Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Module 6

Surface Grinding: Surface grinding is used to produce a smooth finish on flat surfaces.

ADVANTAGES OF GRINDING
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 Better..............................................
dimensional accuracy.
surface finish.
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 Better..............................................
 Tooling is less expensive.
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 Can be easily automated.
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High production rate.

LIMITATIONS OF GRINDING

 Requires semi skilled labour.

6.4 JOINING OPERATIONS

The term joining is generally used for welding, brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding,
which form a permanent joint between the parts—a joint that cannot easily be separated.

Soldering and brazing are liquid-solid phase bonding processes. Liquid means that the filler
metal is melted; solid means that the base material(s) are not melted.

6.4.1 SOLDERING

In soldering, the metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts and then filler alloy
called solder applied in the molten state which upon solidification produces the desired joint.

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The melting point of solder is below 427˚C. Soldering is a common process for joining steel,
copper, aluminium and other materials at a lower temperature. There is no direct melting of the
metals being joined. During the process the filler alloy flows between the two closely adjacent
surfaces of the workpieces by capillary action. Soldered joints do not resist corrosion. Soldering
differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the work pieces.

Soldering operation starts with the design the joint for bond formation. Surface to be soldered
should be cleaned either chemically or mechanically to ensure wetting. The surfaces are coated
with flux. The purpose of soldering flux is to remove oxides and other surface compounds from
the surface being soldered and prevent re oxidation of the surfaces during the soldering process.
This is followed by melting the solder. Solder is melted by using methods such as soldering
iron which is a traditional tool for soldering. The tip of the soldering iron is heated electrically.

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APPLICATION OF SOLDERING

 Soldering is used in plumbing, electronics, and metalwork from flashing to jewelry.

 Soldering provides reasonably permanent but reversible connections between copper
pipes in plumbing systems as well as joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans,
roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators.
 Jewellery components, machine tools and some refrigeration and plumbing components
are often assembled and repaired by silver soldering process.
 Electronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic components to printed
circuit boards (PCBs).

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 Soldering is required wherever electronic components need to be connected to circuit

boards. Even in the age of integrated circuits, most electrical products will include parts
that have been soldered through an automated or factory process.

6.4.2 BRAZING

In Brazing, the metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts and then filler alloy
called spelter applied in the molten state which upon solidification produces the desired joint.
Melting point of filler metal is above 427˚C. There is no direct melting of the metals being
joined. Most metals and alloys such as carbon steels, cast iron, stainless steels and alloy steels,
copper, bronze and aluminium can be brazed. Brazing gives much stronger joint compared to
soldering.

When brazing, flux is applied to the joint, to prevent oxidation of the surfaces. The steel tube
and plate are heated to bright red heat and the brazing rod (filler rod) applied to the joint. The
end of the filler rod melts and flows around the joint, through capillary attraction.
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Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the work pieces and from
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soldering in using

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closely fitted parts than when soldering. The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting
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(liquidus) temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows
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over the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the work pieces together. It
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is similar to soldering, except for the use of higher temperatures. A major advantage of brazing
is the ability to join the same or different metals with considerable strength.

Brazing and braze welding (bronze welding), can be used to join similar and also dissimilar
metals such as:

Mild Steel - Galvanized Steel

Stainless Steel - Copper

Mild Steel - Stainless Steel

Stainless Steel - Copper-Nickel

Mild Steel - Cast Iron

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APPLICATION OF BRAZING

 Brazing is used for fastening of pipe fittings, tanks, carbide tips on tools, radiators, heat
exchangers, electrical parts, axles, etc.
 It is used to join parts of bicycle such as frame and rims.

ADVANTAGES OF SOLDERING AND BRAZING

 Low temperature. Since the base metal does not have to melt, a low-temp heat source
can be used. This minimized distortion and creates a smaller heat-affected zone (HAZ).
 May be permanently or temporarily joined. Since the base metal is not damaged, parts
may be disassembled at a later time by simply reapplying heat. The parts then can be
reused. The joint also is solid enough to be permanent.
 Dissimilar metals can be joined. It is easy to join dissimilar metals, such as copper to
steel, aluminium to brass, and cast iron to stainless steel. It is also possible to join non
metals, i.e. ceramics are easily brazed to each other or to metals.
 Speed of joining. Parts can be preassembled and furnace soldered or brazed in large
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quantities. A lower temperature means less time in heating.

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chance of damaging parts. A heat source can be used that has a max temp below

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 Parts of varying thickness can be joined. Very thin parts or a thin part and a thick part
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can be joined without burning through or overheating them.
 Easy realignment. Parts can be easily realigned by reheating the joint, repositioning the
parts and allowing the filler metal to solidify.

6.4.3 WELDING

Welding is the most common joining process for metals. In fusion welding, the joint is made
by melting the metal at the interface, so that upon solidification, the components are fused, or
joined together. In many cases, extra metal is melted along the joint, to completely fill the joint
region.

WELDING TERMINOLOGY

 Filler Metals - To fill space between joints during welding

 Fluxes - Cleaning agent – To remove oxides

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The role of a flux in joining processes is typically dual: dissolving of the oxides and removing
impurities on the metal surface, which facilitates wetting, and creating an inert atmosphere around
the surface to be joined, which blocks oxygen from coming in direct contact with surfaces to be
joined and prevent oxidation. In some applications molten flux also serves as a heat transfer medium.

WELDABILITY

Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded. It depends up on

 Melting point of metal

 Thermal conductivity of metal
 Thermal Expansion of metals
 Surface Condition

ADVANTAGES OF WELDING

 Overall cost of welding Equipment is low

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 Large..............................................
number of metals can be welded.
 Welding operation can be mechanised
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 High Streangth
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Portable welding equipment’s are available

DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING

 Welding operation distorts the work pieces

 Skilled workers are required
 Welding produces physical and chemical changes in the metal
 Some welding operations gives off harmful radiations

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TYPES OF WELDING

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Forge welding (FOW)

Forge welding (FOW) is a plastic welding process that joins two pieces of metal by heating
them to a high temperature and then hammering them together. Different types of forge welding
are Lap Welding, Butt Welding, V-Welding, T-Welding.

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Resistance Welding

Heat to form the weld is generated by the electrical resistance of material . Different types of
resistance welding are Spot Welding, Projection Welding, Seam Welding, Butt Welding,
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Percussion Welding etc…
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Spot Welding
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Work-pieces .............................................
are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in
the 0.5 to .................................................
3 mm thickness range. The process uses two copper alloy electrodes to concentrate
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welding current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a
large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of
spot welding is that a lot of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time. That permits
the welding to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet.

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Application of Spot Welding

• Most common application of spot welding is in the automobile manufacturing

industry, where spot welding is used almost universally to weld the sheet metal to
form a car. Spot welders can also be completely automated, and many of the industrial
robots found on assembly lines are spot welders .

Projection welding

• Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this process, the weld is

localized by means of raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces
to be joined. Heat is concentrated at the projections.

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Application of Projection welding

• Connector points such as nuts and studs are attached to seats, dashboards, interior
trims and seat belts using projection welding technique.

• Projection welding is also ideal for automobile parts like shock absorbers, auto
electrical, gas springs, sintered components, leak proof components etc

Seam Welding

• Seam welding relies on two electrodes, usually made from copper, to apply pressure
and current. The electrodes are disc shaped and rotate as the material passes between

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them. This allows the electrodes to stay in constant contact with the material to make
long continuous welds. The electrodes may also move or assist the movement of the
material.

• A transformer supplies energy to the weld joint in the form of low voltage, high
current AC power. The joint of the work piece has high electrical resistance relative to
the rest of the circuit and is heated to its melting point by the current. The semi-
molten surfaces are pressed together by the welding pressure that creates a fusion
bond, resulting in a uniformly welded structure. Most seam welders use water cooling
through the electrode, transformer and controller assemblies due to the heat generated.
Seam welding produces an extremely durable weld because the joint is forged due to
the heat and pressure applied.

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Applications of Seam Welding

• A common use of seam welding is during the manufacture of round or rectangular

steel tubing.

• Seam welding has been used to manufacture steel beverage cans

Butt Welding

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Butt welding is a welding technique used to connect parts which are nearly parallel
and don't overlap.

• Butt-welding is made by gradually heating up the two weld ends and then joining
them under a specific pressure.

Thermit Welding

• Heat for joining the metals is obtained by the Exothermic chemical reaction of
thermite mixture.

• Thermit material is a mechanical mixture of metallic aluminum and processed iron

oxide.

• It occurs without or with the application of pressure.

Gas Welding

• Heat Created from burning a mixture of fuel and oxygen is used to create weld.

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• Oxy Acetylene Welding

• Air Acetylene Welding

Oxy Acetylene Welding

• Oxy-acetylene welding and oxy-fuel cutting are processes that uses heat produced by
burning a mixture of Acetylene and oxygen to weld metals. The oxy-acetylene flame
reaches a temperature of about 3300°C and thus can melt most of the ferrous and non-
ferrous metals in common use. A filler metal rod or welding rod is generally added to
the molten metal pool to build up the seam slightly for greater strength.

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Types of Welding Flames

In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the welding joint and
the welding process. The correct type of flame is essential for the production of satisfactory
welds. The flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order to operate with
maximum efficiency. There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene flames.

1. Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions).

2. Carburizing welding flame or reducing (excess of acetylene).
3. Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen).

The gas welding flames are shown in Figure

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Neutral Welding Flame

A neutral flame results when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are
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mixed in..............................................
the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. The temperature of the neutral flame
is of the order
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of about 5900°F (3260°C). It has a clear, well defined inner cone, indicating
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an outer flame envelope, produced by the combination of oxygen in the air and superheated
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carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner cone. This envelope is Usually a much
darker blue than the inner cone. A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical
change on the molten metal and, therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal. The
neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, cast Iron,
copper, and aluminium.

Carburising or Reducing Welding Flame

The carburizing or reducing flame has excess of acetylene and can be recognized by
acetylene feather, which exists between the inner cone and the outer envelope. The outer
flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually much brighter in color.
With iron and steel, carburizing flame produces very hard, brittle substance known as iron
carbide. A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the fact that a
carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a reducing flame. A reducing flame has an

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approximate temperature of 3038°C. A carburizing-flame is used in the welding of lead

and for carburizing (surface hardening) purpose. A reducing flame, on the other hand, does
not carburize the metal; rather it ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used
for welding with low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g., non-ferrous) that
do not tend to absorb carbon. This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.

Oxidising Welding flame

The oxidizing flame has an excess of oxygen over the acetylene. An oxidizing flame can
be recognized by the small cone, which is shorter, much bluer in color and more pointed
than that of the neutral flame. The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan
out at 314 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology the
end. Such a flame makes a loud roaring sound. It is the hottest flame (temperature as high
as 6300°F) produced by any oxy-fuel gas source. But the excess oxygen especially at high
temperatures tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength oxides.
Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to have a
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or dirty appearance. For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in
welding. It
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such as manganese steel and cast iron. The oxidizing atmosphere in these cases, create a
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basemetal oxide that protects the base metal.
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Arc Welding

The high heat from an electric arc struck between an electrode and a workpiece or between
two electrode is used to create the weld. Different types of metal arc welding are

• Metal Arc Welding

• It is an arc welding process in which heat for welding is produced through an electric
arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the workpiece. The flux coating of
electrode decomposes due to arc heat and serves many functions, like weld metal
protection, arc stability etc. Inner core of the electrode supply the filler material for
making a weld

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• Carbon Arc Welding

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• In this.............................................
process, a pure graphite or baked carbon rod is used as a non-consumable
electrode
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produces heat and weld can be made with or without the addition of fille material.
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• Tungsten Arc Welding

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• In this process a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used with an envelope of inert

shielding gas around it. The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode and the molten
metal weld pool from the atmospheric contamination. The shielding gases generally
used are argon, helium or their mixtures.

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• Submerged Arc Welding

• In this welding process, a consumable bare electrode is used in combination with a flux
feeder tube. The arc, end of the bare electrode and molten pool remain completely
submerged under blanket of granular flux. The feed of electrode and tube is automatic
and the welding is homogenous in structure. No pressure is applied for welding
purposes. This process is used for welding low carbon steel, bronze, nickel and other
non-ferrous materials.

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6.2 NUMERICAL CONTROLLED (NC) MACHINE TOOLS
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If various functions of machine tools are controlled by means of prepared program, which
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consist of letters, numbers and symbols, then the machine tools are called Numerical controlled
machine tools.

In the conventional machines, the skilled operator is responsible for many inputs to the
machine. Here the component is machined by a highly skilled operator referring to a drawing
(Part drawing). The operator, in addition to physical work of handling the machine, has to do
lot of information processing like reading the drawing and checking dimensions at the cost of
time and productivity. As the degree of complexity of the component increases and the
tolerances become closer, the time to produce the component also increases. Since the process
is operator dependent, the mistakes on the part of operator due to inattention and tiredness,
result in production of defective components.

In order to machine a particular component by an NC Machine, the part drawing is converted

in to letters, Numbers and symbols which is called part programs. These part programs are
entered in to a program tape (A tape with holes punched in it according to the part program,

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