Support and encapsulating materials:

- Protective coating
- Tubing and sleeving materials
- Adhesive materials
- Insulating materials
- Plating circuits boards materials
- Metalized ceramics
- Etching and cleaning
- Stability of materials
➢ Protective coating
A protective coating is a layer of material applied to the surface of another material with the
intent of inhibiting or preventing corrosion. A protective coating may be metallic or non-metallic.
Protective coatings are applied using a variety of methods, and can be used for many other
purposes besides corrosion prevention.
Commonly used materials in non-metallic protective coatings include polymers, epoxies and
polyurethanes.
Materials used for metallic protective coatings include zinc, aluminum and chromium.
A zinc coating over steel is an example of a reactive protective coating. The zinc reacts with the
atmosphere more readily than the steel, thus preventing the oxidation of the steel.
A protective coating can be painted on, sprayed on, plated on or even welded onto a material.
✓ Polymer coatings are commonly sprayed on.
✓ Zinc protective coatings are typically applied by the electroplating or hot dipping method.
A protective coating is not necessarily limited to corrosion prevention. It can also be used to
increase a material's wear resistance and aesthetic appeal. A protective coating can provide
water resistance or electrical properties that the material did not have prior to the protective
coating being applied.
➢ Tubing and sleeving materials
An electrical sleeve is a braided, knitted, woven or extruded tube used to slip over bare or weakly
insulated conductors in an electric assembly
Importance of electrical tubing and sleeving
i) Increased Safety- With cables laying everywhere and connecting to outlets potentially
still activated, the possibility of tripping, getting electrocuted or other kinds of
workplace injuries, increases immensely.
 ii) Cut Down on Wasted Time & Frustration-With different color jackets, more bundled
cables (with sleeving or cable ties) and easier to track connectors, maintenance
becomes not only quicker but much less stressful.
iii) Increased Strength & Shelf Life - Adding electrical tubing or sleeving to an application
enables the wire to withstand much harsher environments, overall extending that
products shelf life immensely. This is very important for applications involving
manufacturing and extreme heat, because of how harsh the surrounding
environments are.
iv) Increased organization/ Keep Your Work Environment Cleaner & Organized - Similar
to cutting down on wasted time, using different sleeving and tubing helps with
organization/identification and keeping your workplace presentable.
Types of Protective Sleeving
There are numerous types of protective sleeving which are differentiated by construction and
application.

Type Description

Expandable sleeving typically braided from

Mesh/braid polymer yarn or wire; constricts around irregular
shapes and allows for expansion.

Protective layer that is wrapped around wire or

Wrap around
cable; can be mesh.

Expanded polymer tube that shrinks to seal against

Shrink tubing a wire or cable bundle. Common varieties include
heat shrink and cold shrink tubing.

Flexible wrapping constructed in a spiral shape;

Spiral wrap can be installed and uninstalled without
disconnecting wires or cables.
 Flexible tape or tubing. Split wire loom sleeving
(shown), which is open on one side, allows the
entry of wires at any point. Because of its sealed
Wire loom
nature, non-split wire loom sleeving offers slightly
improved environmental protection than split
types.

Sleeving Material
Protective sleeving can be made of one or more materials, each of which features different
strengths and weaknesses.
• Aluminum has excellent electrical and thermal conductivity and high resistance to
oxidation.
• Brass features good strength, temperature resistance, and low magnetic
permeability.
• Copper is a ductile, malleable metal which is an excellent conductor of heat and
electricity.
• Polymers represent a diverse group of materials, including fiberglass, polyester,
nylon, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Polymer sleeving is typically flexible, versatile, and
able to withstand high- and low-pressure conditions.
• Rubber and synthetic rubber exhibit high abrasion, chemical, and fluid resistance.
• Steels, including stainless steel, are chemical and corrosion resistant and can
withstand relatively high pressures.
Types of Tubing
i) Non-shrink Tubing offers tremendous dielectric strength, is available in PVC with features
such as zipper, convoluted, corrugated, spiral, spaghetti and braided
ii) Heat Shrink Tubing – The wires and cables are placed inside the tube as heat is applied so
that it will contract to form a tight fit while providing mechanical strength and insulation
properties.
iii) Spiral Wraps are also used to protect and bundle cables within machine design. They are
also reusable and provide easy accessibility to replace and maintain the encased wires.
➢ Adhesive materials
Adhesive is any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items
that binds them together and resists their separation.
The use of adhesives offers certain advantages over other binding techniques such as sewing,
mechanical fastenings, or welding. These include;

- the ability to bind different materials together

- the more efficient distribution of stress across a joint
- the cost-effectiveness of an easily mechanized process
- greater flexibility in design
Disadvantages of adhesive use include;

- decreased stability at high temperatures

- relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area
- greater difficulty in separating objects during testing
Classification of adhesives
1. Adhesives by chemical composition - Different adhesives can be categorized by their
chemistries. Below are a few examples of available chemical compositions.
i) Epoxy adhesives- they are a type of structural adhesive. They are highly
temperature and solvent resistant and can be structurally bonded to most types
of materials, such as metals, ceramics, wood and plastics.
ii) Polyurethane adhesives – they are polymer-based adhesives used for
constructions requiring high strength bonding and permanent elasticity. They are
often offered as two-part adhesives and have many uses. Unlike epoxy adhesives,
they require moisture to set, which means they can be used for projects where
other types of glues are often unsuitable. Polyurethane adhesives, such as the
Adbond EX 5690, can be painted for an ideal finish, offer high flexibility and can
be used in any weather. This makes polyurethanes ideal for the transport industry.
iii) Polyimide adhesives - Polyimides are one-part synthetic polymers that usually
contain solvents. They are known for their strength, heat and chemical resistance,
as well as performance in extremely high temperatures, as high as 500 degrees
Celsius. They are offered in two formulations, thermoset and thermoplastic, and
are often used for coating or electronic insulation.
2. Adhesives by physical form - Adhesive physical form affects product application.
Adhesives can be spread manually or using tools and equipment. Below are the different
physical forms available.
i) Paste- Adhesive pastes are often high in viscosity, thereby making them difficult
to spread during the curing period. They are ideal for adhesions requiring gap
filling and are usually applied with the use of tools, such as a caulking gun.
ii) Liquid - Liquid is the most common form of adhesive. They are one of the easiest
to apply but can leak or sag during the curing process. They often take longer to
cure but can be applied in thin layers to help this process.
iii) Film- Adhesive films are available in rolls or pre-cut lengths or shapes, provide easy
application, and have no pot-life restrictions. They are available in thicknesses
between 2 and 8 mm for different applications.
iv) Pellets - Adhesives in the form of pellets are typically hot melt or thermosetting
adhesives. These must usually be inserted into a hot melt gun or melted and
sprayed.
 3. Adhesives by structure
i) Hot melt - Hot melt adhesives are brought to liquid form with heat and can be used to
coat entire surfaces before the adhesive cools into a solid polymer. Many industrial
sectors appreciate them for their eco-friendliness, safety and shelf life. Different types of
hot melt adhesives include EVA-based, APAO-based and those that are pressure-sensitive.
Polyurethane hot melts are also available, but don’t have the same properties as standard
hot melt adhesives.
ii) Reactive hot melt - Unlike non-reactive hot melt, reactive hot melt adhesives generate
additional chemical bonds after the solidification process. This results in stronger
adhesion once cured, expanded bonding as well as a higher resistance to moisture, heat
and chemicals.
iii) Thermosetting - Thermosetting adhesives are usually available in two-part forms. Resin
and Hardener are mixed to obtain a desired setting time. The resin and hardener can be
used in one-part form, however these aren’t as common because they must be stored in
low temperatures. Storing them in high temperatures can cause the desired reaction to
occur prematurely, resulting in a much lower shelf life. Pot life is an important property
of thermosetting adhesives. It refers to how long a two-part adhesive will efficiently bond
after mixture. A product with a short pot life will harden too quickly, leaving insufficient
time to complete the job. Meanwhile, a long pot life can delay setting time and slow the
assembly process.
iv) Pressure sensitive - Adhesives in this category are low modulus elastomers, meaning they
do not require much pressure to deform and can be used on wet surfaces. They are quite
durable for light load applications and are normally purchased as tapes or labels for non-
structural applications.
v) Contact - Contact adhesives are elastomeric and are applied to both items being bonded
together. Once the solvent evaporates, the items are brought into direct contact. These
types of adhesives are found in rubber cement or countertop laminates.
4. Adhesives by load bearing capability
The load bearing capability of an adhesive indicates how well it can hold different substrates
together. They can be separated into three categories.
i) Structural- Structural adhesives are offered as pastes, liquids and films. They are strong
and usually used below their glass transition temperature (Tg), the temperature at which
polymer transitions into a soft and rubbery material. Some well-known structural
adhesives are epoxies, cyanoacrylates, urethanes and acrylics.
ii) Non-structural - Non-structural adhesives are used for light loads or in more aesthetic
applications. Both non-structural and semi-structural adhesives are much more cost-
efficient alternatives to structural adhesives, but they are not suitable for all types of
projects. Non-structural adhesives are often used as secondary fasteners in more long-
term attachments rather than as a main adhesive.
 iii) Semi-structural - Semi-structural adhesives are ideal for less critical applications, though
they still offer more strength and support than non-structural adhesives. They can
therefore be used to replace either structural or non-structural adhesive applications,
depending on the project.
➢ PCB plating
PCB plating may be defined as one or both of the following:
i) Via plating - the process of filling a drilled hole with copper to provide a path for current
from a surface of the board to an inner layer, between two inner layers or from one
surface to the other. These plated through holes (PTHs) are better known as vias.
ii) Surface plating or finishing - the process of covering surface copper traces to protect
against the environment, oxidation, moisture, and contamination, and to provide a more
suitable surface for soldering components during printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).
Both of the processes listed above may be referred to as PCB plating. And although the primary
objective of both is to help facilitate good current flow along board circuit paths, there are
differences in the materials used.
Types of Materials used for PCB Plating
PCB plating material is typically a metallic alloy, mostly composed of the following metals:
Via plating
✓ Copper
Surface finishing
✓ Gold
✓ Silver
✓ Tin
✓ Nickel
Options for Surface PCB Plating Process are;
i) Hot Air Solder Leveling (HASL) - For this process, the board is dipped into hot solder, after
which an air knife is used to level it off. This method has been around for a long time and
is probably the most economical.
ii) Electroplating - This method involves using a DC current to initiate a chemical process for
the deposition of the metal plate over the copper. It is used for surface traces and
through-hole vias. The metal may be gold, nickel, or tin.
iii) Immersion - This process is usually performed with tin. A key advantage is that no lead is
required. However, tin whiskers may form, creating undesirable solder bridges between
 components. As these whiskers are microscopic, PCB optical inspection is necessary to
detect them.
iv) Electroless - This process, which does not require electricity, may be used with immersion
to create a metallic barrier. The process uses a catalyst to dissolve a copper rod. The
copper is then distributed on the surface.
v) Organic - Similar to immersion, this process is considered eco-friendly, since no metal-to-
metal contact is necessary. However, the shelf-life is short; therefore, good PCB storage
guidelines would need to be in place. It involves deposition of a very thin layer of an
organic water-based protective substance and covering copper on the PCB with a layer of
carbon-based conductive ink for protection.
➢ Insulating materials
The insulating material is a substance which prevents the leakage of electric current in unwanted
directions.

It is used not only for protection against electrical short circuits but also for mechanical
protection, support and thermal isolation.

The properties of good insulating material may be summarized as here under:

i) High dielectric strength

ii) Easy workability
iii) High operating temperature limit
iv) Very low dissipation factor (tan δ)
v) Volume resistivity of high value
vi) Good surface property, i.e. surface tracking index and high surface resistivity
vii) Minimum impasity content, low structural irregularity and formative defects and density
viii) Water repelling and low hygroscopicity
ix) High tensile and compressive strength as well as high strength to buckling and shear
x) High chemical stability with immunity to oxidation reaction of operating ambients for low
ageing and electrochemical deterioration by corrosion process
xi) High value of relative permittivity (εr) for capacitor dielectrics only
 ➢ Metalized ceramics

Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen elements, powders, and water
and shaping them into desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is fired in a high
temperature oven known as a kiln. Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-
like substances known as glazes.

This category of materials includes things like tile, bricks, plates, glass, and toilets.

Ceramics can be found in products like watches (quartz tuning forks-the time keeping devices in
watches), snow skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is applied to them),
automobiles (sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in racecars), and phone lines. They can
also be found on space shuttles, appliances (enamel coatings), and airplanes (nose cones).

Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight.

Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness properties; however, they are
often brittle in nature.

Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically conductive materials, objects allowing
electricity to pass through their mass, or insulators, materials preventing the flow of electricity.

Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display magnetic properties.

When ceramics are used in circuits, they must be metalized first, that is, a layer of metal film that
is firmly bonded to the ceramics but not easy to be melted is applied to the ceramic surface to
make it conductive, and then welded with metal leads or other metal conductive layers
connected to become one.

➢ Etching and cleaning

Etching is the process of removing one or more layers of materials from a thin film on a substrate.

Chemical etching step by step

1. Material Selection - Virtually any metal can be chemically etched. Typical metals include:
Steel and stainless steels, Copper and its alloys, Nickel and its alloys, Aluminium, Titanium.
 2. Pre-clean - Once a metal has been selected, it is chemically cleaned and degreased to
remove debris, waxes and rolling oils, all of which could negatively affect the next step.
3. Lamination - A light-sensitive photoresist is applied to the sheet. Good adhesion is
essential for highly repeatable, blemish-free components.
4. Printing - The component design is transferred to the photoresist by exposing the sheet
to ultraviolet (UV) light through a photo-tool mask.
5. Developing - The unexposed photoresist is removed to reveal the raw material. The
hardened resist will protect the part during etching.
6. Etching - Etchant chemistry, typically ferric chloride, is sprayed onto the developed sheet.
The etch-time is determined by skilled technicians taking account of variables such as
metal type, grade, thickness and size, all of which affect the end result.
7. Stripping - The remaining photoresist is removed from the sheet, revealing the final
etched components.
8. Visual and dimensional inspection - The components are visually and dimensionally
inspected using state-of-the-art optical inspection equipment.
9. Finishing - Etching can be combined with other processes including: Plating, Forming,
Electropolishing, Passivation, Heat treatment, Brazing and diffusion bonding.
➢ Stability of materials

Refers to a property of materials and substances that allows them to maintain their original
characteristics and properties throughout their intended use.

It is the tendency of a material to resist change or decomposition due to an internal reaction, or

due to the action of air, heat, light or pressure.

Those materials that normally have the capacity to resist changes in their chemical composition,
despite exposure to air, water, and heat as encountered in fire emergencies are referred to as
stable materials.