Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Module 5

12. Creep

When a metal part when is subjected to a high constant stress at high temperature for a longer
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.

13. Formability

It is the property of metals which denotes the ease in its forming in to various shapes and sizes.
Low carbon steel possesses good formability.

14. Castability

Castability is defined as the property of metal, which indicates the ease with it can be casted
into different shapes and sizes. Cast iron, aluminium and brass are possessing good castability.

15. Weldability

Weldability is the ease with which metals can be welded. Weldability is defined as the property
of a metal which indicates the two similar or dissimilar metals are joined by fusion with or
...............................................
without the ..............................................
application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal (welding)
efficiently. Metals
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having weldability in the decreasing order are iron, steel, cast steels and

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stainless steels.
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5.2 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
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A large numbers of engineering materials exists in the universe such as metals and non metals
(leather, rubber, asbestos, plastic, ceramics, organic polymers, composites and semi
conductor). Some commonly used engineering materials are broadly classified as shown in
Figure.

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Metalic materials consist of both pure metal and alloys. Pure metals possess low strength and
do not have...............................................
the required properties. Alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of metal and
..............................................
another element. Metals and alloys are further classified into two major kind namely ferrous
metals and non-ferrous metals.
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5.3 FERROUS METALS
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The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituents. On the basis of
percentage of carbon and other elements present along with iron, ferrous metals can be
classified in to steel and cast iron.

 Steel
 Cast iron

STEELS

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content maximum up to 2.14%. Other elements
e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are also present to greater or lesser amount to
impart certain desired properties to it.

The steel may be of various kinds and few important types are explained as under.

LOW CARBON OR MILD STEEL - 0.15% TO 0.45% CARBON

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Properties of low carbon steel: Tough, malleable, ductile and more elastic than wrought iron.
It can be easily forged and welded. It can absorb shocks. It rusts easily. Its melting point is
about 1410° C.

Applications of low carbon steel: It is used for making angle, channels, case hardening steel,
rods, tubes, valves, gears, crankshafts, connecting rods, railway axles, fish plates, small
forgings, free cutting steel shaft and forged components etc.

MEDIUM CARBON STEEL - 0.45% TO 0.8% CARBON

Properties of Medium Carbon Steel: It can be easily forged, welded, elongated due to ductility
and beaten into sheets due to its good malleability. It can easily absorb sudden shocks. Its
melting point is 1400° C.

Applications of Medium carbon steels: It is generally used for making railway coach axles,
bolts, connecting rods, key stock, wires and rods, shift and break levers, spring clips, gear
shafts, small and medium forgings, railway coach axles, crank pins on heavy machines, spline
...............................................
shafts, crankshafts, forging dies, set screws, die blocks, self tapping screws, clutch discs, valve
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springs, plate.............................................
punches, thrust washers etc.
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HIGH CARBON
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STEEL - 0.8% TO 1.5% CARBON
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Properties .................................................
of High Carbon steel: High carbon steel loses their hardness at temperature from
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200° C to 250° C. They may only be used in the manufacture of cutting tools operating at low
cutting speeds. These steels are easy to forge and simple to harden.

It has application for making cold chisels, drill bits, wrenches, wheels for railway service, jaws
for vises, structural wires, shear blades, automatic clutch discs, hacksaws etc.

Property Low Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steel High Carbon Steel

Strength Low Medium High

Hardness Low Medium High
Brittleness Low Medium High
Cost Low Medium High
Ductility High Medium Low

Compared to other engineering materials these have high strength, reasonable toughness,
easy to recycle and low cost. Also they rust easily hence require surface protection

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ALLOY STEEL

For improving the properties of ordinary steel, certain alloying elements are added in it in
sufficient amounts. The most common alloying elements added to steel are chromium, nickel,
manganese, silicon, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphorus, copper, that the titanium,
zirconium, cobalt, columbium, and aluminium. Each of these elements induces certain qualities
in steels to which it is added. They may be used separately or in combination to produce desired
characteristics in the steel. The main purpose of alloying element in steel is to improve
machinability, elasticity, hardness, case hardening, cutting ability, toughness, wear resistance,
tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and ability to retain shape at high temperature, ability to
resist distortion at elevated temperature and to impart a fine grain size to steel.

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STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium and other elements. Its principal alloying element
is chromium while some other elements like nickel, manganese etc… can also be present in
small amounts.. It has a chromium content of about 12%. It is highly resistant to
corrosion/oxidation. It has high ductility, thermal conductivity, good weldability,
machinability. It also excellent surface appearance and finish.

Stainless steels are extensively used for table cutlery, tools and equipments, ball bearing,
valves, knife blades and instruments under high temperature and corrosive conditions. surgical
and dental instruments, springs of high temperature operations, ball valves and toilet seats.

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CAST IRON

Cast iron is basically an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon content in cast iron is above
2.14%. They are called so because they are usually manufactured through casting.

PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON

1. Cast iron is a brittle material

2. It has low cost.
3. Low shrinkage and good fluidity hence Good casting characteristics.
4. High compressive strength.
5. High wear resistance
6. Excellent machinability.

ADVANTAGES OF CAST IRON

1. Low tooling and production cost

2. Good machinability
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3. Can be cast in to complex shapes.
4. Excellent wear resistance

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5. High...............................................
hardness
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6. High damping capabilities
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TYPES OF CAST IRON

Grey cast iron, White cast iron, Malleable cast iron, Ductile cast iron, Nodular cast iron.

APPLICATIONS OF CAST IRON

1. Automobile Industry: Locomotive and internal combustion engine cylinder blocks., Car
wheel drums, Crankshafts, Engine connecting rods, Truck axles, Suspension system
parts, crank, crank cases, piston, piston rings etc…
2. Heavy Machinery: Machine tool structures such as bed, frame, column etc…
3. Cast iron pipes
4. It has application in the form of plates, sheets, bars, structural works and billets, rivets,
and a wide range of tubular products including pipe, tubing and casing,
5. Railway brake blocks. Railway couplings, and water and steam pipes
6. Hinges and door keys
7. Spanners

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8. Components of sewing machines and textiles machine parts.

5.4 NON FERROUS METALIC MATERIALS

Non-ferrous metals contain metals other than iron as their main constituents such as aluminium,
copper, zinc, magnesium, lead, tin, nickel and their alloys and non-metallic materials. Various
non-ferrous alloys are copper base (brass, bronze), aluminium base alloys (duralumin, Y-alloy,
hindalium, magnalium), nickel alloys (inconel, monel and ni-chrome), tin base alloys (bearing
or antifriction alloys). The non-ferrous metals are used for the following purposes namely
resistance to corrosion, special electrical and magnetic properties, softness, facility of cold
working, fusibility, ease of casting, good formability, low density and attractive color.

ALUMINIUM

Aluminium is a silvery white metal and it pocess following properties.

 It is a low density metal.(1/3 rd that of steel)

 Very...............................................
good conductor of electricity.
 Soft and
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ductile
 Good corrosion resistance.

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APPLICATIONS.............................................
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 .....................................................
It is mainly used in aircraft and automobile parts where saving of weight is an
advantage.
 The high resistance to corrosion and its non-toxicity make it a useful metal for cooking
utensils under ordinary conditions.
 Aluminium metal of high purity has got high reflecting power in the form of sheets and
is, therefore,, widely used for reflectors, mirrors and telescopes.
 It is used in making furniture, doors and window components, rail road, trolley cars,
automobile bodies and pistons, electrical cables, rivets, kitchen utensils and collapsible
tubes for pastes.
 Aluminium foil is used as silver paper for food packing etc.
 In a finely divided form, aluminium is employed as a pigment in paint.
 Aluminium alloys
 The aluminium may be easily alloyed with other elements like copper, magnesium,
zinc, manganese, silicon and nickel to improve various properties.

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Various aluminium alloys are Duralumin, Y-alloy, Magnalium and Hindalium

COPPER

Copper is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry.

PROPERTIES

 Pure copper is soft, malleable and ductile metal with a reddish-brown appearance. It is
a good conductor of electricity.
 Excellent resistance to corrosion
 High thermal conductivity
 High electrical conductivity
 Very good machinability
 It can be soldered, welded or braed.

APPLICATION

 Copper...............................................
is mainly used in making electric cables and wires for electric machinery, motor
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winding, electric conducting appliances, and electroplating etc.
 Copper
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in the form of tubes is used widely in heat transfer in heat exchangers

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 It is used for household utensils.
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 It is.................................................
also used in production of boilers, condensers, roofing etc.
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 The alloys of copper are Copper-zinc alloys (Brasses), Copper-tin alloys (Bronzes)

5.5 CERAMIC MATERIALS

Ceramic includes all products made from fired clay. Theses materials are fabricated by first
shaping the powder with or without the application of pressure into a compact form and after
that it is subjected to high temperature.

Examples: Glass, cement, Concrete etc…

PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

 They are hard, brittle with low toughness and ductility.

 Wear resistant
 Good thermal and electrical insulators.
 High melting temperature.
 Chemically stable.

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 They are susceptible to thermal shocks

 Resistant to oxidation and corrosion
 High compressive strength.
 Low tensile strength.
 Retain strength at high temperature.

APPLICATION

 Tiles
 Wash basins and other sanitary wares.
 Insulators in circuits
 Ornaments
 Pottery table wares.

Example: Cements

The characteristic feature of cement material is that when mixed with water, they form a paste
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that subsequently set sets and hardens.
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5.6 COMPOSITES
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Sometimes two or materials are combined together to produce a new material, which pocess
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much superior properties than the constituent materials. Such materials are called composites.
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In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical, physical, and
mechanical properties.

Wood is a natural composite material.

Cement concrete is an artificial composite material

Other examples are steel reinforced concrete, , fiber reinforced plastics such as fibre glass,
carbon reinforced rubber etc…

APPLICATION

 Commercial aircraft
 Missiles
 Space hardwares
 Automobiles and trucks
 Electrical and electronic devices

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 Semiconductors
 Marine applications

5.7 POLYMERS

Plastics are commonly known as synthetic resins or polymers. In Greek terminology, the term
polymer comprises 'poly' means 'many' and 'mers' means 'parts'. Thus, the term, polymer
represents a substance built up of several repeating units, each unit being known as a monomer.
Thousands of such units or monomers join together in a polymerization reaction to form a
'polymer'.The process forming polymers by linking together monomers is called
polymerization.

Proteins, Enzymes, starches and cellulose found in plants and other living beings are examples
of Naturally occurring polymers.

Polyethylene, Polystyrene, Nylon, Teflon, PVC etc… are examples of synthetic polymers.
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Synthetic polymers are also called as plastics.

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The following are the properties of polymers/plastics

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 Plastics.............................................
are light in weight and at the same time they possess good toughness strength
.................................................
and rigidity.
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 They are less brittle than glass, yet they can be made equally transparent and smooth.
 They are suitable to be used as electric insulation.
 They resist corrosion and the action of chemicals.
 The ease with which they can be mass-produced contributes greatly to their popularity
as wrappers and bags.
 They possess the property of low moisture absorption.
 They can be easily molded to desired shapes.
 They can easily be made colored.
 They are bad conductors of heat.
 They are hard and rigid..
 They possesses good deformability, good resiatance against weather conditions, good
colorability, good damping characteristics and good resistance to peeling.

APPLICATION OF POLYMERS

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 Medical Field: For drug delivery systems, For Biomaterials, such as heart valve
replacements, blood vessels etc…
 Automobile Industry: Body parts, Interior Parts, Acessories etc..
 Military Applications: Windshields for fighter planes, Light weight weapons.
 Consumer Products: Packing Materials, Insulation, Wood Substitutes, Adhesives,
Plastic Containers, Clothing, Packaging, Bottles, Plastic bags, Pipes, Sports
equipments,

Plastics are broadly classified into thermo plastics and thermo-setting plastics.

Thermoplastics Thermosetting Pastics

They can be repeatedly softened by Once hardened and set, they do not soften
1.
heat and hardened by cooling. with the application of heat.
They are comparatively softer and less They are more stronger and harder than
2.
strong. thermoplastic resins
...............................................
Objects made by thermoplastic resins
Objects made by thermosetting resins can
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can.............................................
not be used at comparatively
3.

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higher..............................................
temperature as they will tend to

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soften under heat.
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.................................................
They are usually supplied in monomeric or
.....................................................
They are usually supplied as granular partially polymerized material form in
4.
material which they are either liquids or partially
thermoplastic solids.
Applications. Telephone receivers, electric
Applications. Toys, combs, toilet
plugs, radio and T.V. cabinets, camera
5. goods, photographic films, insulating
bodies, automobile parts, tapes, hoses,
tapes, hoses, electric insulation, etc.
circuit breaker switch panels, etc.

5.8 TESTING OF METALS

Metal testing is accomplished for the purpose of for estimating the behaviour of metal under
loading (tensile, compressive, shear, torsion and impact, cyclic loading etc.) of metal and for
providing necessary data for the product designers, equipment designers, tool and die designers
and system designers. The material behaviour data under loading is used by designers for

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