Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12

Review

Soft magnetic composite materials (SMCs)

H. Shokrollahi ∗ , K. Janghorban
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
Received 4 July 2006; received in revised form 1 January 2007; accepted 20 February 2007

Abstract
Soft magnetic composites (SMCs), which are used in electromagnetic applications, can be described as ferromagnetic powder particles surrounded
by an electrical insulating film. SMC components are normally manufactured by conventional PM compaction combined with new techniques,
such as two step compaction, warm compaction, multi-step and magnetic annealing followed by a heat treatment at relatively low temperature.
These composite materials offer several advantages over traditional laminated steel cores in most applications. The unique properties include
three-dimensional (3D) isotropic ferromagnetic behavior, very low eddy current loss, relatively low total core loss at medium and high frequencies,
possibilities for improved thermal characteristics, flexible machine design and assembly and a prospect for greatly reduced weight and production
costs. With expanded applications of soft magnetic composite materials expected in the future, a review of the magnetic properties, characteristics,
processing and applications of SMCs is presented in this article.
© 2007 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Soft magnetic composites; Core loss; Magnetic properties; Organic coating; Inorganic coating

Contents
1. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Magnetic characteristics and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4. Core loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1. Hysteresis loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.2. Eddy current loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
6. Classification of soft magnetic composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.1. Sintered soft magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.2. Powder cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7. Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7.1. Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7.2. Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
8. Materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8.1. Pure iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8.2. Fe–Ni alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8.3. Fe–Si alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.4. Fe–Co alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9. Particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
10. Coated iron-based powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10.1. Organic coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10.2. Inorganic coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: shokrola@shirazu.ac.ir (H. Shokrollahi).

0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2007 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.02.034
2 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12
1. Literature review
Magnetic materials have revolutionized our lives. These
materials are used in electronic, computer and telecommu-
nication industries. During the last decades different types
of magnetic materials have been used including pure iron
and its alloys, such as Fe–Ni, Fe–Ni–P, Fe–Nd–B and Fe–Si
and soft and hard ferrites, such as Ni–Zn, Mn–Zn and Ba
ferrites. Different aspects of processing, properties, effect of
additives on magnetic properties and applications of these
ferrites were discussed by many researchers [1–50] includ-
ing these authors who studied the effects of additives, such
as V2 O5 and MoO3 in Mn–Zn–ferrites for low consumption
lamps and high frequency applications [39,40]. New materials
including amorphous materials, amorphous wires, nanocrys-
talline materials and today’s soft magnetic composite materials
are the latest development in magnetic history [46–83]. It
is worth reviewing the highlight of the magnetic materials
development very briefly, before going to more details about
SMCs.
The idea of using iron–resin composites for soft magnetic
applications is not new. It appeared more than 100 years ago but
iron–resin composites have been rarely used because their prop-
erties, the processing technology for making parts and real needs
for these materials were not sufficiently developed. However,
these limitations were being overcome with the development of
improved raw materials and new shaping technologies. These
composites find increasing use in electrical motors, replacing
existing laminate materials [53,56,59,65,68–73]. These materi-
als are being developed to provide materials with competitive
magnetic properties (good relative permeability and magnetic
saturation), but with high electrical resistivity [49]. Insulated
iron powder (Fig. 1) offers several advantages over traditional
steel in some applications, for example, the isotropic nature of
the SMC combined with the unique shaping possibilities opens
up for 3D-design solutions [55,56]. In recent years, effects of
particle size, particle composition (Fe–Ni, Fe–Ni–Co, Fe–Si)
[1–8], compaction parameters (warm compaction, pressure,
lubricant), resin and wet chemical methods for creation of insu-
lation layer around particles have been verified [2,6,7,53,60]. A
literature survey in the field of soft magnetic composite materials
is given in Table 1, where a summary of some recent develop-
ments is presented.
Fig. 1. A schematic diagram of the component elements of a powder core [65].
2. Introduction
During the last several years, interest in the study of soft mag-
netic composites (SMCs) has been increasing at an accelerating
rate, stimulated by recent advances in materials synthesis and
characterization techniques and the realization that these mate-
rials exhibit many unique and interesting physical and chemical
properties with a number of potential technological applications.
They play a key role in power distribution, make possible the
conversion between electrical and mechanical energy, underlie
microwave communication, and provide both the transducers
and the active storage material for data storage in information
systems.
New developments in powder composites make SMC mate-
rials interesting for applications in electrical machines, when
combined with new machine design rules and new produc-
tion techniques. These composites have several advantages,
such as reduction in weight and size. Weight can be reduced
through several types of technology improvements; in materi-
als, design techniques and fabrication processes. To establish
the design rules, one must pay attention to electromagnetic loss
characteristics of SMC materials. Several different series of iron-
based SMCs are: (1) pure iron powder with resin, (2) sintered
iron-based powders, (3) pure iron powder with additions of Zn-
stearate and carbon, (4) iron-based powder alloys (Fe, Ni, Co,
Si), (5) commercially available iron powder “Somaloy” [70–75].
Among these, the composite materials minimize fringing flux
due to their distributed air gap.
An interesting example of recent commercial progress for
SMC applications is the BDC-motor, shown in Fig. 2 for ABS
type brake systems produced by Asian Seiki Co. Ltd., Japan
[65]. The SMC machine must be designed using short magnetic
path length and minimum weight. In some applications, such
as magnetic cores and magnetic machines, these composites are
able to replace electrical steel sheets or ferrites [63].
3. Magnetic characteristics and properties
Two key characteristics of an iron core component are its
magnetic permeability and core loss characteristics. The mag-
netical, electrical and mechanical characteristics depend on the
preparation and processing of the components. In addition the
materials purity, shape and size of particles influence the overall
magnetic response.
Two basic types of soft magnetic materials are extensively
used, depending on the application and its requirements. These
materials are:
(a) Ferrimagnetic materials, which are based on ceramic oxides
of some metals, such as ferrites and are applicable to fre-
quencies from a few kilohertzs to well over 80 MHz.
(b) Ferromagnetic materials based on iron and nickel, which
are for lower frequency applications, <2 kHz, consist of
iron-based alloys which have low to medium frequency
applications in electric machines. SMCs are ferromagnetic
materials with significantly improved medium to high fre-
quency properties which made them a viable alternative to
 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12 3

Table 1
Literature survey in the field of soft magnetic composite materials
Researchers Subject Year Reference

Lefebvre, L. Philippe Sylvain Soft magnetic composites (complex shape production and isotropic magnetic behavior, high resistivity) 1993 [49]
P. Laurent, G. Viau Effect of the magnetic fraction on the complex susceptibility of soft magnetic composite materials 1996 [50]
M.E. McHenry, M.A. Willard Amorphous and nanocrystalline materials (review paper) 1999 [42]
P. Gilbert, H.G. Phan Development of soft magnetic composites (low-loss applications) 2002 [5]
L. Pennander, A. Jack Soft magnetic iron powder material AC properties and their application in electrical machines 2003 [65]
I. Chicinas, O. Geoffroy Soft magnetic composite based on mechanically alloyed nanocrystalline Ni3 Fe 2005 [8]
E. Bayramli, O. Golgelio Powder metal development (electrical motors) 2005 [56]
Y.G. Guo, J.G. Zhu 3D and 2D vector magnetic properties of soft magnetic composite materials 2005 [55,57,58]
A. Hamler, V. Gorican The use of SMCs in synchronous electric motor 2006 [59]
K. Janghorban, H. Shokrollahi Effect of different compaction methods on the magnetic properties of SMCs 2006 [61,62]

Fig. 2. Commercial ABS motor: (a) original laminated motor and (b) improved new SMC design [65].

steel laminations in a range of new applications, such as 1. Hysteresis loss (Ph );

rotating machinery, sensors and fast switching solenoids. 2. Eddy current loss (Pe );
3. Residual loss (Pr ).
The unique properties of the soft magnetic composite mate-
rials include magnetic and thermal isotropy, very low eddy The residual losses are not too well understood and perhaps
current loss and relatively low total core loss at low to high represent an expression of our ignorance of the system. Residual
frequencies, high magnetic permeability, high remanent mag- losses are a combination of relaxation and resonant losses. These
netization, high resistivity, reduction in size and weigh, large losses are only important at very low induction levels and very
anisotropy constant, low coercivity and high Curie temperature high frequencies and can be ignored in power applications. The
[77]. Soft magnetic composites are isotropic, have improved total core loss of a magnetic device is the sum of the eddy current
high frequency performance and can be compacted to 3D-shapes losses and hysteresis losses [13].
using the established PM compaction route. The soft magnetic
4.1. Hysteresis loss
composites have also certain limitations: on a part they have
maximum permeability and magnetic induction than laminates, At low frequencies the hysteresis loss is the main core loss
on the other part the powder metallurgical procedures used in part and can be reduced by large particle size, higher purity
principal for the obtaining of soft powdered cores are not suitable
for all sizes and shapes of the core components.
Fig. 3 shows the applicable regions for soft magnetic mate-
rials used in AC magnetic fields. Soft ferrite has low core loss
in the high frequency region, but due to its low magnetic flux
density, it has the drawback of requiring a large core. Elec-
trical steel sheets have high flux density, but electrical sheets
cannot be used in the high frequency region due to excessive
core loss. Powder cores are magnetic materials which cover the
region where the former two magnetic materials cannot be used
[69].

4. Core loss

Traditionally, the contributions to the dissipation in magnetic Fig. 3. The applicable regions for soft magnetic materials used in AC magnetic
materials are classified into three categories: fields [69].
4 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12
of the iron in the particles and stress relieving heat treatment.
Hysteresis loss can be expressed by [13]:

Ph = f H dB
where Ph is the hysteresis loss, f the frequency, H the magnetic
field strength and B is the magnetic induction. In an iron powder
material, impurities in the iron particles and stressed regions give
rise to pinning sites that hinder domain wall motion. The coer-
cive force raised by these causes can be reduced by using a high
purity iron for the particles and provide a heat treatment proce-
dure following the compaction to improve the stressed regions.
Another source of hindering the domain wall motion is possible
grain boundaries inside the particles. The heat treatment proce-
dure following the compaction is the main step to be taken to
reduce hysteresis loss.
4.2. Eddy current loss
Eddy current loss is due to electrical resistance losses within
the core caused by the alternating electric field. When eddy cur-
rents are induced in materials, two main effects are observed:
incomplete magnetization of the material (skin effects) and
increase in core losses. Eddy current loss can be expressed as
[13]:
CB2 f 2 d 2
Pe =
ρ as either DC or AC applications [53–75]. DC or direct cur-
where Pe is the eddy current loss, C the proportionality constant,
B the flux density, f the frequency, ρ the resistivity and d is the
thickness of the material.
Eddy current loss can be minimized in a number of ways.
First, resistivity is increased by addition of Si to the iron pow-
ders. Another common technique to reduce the eddy current loss
is to use thinner laminates. The latest technique is the insulated
iron powder (Fig. 1) with smallest eddy current loss. The insu-
lating coating of every particle gives very small eddy current
paths inside a particle and a relatively high resistivity of the
bulk material. The small non-magnetic distances between every
particle act as air gaps and decrease the permeability of the bulk
material.
Fig. 4 shows the total losses for ring shaped components with
un-coated and coated iron powder particles [65]. The effect of
Fig. 4. The total losses for ring shaped components with un-coated and coated
iron powder particles [65].
Fig. 5. Concept for iron loss reduction [63].
coating in reducing the normalized total loss is significant at
higher temperatures. Fig. 5 lists concept for iron loss reduction
[63].
5. Applications
The uses for soft magnetic materials are typically classified
rent applications are characterized by a constant applied field
(from a battery type device). The most common DC applica-
tions are found in automobiles. Key magnetic characteristics
for DC applications are permeability, coercive force, and satu-
ration induction. For AC or alternating current applications, a
variable field is applied. The materials for AC electromagnetic
circuits require high induction and low dynamic (eddy current)
losses. These are strongly influenced by the work frequency and
induction, and also by the magnitude of density and electrical
resistivity of materials. Key magnetic parameters in AC applica-
tions are permeability, saturation, and total core losses resulting
from the alternating magnetic field. However, the recent intro-
duction of polymer coated iron powers has opened the door for
P/M to be utilized in AC applications. These polymer coated
powders are usually used in the as pressed condition; i.e. no sin-
tering is required. In applications where saturation induction is
the key magnetic parameter, these applications are ideal for the
unalloyed iron materials.
Soft magnetic composites containing iron powder find use
in a variety of applications including; design of the com-
posite core with three dimensional isotropic ferromagnetic
behavior, powder cores for switch reluctance power supplies,
DC out put chokes, resonant inductors, sintered materials for
antilock braking sensors, electromagnetic actuation devices,
substitute for laminate steels in brushless DC motors, rotating
machineries, low frequency filters, induction field coils, mag-
netic seal systems, transformers coil, magnetic field shielding,
high temperature applications, such as in aircraft engine electric
components.
 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12
These materials can be used in alternators, generators and
electric motors, which are used in a wide variety of applications
involving power tools, such as drills, saws, sanding and grinding
devices and yard tools, such as edgers and trimmers, just to name
a few such tools.
6. Classification of soft magnetic composites
Soft magnetic parts produced by PM processes can be broadly
divided into sintered magnetic cores, which are manufactured by
the conventional PM process and powder compressed magnetic
cores which are manufactured without sintering.
6.1. Sintered soft magnetic materials
The DC magnetic properties of sintered compacts are deter-
mined by the chemical composition of the material and the
density and crystal grain size of the sintered part. Pure iron
sintered compacts display comparatively high magnetic flux
density. In general, the flux density of iron-based materials
shows a strong relationship with the purity of the material and
density of the sintered part.
Accordingly, high flux density can be obtained by using high
purity iron powders and manufacturing a high density sintered
compact by applying warm compaction, die wall lubricant and
high compaction techniques.
In sintered parts, addition of a small amount of phosphor (P)
to pure Fe powder encourages grain growth, making it possible
to produce sintered compacts with a coarser grain size [77].
In addition to the material composition and density of the
sintered compact, the AC magnetic properties of sintered com-
ponents are also strongly related to the shape of the part.
Examples are electromagnetic actuators, used in various kinds
of motors in AC magnetic fields. Core loss occurs when soft
magnetic materials are used in an AC magnetic field.
6.2. Powder cores
Powder cores are made from magnetic powder particles
approximately 100 ␮m in size, which are insulated individually.
In manufacturing these types of cores, the iron-based powders
with a size of around 100 ␮m are insulated with an inorganic
insulating layer, and the powder is mixed with a small amount of
an organic resin as a binder. The mixture is then compacted and
heat treated. In this case, the heat treatment must be performed
at a temperature which will not destroy the inorganic insulating
layer or the organic resin binder. This means that densification as
a result of the sintering process, as in sintered magnetic materi-
als, cannot be expected with powder cores [77]. Therefore, high
density must be realized in the compaction process.
7. Processing
Soft magnetic powders are the main component of SMCs that
are covered by an insulation layer, Fig. 1. Depending on how the
combination of materials and processing parameters are chosen,
a wide range of properties can be obtained.
5
Soft magnetic composites are produced by traditional powder
compaction techniques followed by a heat treatment at low tem-
peratures which does not destroy the insulating layer between
the iron particles. Different magnetic and mechanical proper-
ties are obtained depending on binder, lubricant additives and
organic coatings on the iron particles as well as warm or cold
compaction.
Preparation of SMCs consists of the following steps: (a) pro-
viding a low carbon powder of a soft magnetic material selected
from the group consisting of an atomized or sponge powder of
essentially pure iron or an iron-based prealloyed powder con-
taining Si, Ni, Al or Co, (b) providing the particles of the powder
with an electrically insulating layer, (c) mixing the powder of the
electrically insulated particles with a lubricant, (d) compacting
the powder to a composite body and (e) heating the composite
body at a temperature between 400 and 700 ◦ C. Fig. 6 shows
the sample preparation flow chart [77]. The key to lowering the
coercive force is either by developing a coating that can with-
stand annealing temperatures or applying a compaction method
that does not introduce the deleterious cold work. One tech-
nique to eliminate the deleterious effects of cold working the
iron powder was pioneered by Dr. Kugimiya [49]. In this tech-
nique, the surface of the powder was first oxidized; the powder
was then hot pressed to full density (this material is referred
to as “NANOCON” material). This processing produced high
bulk resistivity with excellent permeability and low total core
losses.
Table 2 shows the typical changes of some material proper-
ties due to variations in composition and the fabrication process
[85]. For a given application a compromise between the parame-
ters in the table defines the composition and fabrication process
that gives the optimum behavior. In a material with a binder
the strength increases with increasing compaction while the
opposite behavior occurs in a material without binder.
7.1. Compaction
At present, hot pressing is not an economical process for
the mass production of commercial components. Ideally, the
most cost effective production method is to die compact the
insulated iron powder and follow the compaction step with a
Table 2
Parameter dependence on composition and the fabrication process [85]
I II III IV V
Permeability ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑
Maximum flux density ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑
Coercivity ↑ – – ↑ ↓
Resistivity ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓
Thermal conductivity ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑
Strength ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑↓a ↑
(I) Increasing particle size; (II) addition of lubricant; (III) addition of binder;
(IV) increasing compaction pressure; (V) heat treatment.
a In a material including a binder the strength increases up to typically 200 ◦ C
(Gelinas et al., 1998) and (Jansson, 2000), due to an improved distribution of
the binder, further increase deteriorates the binder and the strength decreases. A
material without a binder (including a lubricant) shows a monotonously increase
in strength with increasing temperature (Jansson, 1998).
6 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12

Fig. 6. Sample preparation flow chart [77].

low temperature anneal to reduce the internal stress of the iron
powder.
New compaction technologies are being explored that could
eliminate the cold working of the iron powders. New tooling and
lubricant techniques are needed to significantly reduce the need
for premixed powder lubrication. Generally two types of sam-
ples are produced for magnetic measurements; these are rods
and toroids. According to the magnetic tester, size and dimen-
sions can be varied. The combination of heated powder and
high compaction pressure result in flow of the polymer forming
a continuous matrix around the iron powder particles.
Density has a significant effect on the part performance.
Higher density P/M parts exhibit increased permeability and
saturation induction without any degradation of the coercive
force. Techniques to increase the part density include double
press/double sinter, warm compaction, or restriking a fully sin-
tered part. Table 3 lists encapsulated green strength and density
data [75]. High velocity compaction (HVC) increases the com-
petitiveness of SMC as well as expands the range of applications
as high density components with enhanced electromagnetic
properties can be mass produced [54]. In the manufacture of
powder components, new compaction methods, such as warm
compaction and two step compaction are being explored that
could eliminate the cold working of the iron powder and could
increase the material density. Density and residual stresses have
a significant effect on the magnetic losses and part perfor-
mance. Warm compaction and two step compaction methods
increase magnetic induction, magnetic permeability and density
and decrease core losses [61].
7.2. Annealing
Annealing is required to minimize the deleterious effects of
cold work on the magnetic performance of the core material.
Results of an annealing process can greatly vary by the process
history of the material, the underlying material composition and
other factors.
The hysteresis loss is partly due to stresses introduced in the
material at compaction. In order to reduce hysteresis, a stress
relieving heat treatment most often follows the compaction, but
the heat also degrades the insulation between powder particles
and thus increases the presence of eddy currents in the material.
Fig. 7 shows effect of annealing on the magnetic prop-
erties. Annealing is effective for controlled development of
induced anisotropy, adjustment of a well defined domain struc-
ture, controlled microstructural changes and nanocrystallization.
Generally, annealing can be classified into three categories:
multi-step thermal annealing, magnetic field annealing and
thermal–magnetic field annealing. Recently, the effect of differ-
ent annealing conditions on the magnetic properties of SMCs
was investigated [86]. It was found that magnetic loss of
annealed powder was smaller than that of unannealed powder

Table 3
Encapsulated green strength and density data [75]
Process parameters
Powder temperature RT 75 ◦ F 125 ◦ F 175 ◦ F 225 ◦ F 225 ◦ F
Die temperature RT 150 ◦ F 250 ◦ F 350 ◦ F 450 ◦ F 550 ◦ F
Standard P/M: Admixed lube
Density (g/cm3 )
Compacted at 50 (psi) 6.92 6.94 6.97 6.97 7.1 7.05
TRS (psi) 2250 2310 2750 3100 3,250 4,150
Microencapsulated powder
Density (g/cm3 )
Compacted at 50 (psi) 7.04 7.08 7.07 7.15 7.18 7.25
TRS (psi) 3448 3224 4343 4732 10,670 16,660
 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12
Fig. 7. Effect of annealing on the magnetic properties [84].
after 100 h ball-milling process. Annealing treatments can elim-
inate residual stresses and some internal defects and help to
domain growth and domain wall movement. Also, the magnetic
loss of samples which had two steps milling and annealing pro-
cess was smaller than the samples with one-step process. It was
found that at low frequencies (<10 kHz) the magnetic loss in the
high-temperature magnetic annealed state is smaller than that in
the low-temperature magnetic, magnetic annealed and without
annealing states. On the contrary, the magnetic loss in the high
temperature-magnetic annealed state is larger at high frequen-
cies (>10 kHz) than the others. Fig. 8 shows the magnetic loss
as a function of frequency (at low frequencies) [86].
8. Materials selection
The proper choice of metallic powder is different for AC and
DC magnets and must be dealt with separately. It is a common
knowledge that the magnetic properties of powders are a func-
tion of their chemical composition, melting practice, hardening
process and heat treatment. The magnetically soft alloys must
combine as many as possible of the following characteristics at
moderate cost:
Fig. 8. Magnetic loss as a function of frequency (logarithmic level) at low
frequencies (<10 kHz).
7
(1) low hysteresis losses;
(2) low eddy current losses;
(3) high permeability at low field strength;
(4) high saturation value;
(5) no aging effects;
(6) uniform magnetic characteristics.
Soft magnetic powders or iron-based alloys are one of the com-
ponents of the SMCs that are currently replacing electrical steel
sheets or ferrites in some applications. The most common func-
tion of magnetic iron-based alloys is as cores in power and
distribution transformers.
Pure iron is the most prototypical soft magnetic material. It
has a very high saturation flux density, Bs = 2.2 T, and its cubic
anisotropy leaves it with a relatively small magnetocrystalline
anisotropy, K1 ≈ 4.8 × 104 J/m3 , and small magnetostriction
constants, λ1 0 0 = 21 × 10−6 , λ1 1 1 = −20 × 10−6 [87]. The term
iron applies not only to substantially pure iron but to the well
known alloys used for such purposes. Fe alloys contain up to
20 wt% of one or more of the elements, such as Al, Si, Cr, Nb,
Mo, Ni and Co. Alloyed irons provide higher magnetic perme-
ability and lower total core losses and result in devices having
higher efficiencies than devices using pure iron cores [88]. Addi-
tion of elements to iron increases resistivity but eddy losses are
still too high, even at 50 Hz.
Carbon impurities and stress can be large contributors to the
hysteresis loss. Most steels used for laminations have low carbon
content, and often 1–3% silicon by weight. To provide optimal
magnetic performance, these alloys possess very low levels of
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. They rely on various additions of
phosphorus, nickel, silicon, or cobalt to optimize permeability,
coercive force, or induction. Table 4 illustrates DC magnetic
properties for PM materials [75].
8.1. Pure iron
The irons or electrical irons are low carbon alloys that offer
a little more magnetic permeability than the iron–cobalt alloys.
They have been used in relays, solenoids and magnets in vac-
uum equipments, particularly in direct current magnetic field
applications.
For applications, taking into account the purity, a powder with
lower content of C (<0.01 wt%), S (0.01 wt%) and O2 as well
as H2 content <0.06 wt% was produced with the trade name of
DP200HD by Iron Powder Plant from Buzau, and PERMITE 75
and SOMALOY by HÖganäs [89]. Fig. 9 compares the initial
flux density curves for two iron specimens with two purities.
The superior behavior of 99.99% pure Fe is evident [84].
8.2. Fe–Ni alloys
The nickel–iron alloys possess the highest permeability by far
of all the soft magnetic alloys. The nickel–iron alloys exhibit the
least amount of flux density. These alloys, therefore, are consid-
ered foremost for applications requiring high permeability and
rather low flux density. Properties vary over composition range.
Optimum composition must be selected for a particular appli-
8 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12
Table 4
DC magnetic properties for PM materials [75]
Alloy system Density (g/cm3 ) Maximum permeability
Fe 6.8–7.2 1800–3500
Fe/P 6.8–7.4 2500–6000
Fe/Si 6.8–7.3 2000–6000
50 Ni/50 Fe 7.2–7.6 5000–1500
cation. High Ni content alloys have high permeability; around
50 wt% Ni has high saturation magnetization and low Ni content
have high electrical resistivity.
Magnetic Fe–Ni alloys are generally called permalloys. Orig-
inally permalloy was the registered trademark for certain Fe–Ni
alloys, but it has now become a generic term. There are three
major Fe–Ni compositions of technical interests: (1) 78% Ni
permalloys (e.g., Supermalloy, Mumetal, Hi–mu 80) where the
highest initial permeability is required. (2) 65% Ni permalloys
(e.g., A Alloy, 1040 Alloy) which show a strong response to
field annealing while maintaining K1 ≈ 0.3) 50% Ni permalloys
(e.g. Deltamax) which have high flux density (Bs = 1.6 T) [86].
All the FCC Fe–Ni alloys with Curie temperatures in excess of
400 ◦ C respond very well to magnetic field heat treatments so
that B–H loops with a variety of shapes can be achieved.
8.3. Fe–Si alloys
These grades all have more hardness and electrical resistivity
than the irons. They have been found suitable for alternating
magnetic field applications, such as relays and solenoids. These
alloys are for applications requiring very low hysteresis loss,
high permeability, low residual magnetism, and freedom from
magnetic aging.
6.5 wt% Si–Fe alloy is a well known alloy, because of the
excellent soft magnetic properties, such as high saturation mag-
netization, near zero magnetostriction and high resistivity, which
Fig. 9. Initial flux density curves for two iron specimens: (a) 99.9% pure Fe and
(b) 99.99% pure Fe [84].
Coercive force (Oe) Maximum induction (G) Resistivity (␮ cm)
1.5–2.5 10–13 10
1.2–2.0 10–14 30
0.8–1.2 9–13 60
0.2–0.5 9–14 45
suggests that the core loss should be reduced compared to those
of comparable alloys with 3–4 wt% silicon [84].
8.4. Fe–Co alloys
Iron–cobalt alloys have the highest magnetization satura-
tion of all known magnetic alloys as shown in Fig. 10. The
iron–cobalt alloys, with slightly improved permeability, gener-
ally have been preferred for their high magnetic saturation of
flux density. This property maximizes the amount of magnetism
available for magnetic circuits. Alloys in this family have been
used most frequently for aerospace motor and generator lam-
inations, electromagnets, high performance transformers and
magnetic bearings.
Influence of ternary additions on the saturation of Fe–Co
alloys, such as Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Cu was found to be detrimental
[3], with the exception of Mn. Table 5 also shows the effect of
V and Nb addition on the saturation induction of Fe–Co-based
alloys after furnace cooling from 760 ◦ C. No gain was resulted
from these alloys.
9. Particle size
Low frequency permeabilities of small particle composites
have larger values than those of large particle ones and natural
resonance frequency of small particle composites is lower than
that of large particle ones. Magnetic nanoparticles show a vari-
ety of unusual magnetic behavior compared to bulk materials or
thin film systems [42], mostly due to surface/interface effects,
including symmetry breaking, electronic environment/charge
transfer, and magnetic interactions. When the size of the par-
ticles is reduced below the single domain limit (∼15–20 nm for
iron oxide), they exhibit superparamagnetism at room tempera-
Fig. 10. The Slater–Pauling curve showing the mean atomic moment for a
variety of binary alloys as a function of their composition [3].
 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12
Table 5
Saturation magnetization for different Fe–Co-based alloys after furnace cooling
[3]
Alloy Saturation Estimated volume fraction
induction (T) of second phase (%)
FeCo–2 V 2.32 – can be subdivided into several categories; metallic oxide coat-
FeCo–3.6 V 2.29 Not measured
FeCo–1 Nb 2.34 7 phosphate and manganese phosphate), and sulfate coatings.
FeCo–2 Nb 2.29 11
FeCo–3 Nb 2.2 14
ture followed by a spin-glass like transition at low temperature
[42]. Soft magnetic nanocrystalline alloys have high coerciv-
ity and low remanence magnetization. Two important factors
to improve the remanent magnetization are the nanocrystalline
grain size and the degree of coherence across interphase bound-
aries (it should be sufficient to enable adjacent phases to be
exchange coupled). Fig. 11 shows variation of coercivity (HC )
with particle size (D) for magnetic material [84].
Once the magnetic particle is in a nanometer size, the eddy
current produced within the particle is also negligibly small.
Therefore, conductivity of the magnetic constituent is no longer
a factor in the material selection consideration and metallic mate-
rial selection consideration and metallic materials can be used
as magnetic phase. The advantages of magnetic nanocomposite
include: (1) reduction in total core power losses, (2) the high
flux capabilities at elevated temperatures that the nanocompos-
ite cores are expected to support, thereby enabling manufacture
of smaller power devices, and (3) broadband devices.
10. Coated iron-based powders
SMCs are basically pure iron powder particles coated with
a very thin, electrically insulated layer (Fig. 1). Good insula-
tion and fine particles are generally required to minimize eddy
currents in high frequency applications. At low frequency, insu-
lation is less critical but nevertheless needed in order to minimize
the negative effect of the eddy currents on the magnetization of
the material. There are two principal technologies that are the
back bone of the coating industries [90]:
(a) liquid coating technology (wet), which has been applied for
more than two centuries;
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram showing variation of coercivity (HC ) with particle
size (D) for magnetic material [84].
9
(b) powder coating technology, which has been applied on an
industrial scale for some 30 years.
In general, insulating coatings are classified into two main
categories, Inorganic and organic coatings. Inorganic coatings
ings (such as Fe2 O3 ), phosphate coatings (zinc phosphate, iron
Organic coatings can be divided into two categories, thermo-
plastic coatings and thermosetting coatings.
10.1. Organic coatings
To provide the maximum magnetic permeability the amount
of interparticle insulation should be minimized and iron content
maximized. Effect of epoxy content on the core loss is shown
in Fig. 12. It is evident that high epoxy content >6.5 vol% is not
constructive at higher frequencies. Cores made from polymer-
bonded iron particles should have as low a polymer content as
is possible which unfortunately tends to reduce the physical
strength of the core. A summary of typical magnetic proper-
ties for a variety of isolated particle materials is given in Table 6
[78].
It has been proposed to coat magnetic core iron particles
with polymers in a number of ways including: (1) dispersing
the particles in a solution of the polymer dissolved in a solvent
and driving off the solvent, (2) polymerizing the polymer in situ
on the surface of the particles, and (3) coating the particles in
a fluidized bed with the polymer dissolved in an appropriate
solvent [90].
Unfortunately, the more common polymers that one might
expect to survive hostile environments, do not have the process
ability characteristics needed to completely coat the particles
and/or to readily mold high density, high strength cores with
the desired physical and magnetic properties. Indeed most poly-
mers otherwise suitable for hostile environments are thermosets
which after having been once cured about the iron particle can-
not be dissolved, reprocessed or compression/injection molded.
On the other hand, most thermoplastics which might be both
moldable and capable of withstanding the hostile environment
cannot practically be coated uniformly and continuously onto
small iron particles primarily because they are either essentially
insoluble in industrially acceptable solvents (for example, crys-
Fig. 12. Core loss/cycle vs. frequency at 1 T; green samples compacted without
admixed lubricant [56].
10 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12

Table 6
Typical mechanical and magnetic properties for several isolated particle materials [78]
Material Polymer Oxide Compaction temperature Curing temperature Density at 690 Strength μi μm Hc B (T)
coating (w/o) coating (powder/die) (◦ C) (◦ C) MPa (g/cm3 ) (MPa) (Oe)

SC100 0.75 No 150/260 315 7.20 210 100 400 388 1.09
SC120 0.60 No 150/260 315 7.30 210 120 425 380 1.12
SC600 0.25 No 150/260 315 7.40 100 140 600 380 1.27
TC80 0.75 Yes 150/260 315 7.15 210 80 210 380 0.77
AP500 LS – Yes Cold 480 7.22 35 85 425 243 1.27
AP500 HS Cured – Yes Cold 150 7.15 95 80 230 380 0.86
AP500 HS Warm Press – Yes Cold/150 None 7.45 90 90 300 388 0.99
AP500 High Perm – Yes Cold/150 480 7.20 35 80 520 307 1.29
LCM – Yes Cold/260 650 7.25 25 125 245 356 0.80

talline thermoplastics), do not coat the particles well, cannot be sulfates can be used for creating of electrically insulated parti-
readily handled in a heated condition preparatory to molding cles. There are two general methods for applying an inorganic
and/or have too high a melt viscosity for proper filling out of the coating on the iron-based particles, wet chemical and dry chemi-
shaping die during molding. cal methods. In wet chemical method, a suitable inorganic layer,
The selection of a thermoset instead of a thermoplastic is such as Fe–Zn phosphate precipitates on the metallic surface.
done to minimize the effect of the temperature variations on the In dry process, the metallic powders, for example, are oxi-
magnetic and mechanical properties of the composites. There are dized in a furnace at a suitable temperature and atmosphere.
many advantages that make the choice of applying thermosetting It should be considered that, wet chemical processing of pow-
powder coatings so attractive to the coating companies. These ders compared to a bulk material is more difficult and needs the
are: control of time, temperature and bath composition. For exam-
ple, phosphating time for powders is very shorter than bulk
(a) powder is immediately ready for use; materials. Three principal types of phosphate coatings that are
(b) less powder waste during the application process; in general use are based on zinc, iron and manganese. These
(c) reduced health hazard in case of exposure of operators; coatings can be applied by spray or immersion, and mechanical
(d) superior cured-film properties; alloying.
(e) lower capital investment costs.
11. Conclusions
Some of the thermosets which are used for coating are listed in
Table 7 [91]. The ideal soft magnetic material is an isotropic media with
very high magnetic permeability, low coercivity and high satu-
10.2. Inorganic coatings ration induction. In addition, the material could be easily shaped
into three-dimensional structures in order to fully take advantage
Inorganic coatings including several inorganic compounds, of the material’s isotropic nature.
such as, phosphates (zinc/iron/manganese phosphates), oxides, SMCs do in many respects resemble the ideal material,
as they are isotropic materials consisting of small insulating
iron particles. Intricate 3D-shapes could be obtained by the
Table 7
Some of the thermosets which are used for coating [91] well-established, cost-effective P/M-compaction processes. Sat-
uration induction is close to the laminates and eddy current
Name Descriptions
losses are significantly lower due to the smaller size of the par-
Epoxy powders For high gloss and smooth coatings with excellent ticles (typically 5–200 ␮m) compared to the thickness of the
adhesion, flexibility and hardness, solvent and steel sheets (normally 200–1000 ␮m). However, SMCs have a
chemical resistance
distributed air-gap, leading to lower permeabilities and further,
Acrylic powders Widely used in surface coatings, with good gloss
and color retention on exterior exposure, heat and plastic deformation of the particles that takes place during the
alkali resistance compaction step, results in higher hysterisis losses. A heat treat-
Polyester powders General performance between epoxy and acrylic ment after compaction partly relieves the stresses. Raising the
powders, excellent durability, high resistance to compaction pressure (to increase density) increases the mechan-
yellowing under ultra-violet light
ical strain induced in the iron particles, resulting in higher
Epoxy-polyester Epoxy powders containing a high percentage of
hybrid powders special polyester resin (sometimes exceeding coercive force and hysteresis loss unless the material is given a
50%) with resistance to overbake yellowing and stress-relieving heat-treatment. The latest iron–resin composite
weatherability, main backbone of the powder grades attempt to combat these effects by reducing the vol-
coating industries ume of resin, combining the insulating material characteristics
Polyurethane Good all-round physical and chemical properties,
with lubricity to improve compressibility, and oxidizing the iron
powders good exterior durability
particle surfaces to increase resistivity.
 H. Shokrollahi, K. Janghorban / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 189 (2007) 1–12
The SMC concept is very flexible as the final properties
of component depend on the composition of the iron powder,
coating, lubricant/binder, compaction and heat treatment. Using
new techniques in compaction (such as warm and two steps
compaction), annealing conditions (such as two steps anneal-
ing/magnetic annealing), new powder compositions (Fe–Ni,
Fe–Co, Fe–Si alloys), nano particle size, and suitable insulation
layers, improve the magnetic properties of SMCs.
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