
155,700 155,700
PU    1.038 N  m / mm3

100(103 )(3)(0.5) 150,000

 Proportion of Heat from Cutting Transferred
as a Function of Cutting Speed
 Overcoming friction Temperature rise
 Shearing the metal in the:
Workpiece
Tool
Chip
Creating chips
At low speed-significant portion of the
energy is absorbed in the tool
At high sped: the chip moves rapidly across
the rake face of the tool-heat generated in
the primary shear zone is not conducted
across the tool chip interface into the tool
(portion of the energy absorbed by the tool
is reduced)
Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred into the tool,
workpiece, and chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note that the
chip removes most of the heat.
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
Feed Marks on a Turned Surface

Surface roughness:
f2
Ra 
8R
where
f  feed
R  tool - nose radius

Schematic illustration of feed marks on a

surface being turned (exaggerated).

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.