Guidelines on writing the Literature Review

Guidance Notes on how to research for and complete a

Dissertation

Guidance Sheet 3 – Literature Review

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When being asked to construct a Literature Review, it could well pose the
question as to why it must be done, if not what it is?
Researching into your subject and area of interest hopefully will lead to you
discovering further insight and understanding, which will be of interest to
those reading your Dissertation in the future.
Research is greatly strengthened by placing your new information in the
context of what is already known about the issue. (Laws et al, 2003:213)
To therefore understand the area that is being researched, is important to
know what has already been written on the subject, provide understanding
of the subject area and how your research will fit into this body of
knowledge. In other words, to be able to put your research in the context of
what has already been written. (Blaxter et al, 2006:122)

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The basis for the Literature Review is firstly an introduction of the literature
on the subject and its associated areas and secondly a review, which forms
part of the Dissertation. (Walliman, 2006:75).

A. Aim of the Literature Review

So, what are some of the aims of a systematic Review?
• To develop through the reading a specific research question and/or
hypothesis.
• To search for, locate and collate the results of the research in a
systematic way.
• To identify knowledge gaps; to place new proposals in the context of
existing knowledge.

Reviewing the literature helps you achieve your Dissertation

requirements. Use the various electronic search facilities, journal
articles, and texts to identify and understand well-established ideas
and views in your topic area. It should be recent, relevant reliable
research.
This reading will therefore assist in shaping your thoughts about a
topic/issue or subject area, which you subsequently want to research
and thus help in the formulation of your Research Question.

The literature review is NOT just a list of all the literature as it should
review and evaluate critically. This means that you should present
literature that shows the many sides of the arguments and issues in
your research area. This is what we mean by a ‘concept-centric’
approach (Webster & Watson, 2002). For example:

While Bloggs (2008) suggests that the issue of globalisation has been
overstated, a more recent and more extensive study by Smith and
Jones (2011) reveals that the general influence of this factor may still
be crucial. However, as Jagger and Jones (2011) state, in a related
study, more research is necessary into the effect that micro-factors
have on the situation.

This kind of 'to and fro' description of the positions and arguments is
the only type of 'description' you should supply. Notice that the writer
is actually revealing his/her opinions (evaluation), using terms such as,
'however' to indicate a possible problem, and the term 'more recent' to
imply that perhaps the original study by Bloggs was outdated in some
way. Your literature review should consist of this kind of writing,
where you describe things and evaluate them at the same time.

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However, if you write like the next example, then your review will be
too descriptive and not evaluative enough. This is what we mean by an
‘author-centric’ approach. For example, avoid:
Bloggs (2008) suggests that the issue of globalisation has been
overstated. Another study by Smith and Jones (2011) states that the
influence of micro-factors may also be important. Another study by
Jagger and Jones (2011) states that more research is necessary.

You 'critically' review and judge the worth of the 'evidence' you choose
in relation to the main issues and problems that you will address. You
are, in effect, providing the groundwork and source of evidential
support for your later critical discussion. You are also showing your
supervisor that you are reading relevant sources of evidence for your
particular area of enquiry. During this process you must identify
appropriate academic theories, models and conceptual ideas. You
need to compare and contrast the differing views that will later link to
your Analysis and Discussion section. (Herts CASE Guidance on writing
a Literature Review, 2017)

B. Approach to reading the Literature

Recognising that Literature and data is at the heart of the research and
Dissertation, the way in which this is being done becomes an essential
aspect in the approach to the research.
So, what does this mean?
Primarily the ability and need to apply critical reading skills, which means
that there is a need to provide a personal and professional appraisal of the
content, but equally a critique; a scrutiny; an analysis or an examination of
them. (Walliman, 2006:76). This means that you need to look at the content
and text from different perspectives as well, as Jankowicz (2005) points out,
as you needing to discuss what has been published and is relevant to your
research topic critically.
This means that the literature that is being read will provide and enhance
knowledge and clarify your research question further, but it is also
identifying that information that is relevant to your research.
It does not mean that you should provide a summary of everything that has
been written on your research topic, but to review the most relevant and
significant research on your topic.

C. How to approach critical reading

The most likely type of research you are involved in will be requiring the
exploration of data and develop theories from them and subsequently relate

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to the literature. This is known as ‘an inductive approach, arriving its basis
from not having predetermined theories or conceptual frameworks’.
(Saunders et al 2012:74)
As part of the inductive approach, the critical perspective in reading is as
essential and Wallace and Wray (2011) have developed five questions that
will assist in developing the criticality in reviewing literature:
• Why am I reading this? A view of filtering literature as to its relevance
to the research.
• What is the author trying to do in writing this? An indication of how
valuable the content maybe.
• What is the writer saying that is relevant to my research question and
objectives?
• How convincing is what the author is saying?
• What use can I make of the reading?
Harvard College Library’s (2006) checklist is a useful guide and summary:
• Previewing – looking around the text
• Annotating
• Summarising- the best way to determine that you’ve really got the
point
• Comparing and Contrasting – How has it affected your response to the
issue and themes in your research.

There is a further dimension that is essential in the consideration and

reading of literature, namely what literature needs to be included.

D. What is the content of the Literature Review

The ideas, concepts and theories relating to your topic should be your
framework. Then relate different authors to these concepts, and not the
other way round. If you make your literature review ‘author–centric’ there is a
danger that you will end up with a list of ‘relevant’ authors, but not a synthesis
(a ‘pulling together’) of the very important concepts and ideas that form the
basis of a good literature review.

Approaches to a Literature Review

Concept-centric Author centric
Concept X…[author A, author B…] Author A…concept A, concept Y…
Concept Y…[author A, author C…] Author B…concept X, concept W…

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This is the preferred organisational This organisational principle is not

principle because it leads to a focus on
the important concepts surrounding
your topic, and a better integration and
‘synthesis’ in your literature review.
‘wrong’ but can easily lead to just a list
of authors and ideas, and no sense of
integration and synthesis in your
literature review.
Adapted from: Webster & Watson (2002)

E. What sort of literature is likely to be relevant to my work and its

objectives?
▪ Relevant theory, relevant practice, relevant 'expert' commentary
▪ Use books, refereed journal, periodicals, good quality magazines and
newspapers, such as, Fortune and the Financial Times.
▪ Do not ignore unpublished material, such as, other dissertations on the same
topic
▪ The 'literature' can also include non-text sources such as interviews, media and
conversations with experts, statistical summaries, etc.
(HBS CASE Guide to writing a Literature Review 2017)
Step 1: Read and record

Firstly, get the 'big picture' by reading widely around your topic to find out the general
overall picture. Read general articles before you read specific articles. A good place
to start is the list of References or Bibliography of a recent article or book on the
topic. Then use other bibliographic resources, including abstracts, electronic
databases and the internet. Use the LRC. The HBS IH managers can help you use
the business databases available (see the CASE timetable for their drop-in sessions
in M012). Google Scholar and Intute are better search engines to use than Google.
Also use some specialist business databases. Reference as you read, recording all
your sources in correct Harvard style. This will then become the basis for your
reference list when you complete the research (see CASE Guide to Harvard
Referencing).

Step 2: Establish the sections

Establish each of the sections of your review. The way you do this will depend on
your material. You could organise them chronologically, by theory, by topic, by
company, etc. (whichever ‘organising principle’ you select, you should try to make
your review ‘concept-centric’.)
Each section should be about one main sub-topic connected with your review and
your research. The sections should reflect your reading and your research interests,
and should cover all the necessary issues you will have to deal with in your research,

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including how other people have researched the issues, and what methodology they
used.

F. An example of a good Literature Review: See Appendix 1

G. Mark Allocation is found in Appendix 2

Check List
1. Is your literature covering all the required areas to support your
research?
2. Have you applied a critical review of the Literature?
3. Your review is not just a list of previous research papers or other
literature, devoid of any assessment of their relative importance and
their interconnection
4. Are the important issues of your research problem introduced through
the analysis of the literature?
5. Are the links across discipline boundaries made?
There is a lot of support material on the CASE website, including other
examples of well written Literature Reviews.
Please consult the CASE website for a further full explanation on how to write
the Literature Review:
http://www.studynet1.herts.ac.uk/ptl/common/asu.nsf/Teaching+Document
s?OpenView&count=9999&restricttocategory=Dissertations+and+Projects/PG
+Guidance

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Appendix 1:
Please note the comments in the comment boxes on the right-hand side

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction.

This chapter provides a critical review of the relevant literature and theoretical background for the
research. The first part involves an overview of the greeting card market and its various drivers. The
second entails a conceptual clarification about the consumer buying behaviour, consumer product
knowledge and consumer buying decision models. The third section describes about the perceived
risk associated with the consumer buying process and a brief literature on product life cycle is
discussed. The final section provides a critical perspective of digital marketing and the use of online
shopping. Commented [MP1]: Introduction to the Chapter

2.2 An Overview of the Greeting Card Market.

Over the past few years, the usage of greeting cards in the UK have increased significantly. Over 911
million single greeting cards were bought in the UK in the past year

(Brown, 2019). The core purpose of a greeting card is to convey message of affection or love, sympathy
and thanks, or congratulations. It mainly functions to serve as a proxy to giver-to-recipient
communication action (Cacioppo and Andersen,1981). Demand for greetings cards has held up well,
with a high proportion of adults continuing to value a physical card rather than send a digital greeting.
According to Mintel Greeting cards UK (2019) Consumer spend on greetings cards rose by 19.6%
between 2013 and 2018 but in the forecast period the market is expected to be flat, with volumes
remaining broadly stable but average prices falling (Mintel Greeting Cards Uk,2019). Fashion and style
have been the key drivers for the market for personal stationery, encouraging people to buy from a
wider range of items and to treat personal stationery as a gift item. Moreover, the growth of
ownership of smartphones, tablet computers and internet-enabled televisions has meant that
internet access is readily available to a broad range of the population. Internet use among adults aged
16-44 was already high in 2013 and has increased since. But the population aged 45+ has seen a large

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increase in internet usage over the five years to 2018. This increasing use of the internet means a
broader audience for online shopping to purchase greeting cards. (Mintel Greeting Cards Uk,2019)

2.3 Consumer buying behaviour

Consumers buying behaviour was referred to as buyer behaviour (Solomon,2018) by researchers in
the early 1960’s and 1970’s. nevertheless there have been various definitions used by researchers
over the time. According to Solomon et al (2008) consumer behaviour can be defined as a study which
involves a person or group chooses, buys, uses Commented [MP2]: Definition of the concept given

or disposes of goods, services ideas or experiences to meet their needs and desires. However,
Blackwell et al (2006) explained that Consumer buying behaviour is itself a complex, diverse problem
that cannot be easily and widely specified. This is because the idea about the consumers behaviour
and the process have been changing over the time. so, there have been a lot of changes in the concept
and idea of the consumer’s behaviour. Although, consumer’s behaviour process may involve various
stages and activities (Gabbot and Hogg (1998). Elsewhere, Bennet (1995) postulate that consumer
buying behaviour as a complex process of affect and awareness, behaviour, and environmental
circumstances in which human beings carry out the ex-change aspects of their lives. He argues that
it’s important for an organisation to study the consumer behaviour, while entering a new market as it
requires constant review on company strategy while entering any new market. He also further claimed
that through carrying out extensive consumer behaviour re-searches to recognise the recent shift in
customer behaviour, the company will adapt its strategy and business process in order not only to
satisfy its existing customer but also to grow its business in the new market. This view was further
supported by researchers such as Kotler and Keller (2011) stressed the value of recognising consumer
purchasing habits and how consumers can select their goods and services for both suppliers and Commented [MP3]: Contrasting writing by discussing
different authors
service providers, as this gives them a competitive advantage over their rivals in a variety of ways. In
consequently building upon these ideas, Hoyer & Maclnnis (2009) described consumer behaviour on
how, and when consumers make progress in purchasing, consuming and disposing.

Subsequently, various researchers have given different definitions about the concept of
consumer behaviour (Schiffman and Kanuk (2000); Stallworth (2008); (Hoyer & Maclnnis
2009; Blackwell et al,2006). Though, these are various definitions given by different authors
and researchers, they all agree and lead to a common view that consumer buying behaviour is
a process in which goods and services are selected, purchased and disposed of in accordance
with consumer needs (Schiffman and Kanuk (2000); Stallworth (2008); (Hoyer & Maclnnis
2009; Blackwell et al,2006;Bennet 1995). Commented [MP4]: Contrasting writing, discussing
several authors

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The concept of consumer behaviour and its relevance have been notably considered over the
years by numerous researchers in the marketing literature. According to Egan (2007), the Commented [MP5]: Concept driven then discussing the
authors
importance of consumer behaviour is very necessary in this modern world as it provides a
helpful contribution to the economy by having better consciousness to any country’s economy.
He also further contends that the countries where consumers behaviour are properly
understood, the chances of better-quality products and goods are also higher. Elsewhere, Kotler
and Keller (2011) stressed the importance of consumer buying behaviour by saying that its
necessary for manufactures to have a competitive advantage over its competitors. He also
further argued that they can use these acquired knowledges to study the consumers purchasing
behaviour to determine their strategies and methods for offering the right products or services
to the targeted consumers that reflect their needs and wants efficiently and effectively (Kotler
and Keller, 2011). Subsequently, Lancaster et al (2002) contends that besides the influence of
fundamental factors such as the psychology of customers, manufacturers and service providers
need to understand the effects of the external climate. They further, add that although
businesses can influence the decision-making process of consumers through marketing, they
cannot manage the transition of economy, politics and technology development. Hence, it’s
important for manufactures to rely on consumers behaviour to learn and adapt in the market.
Changes in consumer behaviour increase the degree of competition between companies in the Commented [MP6]: Personal thought introduced

same industry participating. To protect its revenues and competitive advantages, therefore, a
business needs to analyse the shift in consumer behaviour in order to adapt its business in the
most effective way (Baker, Hunt and Scribner,2002).

2.4 Consumer Product knowledge Commented [MP7]: Separate heading for a new topic

The multi-dimensionality of product knowledge has been reviewed by various scholars and
researchers over the time (Brucks,1986; Alba and Hutchinson,1987; Bettman and Park,1980). Product
knowledge can be defined as a complex multi-dimensional structure characterised by the memory
information structure and content (Alba and Hutchinson,1987). The significance of product knowledge
has been considered as a framework for costumer decision making process (Bettman and Park,1980).
However, there have been several concepts and ideas formed by different scholars and researchers
(Hansen,1972; Howard 1977; Howard and Sheth 1969) on the effects of varying level of prior
experience to the new idea of buyer memory procedure (Bettman 1979; Olson 1978). subsequently,
Scribner and Wuen (2001) found that the main different dimensions of customer product knowledge
can be classified into three as brand knowledge, experience knowledge and attribute knowledge
which have different effects on consumer behaviour. Although, there have been only less empirical

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research on effects of knowledge and experience on choice processes (Edell and Mitchell 1978; Olson
and Muderrisoglu 1979; Russo and Johnson 1980). The significance of product knowledge helps in the
types of information processed by consumers. For instance, inexperienced costumers are likely to
spend more time looking at the attributes than the buyers with more knowledge and experience
(Bettman and park,1980). Elsewhere Blair and Innis (1996) discovered that consumers with changing
degrees of product knowledge differed in their perceptions of quality. In terms of research context,
customers are likely to purchase the same type of decorative element of greeting cards most often as
they have prior knowledge about the type and style of the product they buy. Commented [MP8]: Personal thought and how it relates
to the research being conducted.

Over the years, there have been a lot of empirical studies that found a negative relationship between
product experience and information search (Anderson, Engledow, and Becker 1979; Katona and
Mueller 1955; Moore and Lehmann 1980; Newman and Staelin 1971, 1972; Swan 1969). The reason
being for such results are that the prior knowledge helped the consumers know about the attributes
and didn’t require information from outside. Another reason that’s being put forward is due to the
consumers with prior knowledge were able to perform more efficient and effective information
searches because they know the better attributes for differentiating and determining between brands
and which alternatives are inferior (Brucks,1985). Consequently, on the other hand there have been
also numerous empirical studies about how prior knowledge boosts information search for consumers
to process new information (Russo and Johnson 1984; Punj and Staelin 1983). For instance, prior
knowledge of consumers lead to articulate more questions, which helps the consumers to evaluate
the questions and hence reducing the cognitive cost of using information by obtaining the benefit of
it and thus leading to greater search with an increased knowledge and thereby building a positive
relationship between experience and amount of search (Jacoby et al. 1978). However, in contrast to
these studies some of the studies have found that there is a U-shaped relationship with prior
knowledge and information search (Bettman and park,1980) or no relationship at all (Claxton, Fry, and
Portis 1974). Commented [MP9]: Critique on previous research

Similarly, Laroche et al. (2003) argued that consumers with different levels of product knowledge
change in their perception of a product. Consumers with higher product awareness have better
designed and more nuanced schemes with well-defined requirements for decision (marks and
Olson,1981). This was further agreed by Blair and Innis (1996), where they postulated that non-experts
noticed a major change in product quality for unknown brands when the warranty period was
extended, but not for established brands. At the other hand, experts did not consider major price
variations irrespective of the length of the warranty or whether the brand name was recognised.

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Furthermore, Alba and Hutchinson (1987) in their study revealed that as consumers process
information, less cognitive effort is needed and correct knowledge systems can be triggered
automatically, and more information can be processed. Subsequently, Kempf and Smith (1998) found
out that Consumers with greater product awareness are more sensitive and knowledgeable than those
with lower product knowledge. Underlying these outcomes, consumers prefers to buy greeting cards
in relevance to the recipient and occasion for which they are purchasing greeting cards.

According to Park and Lessig (1981) higher knowledge of the products facilitates the use of information
available in decision making. Evidently, Stanton and Cook (2019) described such knowledge is likely to
give meaning to subsequent and broader information and to be properly associated with prior
information, thus fostering additional awareness on the subject. Moreover, this helps the consumers
to resolve on what kind of greeting cards they wish to purchase varying upon the various occasions
and to identify the perception of receiver on buying a greeting card. They further argued that
customers do not have the information to rely from to effectively determine product attributes at low
levels of product awareness and thus would restrict the attributes considered prior to making a
decision.

Elsewhere, Bohner et al. (1995) implied that Consumer knowledge of the product can affect both the
level of consumer confidence and the level of consumer confidence it desires and thus it affects the
perceived gap. Consequently, Fiske, Kinder, & Larter (1983) proposed that the individuals with high
knowledge are likely to have more domain-specific information than low knowledge individual.
Therefore, Individuals with high knowledge are more cautious regarding the knowledge they collect
(Shanteau, 1992) and also, they tend to agree more than low-knowledge individuals regarding what
information is significant Shanteau, 1998). This was further supported by Lee and Lee (2011) in their
study of impact of product knowledge on consumer product memory indicated that differences in the
amount of product knowledge and structure between high knowledge and low knowledge individuals
inevitably result in different processing strategies and outcomes such as recalling and recognising
information and product judgments. They further argued that high knowledge 's rich content and well-
organized knowledge structure will facilitate the encoding and retrieval of product information for
individuals. High knowledge individuals are likely to have a more detailed domain scheme than
individuals with Low knowledge, contributing to better judgments of product.

According to research findings by Lin and Zhen (2005) suggest that Product knowledge
depends on the consumer's awareness, understanding or confidence of the consumer in the
product. He also further adopted the product knowledge definition stated by Brucks (1985) to
measure product knowledge. The goal of product knowledge measurement is to calculate the

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level of understanding and trust of the attribute and information of the notebook, using a seven-
point Likert scale (Lin and Chen ,2006). However, Rudell (1979) Used a sample score to
measure quantitative knowledge and use an inventory of self-assessment to measure subjective
knowledge. Whereas, Wang (2001) conducted research on consumers product knowledge and
identified the key to measure the product knowledge by consumers perception of knowledge
they know, the quantity, type and organisation of what the consumer stored in his or memory
and the amount of purchasing and usage experience (Park and Lessing 1981; Johnson and russo
1984;Marks and Olson,1981 ).

2.5 Perceived Risk and Consumer Buying Process. Commented [MP10]: Separate heading for a new topic

Consumer expectations of risk have been extensively explored by various scholars and researchers in
the past literature and have shown that they affect all buying decisions to varying degrees and
therefore influence consumer behaviour (Chaudhury 1997; Cunningham 1967; Bauer 1960). In
consumer behaviour, principles of perceived risk and risk-taking have been discussed to explain the
decision-making process of consumers (Kim, Qu, & Kim 2009; Taylor, 1974). Numerous scholars have
discussed risk in various contexts in previous literature applicable to the present research. Pappas
(2016) and Marakanon and Panjakajornsak (2017) discussed perceived risk while Chang and Ko (2016)
studied the risk of post-purchase. Although, it was Hong (2015) who proposed that social risk is
involved and acted as an intermediary of the relationship between participation of the situation and
perception of confidence. Subsequently, Balladares et al (2017) in his paper of role of the perceived
risk in online information search and pre-purchase identified that the perceived risk leads consumers
to search for more information. Consequently, previous research suggest that experience has a
moderate effect on perceived risk (Sönmez & Graefe,1998; Kim and Lennon 2000; Moutinho 1987).

According to Zhang et al. (2015), found that purchasing habits by customers will definitely lead to
unexpected and even negative effects. Consumers ' buying decision therefore includes the result
uncertainty which was the initial definition of perceived risk. Elsewhere, Parumasur and Roberts-
Lambard (2012) described perceived risk as the amount of risk perceived by the customer in the
purchasing decision and/or the possible consequences of a bad decision. However, Kogan and
Wallach (1967) described the definition of risk as having two dimensions: first, the aspect of chance
where the focus is on possibility and, second, the aspect of danger where the emphasis is on the extent
of negative consequence. Commented [MP11]: Critique

Conversely, in a study conducted by Choi and Lee (2003), he discovered that risk perception affects
a consumer's inclination to make a purchasing decision. Whereas, Hisrich et al. (1976) in his study of
perceived risk in store selection, focused on perceived risk and retail shopping buying process, the risk-

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related variables were analysed when choosing a store from which to buy durable goods. One problem
not discussed in any of these studies is the use of various shopping modes to collect details, rather than
the narrower question of the actual purchase by that mode. Although several refinements have been
proposed to the definition of risk, such as utility theory (Currim and Sarrin,1983; Hauser and Urban
1979) and expected value theory (Cunningham,1967), risk residues a subjectively determined
customer fear of failure(Stone and Winter,1987) ; hence the term perceived risk.

In exemplifying its importance, various studies both previous and recent have subsequently
stated and exhibited considerably the various risk involving in purchasing decisions and buying
process (MacCrimmon and Wehrung,1986; Rapoport and Wallsten,1972; Pollatsck and
Tversky,1970). Consequently, the researchers concluded that increased perceived danger
causes customers to look for more information to reduce the associated risk (Mitchell and
Greatorex, 1993; Cox,1967; Downling and stealin,1994). According to Zeithmal and Bittner
(2003) perceived risk is constructed as a traditional factor that is discussed during the early
stages of the consumer buying process. Consumers looks for all kinds of information and
evaluates alternatives to control the risk by using various strategies (Murray ,1991).
Furthermore, Perry and ham (1969) discovered that the greater the perceived risk of purchase
decision, the greater the importance of personal influence. These findings were later supported
by other studies (e.g., Arndt,1967; Lutz and Reilly 1973). Lutz and Reilly (1973) conducted an
inquiry into the impact of perceived social and performance risk on information gathering,
where they identified that when the performance risk was low or moderate, subjects wanted to
purchase, but when goods were high in performance risk, direct observation and experience
was the chosen route. In both these cases perceived risk measures were taken after the purchase
had occurred or had not occurred at which point it would be fair to conclude that risk reduction
processes had started, and therefore their response to the risk measure would likely be infected.
In terms of research context, consumers still prefer to purchase through gift or other shops
rather online shopping as the higher degree of risk involved in purchasing.

The consumer purchasing process involves five stage process such as (stage one) need
recognition, (stage two) information search, (stage three) alternatives evaluation, (stage four) Commented [MP12]: Concept driven, then the author

purchase decision, and (stage five) post‐purchase behaviour (Blackwell et al.,2003; Hawkins
et al.,2003).Consumers first perceive risk during the recognition stage of need when they
recognise the need for a product or service (Cunningham et al.,2005).Consumers apply risk
management measures during second and third stages in the face of unpleasant levels of

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perceived danger, such as dependence on personal recommendations (Midgley,1983;Perry and

Hamm,1969), Finding additional products or service details (Beatty and Smith ,1987;cox
1967),security of warranties (Bettman,1973;cox 1967;Downling and Staelin,1994) and
preference for national brands (Locander and Herman,1979;Lutz and Reilley,1973).

In buying situations, consumers perceive several types of risk. The overall risk definition has historically
defined six forms of risk: financial, performance, psychological, social, physical, and time risks (Jacoby
& Kaplan, 1971; Roselius, 1971;Ward,2008).There have been several empirical studies about the
perceived risk and various researchers have defined those six types of risk (Garner, 1986; Mitchell &
Greatorex, 1993; Pope et al., 1993; Roehl & Fesenmaier, 1992). Aside, from these six forms of risk
commonly acknowledged, one of the fastest rising threats is security risk in online shopping (Harrison‐
Walker, 2002). This was further supported by Einwiller et al., (2000), explained that internet purchases
pose numerous risks for consumers, beyond the transaction process itself. According to Vijayasarathy
and Jones (2000), identified that perceived risk to be a significant factor affecting internet consumer
behaviour. Consequently, Salisbury, Pearson, & Miller (2001) portrayed security risk as the risk of
perceived insecurity in the transmission of sensitive information via online transactions. Similarly,
Grabner‐Kraeuter (2002) the security risk stems from the uncertainty that the quality of products /
services on the web may differ from seller to seller and the difficulty of quality measurement in a
computer-mediated environment. An example is the study by Miyazaki and Fernandez (2000) on web
sites security issues and concerns of commercial enterprises based in the United States. Findings from
his study carried out 381 commercial enterprises indicated that 250 sites (65.6%) disclosed at least
one of the three security-related practices described previously. Specifically, 193 (50.7%) indicated
that transactions were secure, but only 22 (5.8%) guaranteed that security and 181 sites (47.5%)
explicitly offered alternative purchasing methods. Miyazaki and Fernandez (2000) further argued that
consumers consider more security risks, and overall customer perceived risk for online shopping will
increase.

2.6 Consumer buying decision models

Consumer decision-making models have developed over the last 50 years and include research on
various constructs born from the economic and psychological fields (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2007;
Zinkhan 1992). Since the first models in the 1960s, the frameworks for CDM have evolved through
various forms. Nevertheless, there is a notable lack of any general conceptual structure explaining
how consumers usually purchase (Schiffman and Lazar,1997).

One of the oldest models of consumer behaviour was introduced by Andeason (1965). He identified Commented [MP13]: Concept driven then the author

the importance of the information in the consumer decision-making process and consumer attitudes.

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However, he failed to consider attitudes in relation to repeat purchase behaviour. Consequently,

Nicosia (1966) introduced the Nicosia model, which focused on a new product purchase decision. He
focused on the company’s efforts to interact with the customer, and the predisposition of customers
to behave in a certain manner. However, many of the variables were not examined (Lunn,1974).
Furthermore, there was little empirical evidence to support the model, although there is a lot of
empirical research to suggest that the relationships represented in the model are not necessarily true
(Tuck, 1976).Later, Nicosia’s model was adjusted by Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell in the late 1960s
(Engel et al., 1968).

This model was designed to represent the rising, increasingly growing body of customer behavioural
information. However, Brinberg & Lutz (1986) argued that the linear design of the model is a major
source of criticism because it is assumed that the elements of the purchaser decision-making process
do not necessarily exist in a sequence set. Subsequently, Howard-Sheth (1969) proposed an
integrative model that integrates multiple aspects of consumer behaviour; it ties together the
different constructs or variables that can affect the decision-making process and describes their
relationship that contributes to a decision to buy. Although, Olshavsky & Granbois (1979) suggested
that consumers did not always follow the entire path of the model and was complicated for routine
purchases. In addition, he also claimed that there were problems with the model 's depiction of
consumers moving linearly from one step to the next. Consequently, McCarthy et al. (1997) model is
a modification with some minor changes and clarifications of the Engel et al. (1968) model. This model
was able to group constructs in a logically simplistic form while remaining comprehensive. However,
Aribarg & Foutz, (2009) identified that the idea of customers going through decision-making in a linear
phase is debatable with the assumptions that other decision-making processes include screening,
phasing and multiple stages.

Elsewhere, Jha (2014) observed that the main buying decision-making signals for customer buying
behaviour models are similar in their outcome; this varies depending on the urgencies of customers
and the complexity of the needs and wants for a specific product. Similarly, Gross (2014) analysed the
factors that affect the decision-making process for virtual online consumers by analysing specific
decision-making models. He identified that consumers buy from virtual websites, a method driven by
interactivity and knowledge overload embedded in the overarching consumer decision-making
framework. Consumers buy online greeting cards through websites such as Moonpig to make their
own personalised cards which can help them to personalise the e-cards using different texts or images
making their decision making easier.

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2.7 Product Life cycle

The product life cycle (PLC) is an important concept in the field of product marketing,
customer behaviour and adaptation to the environmental and competitive changes (Galiano et
al.,2018). The Product life cycle contingency on purchasing practices has been investigated in
a number of studies (Hofer ,1975;Hambrick and Lie ,1985).According to Levitt (1981), The
Product life cycle been described as the evolution of a product 's sales during the period that
it remains on the market. Research in Policy and Advertising has applied the PLC throughout
the past 30 years as a prescriptive tool and decision aid to predict performance-oriented
improvements in behaviour and activities along the route of a product from introduction to
decline (Thietart and Vivas,1984;Wong,1992;Hill,1994;Klepper,1996). Moreover, the PLC
concept draws significant interest in management research based on the basic principle that the
strategies and activities of organisations are correlated with the stage of the life cycle of a
product (Vernon,1979; Hambrick and Lie,1985). Consequently, Anderson and Zeithaml (1984)
described Life cycle is a concept used by management researchers in the field of biology to
connote the systematic development of products over time through stages involving
introduction, production, maturity and decline. The greeting cards tends to stay mostly in
mature stage undergoing minor changes and modifications and are specially designed with
various decorative element to keep them different and appealing to the consumers. Commented [MP14]: Personal thought

Elsewhere, Miquel and Mollá (1982), discovered the role of its goods in relation to the PLC
and the shape it adopts is an important factor in preparing the innovation strategy of the
company. However, Lambkin and Day (1989) considered that it was necessary to describe the
product by product class, as this relates more to the various ways of fulfilling a requirement.
Although, Fu (2009) argued that the existence of a relationship between the success of new
product launches and the age of the salespeople and their years of sales experience may not be
the most appropriate for PLC analysis. Similarly, Orbach and Fruchter (2014) developed a new
model to predict PLC in relation to the development of new product. Their research showed
that the PLC application can and should be intensified. Converse to these, Birou et al. (1997)
carried out a more systematic review of the classification of PLC effects on buying activities
by Fox and Rink (1977). Findings from study found differences between activities in different
functional areas at the same PLC stage and recommended better integration in functional
approaches in line with common PLC stages.

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2.8 Digital Marketing.

Digital marketing has been investigated by previous studies such as Chaffey (2011), Yasmin
et al. (2015), Waghmare (2012), Gangeshwer (2013), Kumar and Jincy (2017) and Lies (2019).
During the past decades the marketing sector has developed into an integral part of companies
through a resource-conscious view and an investment-oriented approach (kumar ,2015). Digital
technologies have redefined business communication by making it interactive, simple,
convenient, meaningful, personalised and cost-effective (Becherer & Halstead, 2004; Ferrar,
2010; Gay et al., 2007; Smith, 2011). The Digital Marketing Institute defines digital marketing
as “the use of digital technologies to create an integrated, targeted and measurable
communication which helps to acquire and retain customers while building deeper
relationships with them (Wymbs,2011).According to Mandal et al. (2016) digital marketing is
a promotion of brands using all available forms of digital advertising media to reach the target
segment. Similarly, Yasmin et al (2015) postulated that digital marketing refers to various
promotional techniques deployed to reach customers via digital technologies and mainly use
internet.

Elsewhere, Levy (2010), in his study “The State of Digital Marketing” states that the heart of
digital marketing is where the communication is happening with the customer. That’s where
the customer does its product analysis and they confide in each other and ask questions and
make brand decisions. Consumers have undergone a paradigm change in digital behaviour
(Alexa et al., 1996).In a study conducted by Becherer and Halstead (2004) also complimented
the results of the study conducted by Kierzkowski et al. (1996), which included digital
marketing with 24-hour availability characteristics, interactivity, customisation, enhanced
product category awareness, accessibility, reduced search costs and increased variety.
Moreover, they further identified that the availability of less expensive and usable digital
devices further made digital communication simpler and easier to consume. This helps
consumers to buy greeting cards via online easier, quicker and convenient with their own
personalised and digital e-cards. Commented [MP15]: Personal thought

According to Digital trends UK (2020) ,57% of smartphone owners used their device to shop online. In
general shopping habits are changing rapidly as more shopping is conducted online. Young adults are
highly likely to do a lot of their shopping via the internet. However, even though there are plenty of
online card options, shopping in physical stores remains by far the most popular way of buying
greetings cards. Only 10% of purchasers say that the ability to buy online influences where they buy

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cards. But younger shoppers (16-34, 14%) are more likely to feel that the ability to buy online has
influenced them to buy greeting cards (Greeting cards UK,2019)

According to Lerrthaitrakul and Panjakajornsak (2014) e-words on digital platforms were generated
when consumers exchanged feedback, opinions, suggestions, news and experiences with other
consumers, which enabled other consumers to make informed decisions. However, Heriyati and Siek
(2011) in their study identified that e-word of mouth had a positive impact on the consumer decision-
making process, especially for adolescents and new age customers, although negative reviews had a
more negative impact on the decision-making process than positive reviews had a positive impact on
decision-making.

2.9 Summary. Commented [MP16]: Chapter summary

This chapter has largely reviewed literature within the context of consumers buying behaviour and
consumer product knowledge within the greeting cards industry. This chapter briefly explains on how
a greeting card is used to convey any sort of affectionate messages. The demand of the greeting cards
over the years has also been focused upon. The increase in the internet use of population aged 45+
has resulted in a further increase of audience for online shopping to purchase greeting cards. The
chapter then discuss the consumer buying behaviour in detail. The review explains how important it
is for an organisation to study consumer behaviour in order to satisfy the existing customers and to
increase in a number of potential customers. While consumer behaviour studies on the organisation's
customer, consumer product knowledge is defined to be the knowledge of customers of specific
product or good. The review explains how consumers with changing degree of product knowledge
differed in their perception of quality as well as the risk perceived by them. The different types of risks
faced by customers is also discussed; security risk being the fastest rising threat in online shopping. A
very brief study on the product life cycle is reviewed towards the last part of the chapter; which also
includes the explanation of the different stages of PLC. Researchers also says that the greeting cards
stays in mature stage undergoing minor changes and modifications. The chapter ends with the
explanation of digital marketing and how it helps to reach the target customers through different
digital medias. The subsequent chapter focuses on reviewing and providing a detailed outline of both
the research methodology and various strategy adopted for the research study.

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Mark Allocation
Now please refer to Appendix 2 below for the Marking Criteria.
Please note the distinctions and requirements for each of the mark levels.
Select the one you are aiming for, e.g. 60-69% or 70-79% and thus follow
those requirements that fall in the selected mark range.

Appendix 2
Literature Review

(20%)

Outstanding

Provides a comprehensive, wide-ranging and in-depth literature review and demonstrates a far-reaching understanding of key
theoretical concepts. Engages in a critically informed debate of the literature.

Demonstrates a superior ability to evaluate contrasting viewpoints with a very high degree of independent thought.

Mark Range 90-100%

Excellent

Provides a comprehensive literature review which rigorously covers a wide range of current and relevant sources and demonstrates an
extensive and critical understanding of key theoretical concepts. Engages in a critically well-informed debate of the literature.

Demonstrates an excellent ability to evaluate contrasting viewpoints with a high degree of independent thought.

Mark Range 80-89%

Literature Review

(20%)

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Very good

Provides an extensive literature review which covers a range of current and relevant sources and demonstrates a very good critical
understanding of the key theoretical concepts. Engages in a well-informed debate of the relevant literature, evidencing some critical
thinking.

Demonstrates a very good ability to evaluate contrasting viewpoints with a very good degree of independent thought.

Mark Range 70-79%

Good
Provides a good literature review which covers a number of the main themes addressed and demonstrates a good understanding of a
number of the key theoretical concepts. Engages in a debate of the literature.

Demonstrates a good ability to evaluate contrasting viewpoints with a good degree of independent thought.

Mark Range 60-69%

Clear Pass

Provides a literature review which covers some of the main themes addressed and demonstrates an understanding of some key
theoretical concepts. Engages in a brief debate of the literature.

Demonstrates some ability to evaluate contrasting viewpoints and shows some independent thought.

Mark Range 50-59%

Literature Review

(20%)

Marginal Fail

Provides a limited literature review which covers a few of the themes addressed and demonstrates some understanding of a few key
theoretical concepts.
Does not engage in a debate of the literature.

Demonstrates a limited ability to evaluate contrasting viewpoints with little evidence of independent thought.

Mark Range 40-49%

Clear Fail

Demonstrates very limited knowledge of the relevant literature.

Demonstrates very limited appreciation of the existence of alternative viewpoints and very little evidence of a capacity for
independent thought.

Mark Range 20-39%

Nothing of merit

Does not engage with the relevant literature.

No evidence of understanding of the key issues or a capacity for individual thought.

Mark Range 1-19%

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Literature Review M.H.J. Pontier September 2020