Domain Theory:

- Remanence
- Coercivity
- Permeability

Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

In 1907 A.D., Weiss proposed domain theory to explain ferromagnetic phenomenon in materials.
According to this theory, a single crystal of ferromagnetic solid comprises large number of small
regions, and each region is spontaneously magnetized to saturation extent called a domain as
shown in Fig (a) below. The size of domain may vary from 10−6 to the whole volume of the crystal.
The spin magnetic moments of atoms confined within a domain are oriented in a particular
direction. The directions of magnetizations of different domains of the specimen are random so
that the resultant magnetizations of all domains in the material is zero in the absence of an
applied magnetic field.
When external magnetic field is applied, these domains align in the direction of applied field and
specimen shows net magnetization and becomes a magnet as shown in Fig. (b) below.
Note: Domains are regions of magnetic substances that have a free, spinning electrons. When
these domains line up, the substance becomes a magnet.
Magnetic domain in ferromagnetic substance

(a) Magnetic material in demagnetized condition: Atomic magnets in alignment inside domains but domain magnetic axes in
random directions.
(b) Magnetised state: Atomic magnets turn to bring domain magnetic axes in direction of magnetising field

Postulates of domain theory:

1. A ferromagnetic material is divided into a large number of small region called domains
(0.1 to 1 of area)
2. In each domain the magnetic moments are in same direction.
3. The magnetic moment varies from domain to domain and the net magnetization is
zero
4. In the absence of external magnetic field all the magnetic moments are in different
direction.
5. When a magnetic field is applied there are two processes that take place
i) By the motion of domain walls.
ii) By the rotation of domains.
By the motion of Domain walls: When a small amount of magnetic field is applied, the dipoles in
the domains are aligned parallel to the applied magnetic field. It increases domain area by the
motion of domain walls.
By the rotation of Domains: If the applied magnetic field is further increased, the domains are
rotated parallel to the field direction by the rotation of domains.
Energies involved in the domain growth (or) Origin of Domain theory of Ferromagnetism
The total internal energy of the domain structure in a ferromagnetic material is made up from
the following
i) Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy.
ii) Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.
iii) Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.
iv) Magnetostriction energy
1. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic Field energy
“The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves” is called the
exchange energy or magnetic field energy. It arises from interaction of electron spins. It depends
upon the interatomic distance. The energy is required in assembling the atomic magnets into a
single domain and this work done is stored as potential energy. The volume of the domain may
vary between 10–2 to 10–6 cm3.

2. Anisotropy energy
The excess energy required to magnetize a specimen along the hard direction is called the
crystalline anisotropy energy. In ferromagnetic materials there are two types of directions of
magnetization namely,
✓ Easy direction and
✓ Hard directions.
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard direction of
magnetization, strong field should be applied.
This energy of magnetization is a function of crystal orientation. As shown in the figure,
magnetization curves for iron with the applied field along different crystallographic directions
have been drawn. For example, in BCC iron the easy direction is [100], the medium direction is
[110], and the hard direction is [111]. This energy is very important in determining the
characteristic domain boundaries.

3. Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

A thin boundary or region that separates adjacent domains in different directions is called domain
wall or Bloch wall. The size of the Bloch walls is about 200 to 300 lattice constant thickness. The
energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic energy. Based on the spin
alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise, namely
Thick wall: When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of the spin changes
gradually as shown in the figure below, it leads to a thick Bloch wall. Here the misalignments of
spins are associated with exchange energy.
Thin wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropic energy
becomes very less. Since the anisotropic energy is directly proportional to the thickness of the
wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.

4. Magetostriction energy
When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffers a change in dimensions. This
phenomenon is known as Magnetostriction. This deformation is different along different crystal
directions. So if the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either expand or
shrink. This means that work must be done against the elastic restoring forces. The work done by
the magnetic field against these elastic restoring forces is called magneto-elastic energy or
Magnetostrictive energy.
Magnetic Hysteresis
The lag or delay of a magnetic material commonly known as Magnetic Hysteresis, relates to the
magnetization properties of a material by which it firstly becomes magnetized and then de-
magnetized.
✓ The magnetic flux generated by an electromagnetic coil is the amount of magnetic field
or lines of force produced within a given area, more commonly called “Flux Density”. It is
given by the symbol B with the unit of flux density being the Tesla, T.
✓ The magnetic strength of an electromagnet depends upon the number of turns of the coil,
the current flowing through the coil and the type of core material being used, and if we
increase either the current or the number of turns we can increase the magnetic field
strength, symbol H.
✓ The relative permeability, symbol μr is defined as the ratio of the absolute
permeability μ and the permeability of free space μo (a vacuum) and it is given as a
constant. However, the relationship between the flux density, B and the magnetic field
strength, H can be defined by the fact that the relative permeability, μr is not a constant
but a function of the magnetic field intensity thereby giving magnetic flux density as:
 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
Then the magnetic flux density in the material will be increased by a larger factor as a result of
its relative permeability for the material compared to the magnetic flux density in
vacuum, μoH and for an air-cored coil this relationship is given as:
𝛷
𝐵=
𝐴
And,
𝐵
= µ0
𝐻

So for ferromagnetic materials the ratio of flux density to field strength (B/H) is not constant but
varies with flux density.
However, for air cored coils or any non-magnetic medium core such as woods or plastics, this
ratio can be considered as a constant and this constant is known as μo, the permeability of free
space, ( μo = 4.π.10-7 H/m ).
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity.
It is a scalar quantity and denoted by the symbol μ. Magnetic permeability helps us measure a
material’s resistance to the magnetic field or measure of the degree to which magnetic field can
penetrate through a material.
By plotting values of flux density, ( B ) against the field strength, ( H ) we can produce a set of
curves called Magnetization Curves, Magnetic Hysteresis Curves or more commonly B-H
Curves for each type of core material used as shown below.
Magnetization or B-H Curve
The set of magnetization curves M above, represents an example of the relationship
between B and H for soft-iron and steel cores but every type of core material will have its own
set of magnetic hysteresis curves.
The flux density increases in proportion to the field strength until it reaches a certain value where
it cannot increase any more, becoming almost level and constant as the field strength continues
to increase.
This is because there is a limit to the amount of flux density that can be generated by the core as
all the domains in the iron are perfectly aligned. Any further increase will have no effect on the
value of M, and the point on the graph where the flux density reaches its limit is called Magnetic
Saturation also known as Saturation of the Core and in the example the saturation point of the
steel curve begins at about 3000 ampere-turns per metre.
Saturation occurs because the random haphazard arrangement of the molecule structure within
the core material changes as the tiny molecular magnets within the material become “lined-up”.
As the magnetic field strength, (H) increases these molecular magnets become more and more
aligned until they reach perfect alignment producing maximum flux density and any increase in
the magnetic field strength due to an increase in the electrical current flowing through the coil
will have little or no effect.
Retentivity/Remanence
Let’s assume that we have an electromagnetic coil with a high field strength due to the current
flowing through it, and that the ferromagnetic core material has reached its saturation point,
maximum flux density. If we now open a switch and remove the magnetising current flowing
through the coil we would expect the magnetic field around the coil to disappear as the magnetic
flux is reduced to zero.
However, the magnetic flux does not completely disappear as the electromagnetic core material
still retains some of its magnetism even when the current has stopped flowing in the coil. This
ability for a coil to retain some of its magnetism within the core after the magnetization process
has stopped is called Retentivity or remanence, while the amount of flux density still remaining
in the core is called Residual Magnetism, BR.
Retentivity: The property of the magnetic material to retain magnetism even in the absence of
the magnetizing field
The reason for this that some of the tiny molecular magnets do not return to a completely
random pattern and still point in the direction of the original magnetising field giving them a sort
of “memory”. Some ferromagnetic materials have a high retentivity (magnetically hard) making
them excellent for producing permanent magnets.
While other ferromagnetic materials have low retentivity (magnetically soft) making them ideal
for use in electromagnets, solenoids or relays.
One way to reduce this residual flux density to zero is by reversing the direction of the current
flowing through the coil, thereby making the value of H, the magnetic field strength negative.
This effect is called a Coercive Force, HC .
Coercivity: The magnetizing field (H) needed to demagnetize the magnetic material completely
If this reverse current is increased further the flux density will also increase in the reverse
direction until the ferromagnetic core reaches saturation again but in the reverse direction from
before. Reducing the magnetising current i, once again to zero will produce a similar amount of
residual magnetism but in the reverse direction.
Then by constantly changing the direction of the magnetising current through the coil from a
positive direction to a negative direction, as would be the case in an AC supply, a Magnetic
Hysteresis loop of the ferromagnetic core can be produced.
Magnetic Hysteresis Loop

The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the behaviour of a ferromagnetic core graphically as
the relationship between B and H is non-linear.
Starting with an unmagnetised core both B and H will be at zero, point 0 on the magnetization
curve.
If the magnetization current i, is increased in a positive direction to some value the magnetic field
strength H increases linearly with i and the flux density B will also increase as shown by the curve
from point 0 to point a as it heads towards saturation.
Now if the magnetising current in the coil is reduced to zero, the magnetic field circulating around
the core also reduces to zero. However, the coils magnetic flux will not reach zero due to the
residual magnetism present within the core and this is shown on the curve from point a to
point b.
To reduce the flux density at point b to zero we need to reverse the current flowing through the
coil. The magnetising force which must be applied to null the residual flux density is called a
“Coercive Force”. This coercive force reverses the magnetic field re-arranging the molecular
magnets until the core becomes unmagnetised at point c.
An increase in this reverse current causes the core to be magnetized in the opposite direction
and increasing this magnetization current further will cause the core to reach its saturation point
but in the opposite direction, point d on the curve.
This point is symmetrical to point b. If the magnetising current is reduced again to zero the
residual magnetism present in the core will be equal to the previous value but in reverse at
point e.
Again reversing the magnetising current flowing through the coil this time into a positive
direction will cause the magnetic flux to reach zero, point f on the curve and as before increasing
the magnetization current further in a positive direction will cause the core to reach saturation
at point a.
Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-d-e-f-a as the magnetising current flowing through
the coil alternates between a positive and negative value such as the cycle of an AC voltage. This
path is called a Magnetic Hysteresis Loop.
The effect of magnetic hysteresis shows that the magnetization process of a ferromagnetic core
and therefore the flux density depends on which part of the curve the ferromagnetic core is
magnetized on as this depends upon the circuits past history giving the core a form of “memory”.
Then ferromagnetic materials have memory because they remain magnetized after the external
magnetic field has been removed.
However, soft ferromagnetic materials such as iron or silicon steel have very narrow magnetic
hysteresis loops resulting in very small amounts of residual magnetism making them ideal for use
in relays, solenoids and transformers as they can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
Since a coercive force must be applied to overcome this residual magnetism, work must be done
in closing the hysteresis loop with the energy being used being dissipated as heat in the magnetic
material. This heat is known as hysteresis loss, the amount of loss depends on the material’s
value of coercive force.
By adding additive’s to the iron metal such as silicon, materials with a very small coercive force
can be made to have a very narrow hysteresis loop. Materials with narrow hysteresis loops are
easily magnetized and demagnetized and known as soft magnetic materials.

Magnetic Hysteresis Loops for Soft and Hard Materials

Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of wasted energy in the form of heat with the
energy wasted being in proportion to the area of the magnetic hysteresis loop.
Hysteresis losses will always be a problem in AC transformers where the current is constantly
changing direction and thus the magnetic poles in the core will cause losses because they
constantly reverse direction.
Rotating coils in DC machines will also incur hysteresis losses as they are alternately passing north
and south magnetic poles.
As said previously, the shape of the hysteresis loop depends upon the nature of the iron or steel
used and in the case of iron which is subjected to massive reversals of magnetism, for example
transformer cores, it is important that the B-H hysteresis loop is as small as possible
Soft and Hard magnetic materials
Soft magnetic materials
The magnetic materials that are easy to magnetize and demagnetize are called as soft magnetic
materials.
Properties:
1. Low remanent magnetization
2. Low coercivity
3. Low hysteresis energy loss
4. Low eddy current loss
5. High permeability
6. High susceptibility

Examples of soft magnetic materials are

i) Perm alloys (alloys of Fe and Ni)
ii) Si – Fe alloy
iii) Amorphous ferrous alloys ( alloys of Fe, Si, and B)
iv) Pure Iron (BCC structure)
Applications of soft magnetic materials: Mainly used in electro- magnetic machinery and
transformer cores. They are also used in switching circuits, microwave isolators and matrix
storage of computers.

Hard magnetic materials

The magnetic materials that are difficult to magnetize and demagnetize are called as hard
magnetic materials.
Properties:
1. High remanent magnetization
2. High coercivity
3. High saturation flux density
4. Low initial permeability
5. High hysteresis energy loss
6. High permeability
7. The eddy current loss is low for ceramic type and large for metallic type.

Examples of hard magnetic materials are, i) Iron- nickel- aluminum alloys with certain
amount of cobalt called Alnico alloy. ii) Copper nickel iron alloys. iii) Platinum cobalt alloy.
Applications of hard magnetic materials: For production of permanent magnets, used in
magnetic detectors, microphones, flux meters, voltage regulators, damping devices and
magnetic separators.

Hard magnetic materials Soft magnetic materials

Difficult to magnetize and demagnetize Easy to magnetize and demagnetize

large hysteresis loop area small hysteresis loop area

Have large hysteresis loss Have very low hysteresis loss

 Domain wall movement is relatively easier.
The domain wall movement is difficult and it
Even for small change in the magnetizing
is
field ,magnetization changes by large
irreversible in nature
amount

The coercivity and retentivity are large The coercivity and retentivity are small

Magnetostatic energy is large Magnetostatic energy is small.

Large values of permeability and

Small values of permeability and susceptibility
susceptibility

Used to make permanent magnets Used to make electromagnet

Examples Examples
Iron-nickel-aluminium alloys (alnicol) Fe-Si , Ferrous nickel alloys
Copper nickel iron (cunife) ,Ferrites,Garnets