IJA

ISSN 2455-2798
Indian Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 7, No 2, (2022), 14-28

www.ijarch.org

Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal

District Odisha

Sudam Jhankar
Research Scholar, History
Sambalpur University
&
Neena Thakur
Assistant Professor
History, Sambalpur University

In 1939 and 1942 N. K Bose and D. Sen of Calcutta University (1949) discovered and excavated a
rich Lower palaeolithic industry at Kuliana in Mayurbhanj District which later encouraged the
scholars to start elaborate investigations in many parts of Odisha i.e.; Mayurbhanj, Dhenkanal,
Sundargarh, Boudh, Kandhamal, Koraput, Keonjhar, Sambalpur, Bargarh and many other districts1
and brought to light numerous prehistoric sites particularly in North, Central and Western Orissa.
The systematic and detailed works in some of the western districts such as Bargarh, Sonpur,
Sundergarh2 were also carried out which revealed several Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic and
Mesolithic sites. However, the area of Kandhamal district is still awaiting an extensive survey.
Barring the work by a few scholars namely, Ota3, Dash4 and Rath5, the region is still largely
unexplored. The district is covered with the hilly forest region from which many rivers and rivulets
have originated. A great portion of the district consists of undulating land with a rocky outcrop. It
is an extension of the oldest landmass of the Chhotanagpur plateau.
The research area, the Khadga river basin is one of the major tributaries of the Tel river. To
assess the prehistoric potential of the river valley, the first season of intensive field investigation
was carried out in the lower part of it. In May 2019, only a small part of the river bank was explored.
Later fresh explorations brought to light five (5) new sites, which vary somewhat in nature and
character. These reveal antiquities of about more than one prehistoric period. Numerous streams
and nullahs dissect the valley making a network thus these are liable to provide favourable locations
for human habitations. The Kandhamal and Balangir Districts have two physiographic units: 1. the
plains and 2. the hilly tracts. The Eastern Ghats comprise the principal hill ranges of the lower
Khadga and Middle-Tel Valley.

Previous study: The work done by some scholars revealed the potential of the region6 and many
sites were reported. Going through the previous work conducted by these scholars, it was felt that

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 Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal District Odisha

the Kandhamal region requires a detailed survey for a better understanding of the multiple facets
of human history through the ages.
Earlier (1994) the old Phulbani District was divided into two districts, namely Boud and
Kandhamal. In recent years (2002) investigations have been done by scholars in the Boudh area,
who discovered many prehistoric implements ranging from the Palaeolithic to the Chalcolithic
period7. K.C.Tripathy8 has studied the prehistoric culture of the Phulbani district by discovering the
prehistoric site in village Kankala9. The Palaeolithic implements like hand axe, cleaver, scraper,
point, blade, and burins were discovered from these sites and he also reported one single site of
pebble industry at Manamunda near Boudh district in 197210.
After Tripathy, S.B.Ota explored the area covering river Bagh to Khadga and discovered
Palaeolithic tools from open-air sites namely Sunadei Hill, Gurvelipadar, Barapadar,
Kankalidunguri, Rangoli hill, and Kantamal in 1981-82. only Kantamal is situated on the bank of
river Tel and the rest are foothill sites11.
The extensive survey of the North Boudh-Kandhamal was carried out by Ota between 1981
to 1984. The then un-divided Phulbani district had yielded some pieces of evidence regarding
Prehistoric cultures. He reported the first archaeological remains in the region in 198212. He reported
as many as Thirty (30) open-air sites and almost all the sites had yielded microlithic artefacts with
heavy stone tools like horse-hoof cores, choppers, and pointed tools13. Along with that, one Neolithic
site was discovered by Ota in 1984-85 at Malapara Ghat from where he collected a few Mesolithic
implements too14. The subsequent discovery15 of microliths at a larger number of sites made it clear
that the area was hugely inhabited by Mesolithic communities.

Environmental Settings: Physiographically the area comprises two distinct physical divisions.
The northern part of the area is covered by gentle undulating plains and the southern part is covered
by rugged hilly terrain with hilly and rocky mounds. The undulating terrain with a vast stretch of
cultivable land characterizes the district's major parts. The average elevation is 200 m to 300 m above
mean sea level with a general topographic slope towards the east. The other geomorphic features in
the district are flood plains and pediplains. The general topography of the area is characterized by
the frequent occurrence of residual rock masses (outcrops), isolated steep hills, rough badlands
where there's a thick deposit of red soil (generally within the foothill zones and raised uplands) and
alluvial deposits. The district is a well-drained by variety of short nullahs, which generally flow
towards the north and northwest and join the Mahanadi and Tel (Fig. 01).
Undulating and rough badlands represent the area and its environmental setting of the area,
narrow alluvial tract along the several rivers, forest and tiny to medium-sized hills. Granite and
Gneisses, rocks types occupying the undulating plains, low lying area and sometimes form hills and
hillocks. These rocks are mostly represented by biotite gneiss, porphyritic granitic gneiss, etc. They
are porphyritic and non-porphyritic and are usually grey to light grey. Weathering in granitic rocks
is pronounced and fissures and joints etc., are also well developed. Numerous veins of quartz and

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Indian Journal of Archaeology

pegmatites traverse these rocks. The thickness of the weathered zone in granitic rocks ranges from
5 to 28 m depending upon the topographical setup.
The litho-stratigraphic units of the region are very simple. The Achaeans are represented by
granite, granite-gneisses, charonockites and kondalites with intrusive veins, mainly milky quartz16.
The Gondwana formation occurs within the variety of shale's and sandstones in patches and red
soil, locally called 'Rangamati' often related to Mesolithic sites. It occurs in three contexts: (i) river
bank, (ii) foot-hill zone and (iii) raised land/upland deposits17. This soil has low fertility and
supports thin vegetation consisting of grasses, bushes and stunted trees. Climatologically, the year
could also be divided into four seasons: hot season (from March to May); southwest monsoon
season (from June to September); short post-monsoon season, and therefore the cold session (from
December to February). May is the hottest month whereas December and January is generally the
coldest month of the year.

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 Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal District Odisha

Fig. No. 01: A general view of the study area

The natural vegetation of the region is arboreal. Phyto-geographically, the vegetation comprises
three major divisions: tropical moist deciduous forest, riverine forest, and tropical dry deciduous
forest. Up to now, some 70 edible plant species (comprising fruits; berries; under-ground storage
organs, stalks; leaves; shoots; flower; seeds, pods and nuts; mushrooms, gums; bark and stems etc)
have been identified from this area. Some portion of this district in the east is merged with the
alluvial plain formed by the silt brought down by river Mahanadi and its tributaries. The climate

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Indian Journal of Archaeology

is characterized by hot, dry summers and well-distributed rains from the southwest monsoon. The
common annual rainfall ranges between1400 and 1500 mm. The environment mostly supports
tropical moist deciduous, riverine and tropical dry deciduous sorts of natural vegetation 18.
This area has a rich variety of flora and fauna. The hill slopes are commonly used for shifting
cultivation by several indigenous populations inhabiting the region. The Kandha communities
occupy the high mountainous regions and still practice hunting and food-gathering besides shifting
cultivation.
The Khadga River, a major tributary of Tel River, is one of the important rivers of the
Kandhamal district, which might have offered a favourable ecology and sustainable landscape. The
chief characteristic of the area is its varied physiographic and topographic niches, which helped the
expansion and development of divergent cultural communities. The Valley comprises four nuclear
zones each having three major elevations high, middle and low19.

Fig. No. 02: Five discovered sites in the river valley

Site wise Assemblage Distribution: All sites have yielded the artefacts of quartzite, quartz,
chert, chalcedony, agate and Jasper. Besides, three haematite sherds were collected.

Sites Quartzite Quartz Chert Chalcedony Agate Jasper Total %

Kacharpali 38 70 120 4 3 7 244 24.21
Bandhugora 33 95 144 6 4 4 287 28.47
Kendubera 44 55 69 5 ---- 4 177 17.56
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 Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal District Odisha

Badibahal 23 63 84 4 2 ---- 176 17.46

Sadanagar 19 42 61 2 ---- ---- 124 12.30
Total 157 325 478 21 9 15 1008 100
Table No. 01: Distribution of Raw material in the study area

The variability in raw materials played a vital role in artefact form. and assemblage variability
which is an issue fundamental to archaeological research in all times and places. Indeed, raw
material quality has long been cited as a potentially important factor influencing the lithic artefact
morphology20. The “quality” of lithic raw materials is one of the two most important factors in the
organization of stone technology, the other being lithic “abundance”, and that “the quality of lithic
raw materials played a direct role in prehistoric toolmaker’s decision to produce various types of
stone tools21.

Raw material used in Sites

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Quartzite Quartz Chert Chalcedony Agate Jasper

Kacharpali Bandhugora Kendubeda Badibahal Sandanagar

Fig. No. 03: Distribution of Raw material in the study area.

Regarding lithic raw materials availability in the Kandhamal, Ota22 proposes that the study of their
availability, variation, and distribution is fundamental in understanding technological variability.
The quartzite river pebbles, cobbles and boulders are abundant in this region. Three different forms
of chert nodules have been utilized in the area23.
The present collection of artefacts comprises specimens of which 244 are from Kacharpali,
287 from Bandhugora, 177 from Kendubeda, 176 from Badibahal and the remaining 124 are from
Sandanagar. On the whole, the stone assemblage of Khadga valley contains 1008 artefacts made
from 7 different types of raw material (Table 01), such as Chert 47.42%, Quartz 32.24 %, Quartzite
15.58 %, Chalcedony 2.08 %, Jasper 1.49 %, Agate 0.89 % and Hematite 0.30 %. The Chert might be
the most accessible resource in the area around the sites as occurs in the survey made by authors.

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Indian Journal of Archaeology

However, Chert is the dominant raw material in the assemblage as the cores, flakes, blades,
bladelets, chopper-chopping and wastes occur mostly in chert. It indicates that the technological
process of shaping the tools probably took place at the sites only. It is substantiated by a
considerable number of cores and a large quantity of chert debris in all sites. However, nothing
concrete can be said as the research is just preliminary.

General View of Artefact Type in the Sites: A broad typology of the artefacts has been
presented in Fig. 04. The lithic component is characterised by core (13.99%), flake (42.26%), Blade
(4.66%), bladelet (6.05%), chopper (1.29%), colour (0.30%) and chips (31.35%) (Fig-3). The microlithic
tools such as geometric types- Triangles, Trapezes, Lunates, Points, Backed Blades are found.
Besides, varieties of scrapers, hammerstones and retouched tools, flake cores, blade cores, bladelet
cores, flakes and chips etc are also recorded. Since it is a preliminary study, the tool details will be
produced in our next research paper. Most of the artefacts are associated with red soil, eroded rain
gullies and dried nullas.
Sites V/S Artefacts

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Core Flake Blade BLDT Chopp/Chopp Chip/Chunk
Kacharpali 26 85 13 33 5 80
Bandhugora 44 144 16 9 3 71
Kendubeda 22 89 4 8 0 54
Badibahal 31 70 11 6 2 56
Sandanagar 18 38 3 5 3 55

Fig. No. 04: Percentage (%) of the Artefacts in Lower Khadga River
The occurrence of heavy-duty implements with microlithic artefacts is a common
phenomenon in this region as has been reported even earlier by Ota and later by Behera in Bargarh
Mesolithic24. While quartzite as a raw material was selected for heavy-duty tool production,
cryptocrystalline silica stones such as chert, chalcedony, quartz etc were used for the production of
microlithic artefacts. Along with the different types of Core (Fig. 05), Flake (Fig. 06), Blade (Fig. 07),
Bladelet (Fig. 08), the heavy-duty types comprise choppers, chopping, scrapers and flakes (Fig. 09).
Almost all sites have yielded microlithic artefacts with a few heavy-duty tools i.e.; choppers and
chopping25.
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 Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal District Odisha

Fig. No. 05: Blade & Bladelet cores and Haematite( 1&8)

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Indian Journal of Archaeology

Fig. No. 06- Flakes and Flake tools (12&13)

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Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal District Odisha

Fig. No. 07: Blades at Site

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Indian Journal of Archaeology

Fig. No. 08: Bladelets at Site (Backed Bladelet- 21)

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Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal District Odisha

Fig. No. 09: Chopper & Chopping

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Indian Journal of Archaeology

Occurrence of Haematite: Significantly four haematite (Fig. 05) nodules (Two from each -
Kacharpali and Sadanagar) have been found in the survey. Earlier it might have gone unnoticed in
the sites but recent exposure in many sites (Torajunga and GPR, of Bargarh)26 have registered its
regular use in many forms. Presumably, this aspect of the Prehistoric cultures had been almost
ignored by the Scholars. Recently many Middle Palaeolithic and Microlithic sites in western Orissa
have yielded nodules with a shallow groove in the centre indicating grinding activities27. Red ochre
or hydrated iron oxide is widely used by the H. sapiens since the Middle Palaeolithic & Mesolithic
periods28. It is often considered as one of the most significant evidences of the early man with the
emergence of symbolism and advanced cognitive abilities in the rock paintings as the rock paintings
in the caves and rock shelters in Orissa are generally connected with microliths. These shelters have
retained the microlithic artefacts along with haematite nodules on the floor which are still awaiting
excavation to reveal much more. Presumably, it was being used in certain rituals i.e.; body art or
maybe to camouflage themselves to get protection from wild animals and was essentially use in
burial rituals. In many chalcolithic rural cultures of western India haematite use has been observed.
Besides it has been used in rock paintings also it is used as an adhesive29. It’s pertinent to mention
that mesolithic is marked for the use of the composite tool so it seems, haematite might have been
used as an adhesive medium for hafting tools in a wooden shaft or long bone piece or antlers.
Another fact is that one of the haematite nodules shows the mark of knapping (Fig. 05) to produce
a core scrapper.

Discussion: The present research gives a little idea of life in the Khadga River valley during the
Mesolithic phase. Exploration reveals that the human habitations existed in the Kandhamal district,
particularly in the Khadga basin area since Palaeolithic Period. The artefacts indicate the life of
hunting and gathering communities roaming in this congenial habitat. The landscape and ecology
might have been habitable. The raw material was available in the form of chert outcrops, pebbles
and angular nodules strewn near the bank of the river, quartzite and dolerite too were available in
the vicinity of the foothills in the form of dykes. So far as the artefacts collected from the sites, they
may presumably explain the hunting and gathering economy which was based on meat and plant
food. The heavy-duty tools might have been useful for actions like nut-cracking or breaking bones
for marrow. At the same time, the microlithic tools might have been used as a composite tool for
many purposes. It may be described as a shift from large tools to pigmy tools in the same region. It
is noteworthy that the Kandhamal has earlier revealed some palaeolithic sites. Many regions of
Odisha30 have revealed a continuous yet evolving cultural pattern covering a large time. A
cumulative view of forested hilly areas, Water bodies, raw material availability and wild animals in
the wood might have attracted the humans in the region.

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 Preliminary Investigations in the Lower Khadga Stream, Kandhmal District Odisha

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30. Behera, P.K. & Neena Thakur 2017 Recent observations on the microlithic assemblages with pebble-cobble tool
component in Odisha, India in Rethinking the Past: A Tribute to Professor V.N. Misra (S.G. Deo, Andre Baptista and
Jayendra Joglekar Eds.), pp. 81-95, Pune; Behera, P.K., Neena Thakur, M. Sudarshan, B. Chatterjee, 2018.
Investigation into the Microlithic Assemblages with Pebble-Cobble Tool Component below Tephra at Burla,
Odisha, India. Indian Journal of Archaeology; Behera, P.K. M. Sudarshan & Neena Thakur. 2020. Sourcing Used
Red Ochre in the Late Middle Palaeolithic Context at Torajunga, Bargarh Uplands, Odisha, India: Results of
Preliminary Investigation, Journal of Anthropological and Archaeological Sciences, LUPINE. pp. 287-301.

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