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Journal of Building Engineering 66 (2023) 105924
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Journal of Building Engineering

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A review on the deterioration of mechanical and durability

performance of marine-concrete under the scouring action
Danan Ma, Maohua Zhang *, Jiyin Cui
School of Civil Engineering, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, 150040, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Scouring action is recognized as one of the primary causes of the degradation of marine concrete
Scouring action in tidal and splash zones. It is not ignored that the deterioration of marine concrete is caused by
Multi-factors the coupled effects of scouring action and chemical actions (e.g., Cl− attack, SO2- 4 attack,
Marine concrete carbonization, and alkali-aggregate reaction) and physical actions (e.g., salt crystallization, dry-
Deterioration mechanism wet cycles, freeze-thaw cycles, and external loading). This paper reviewed the deterioration
Improvement methods
mechanism of marine concrete under the combined impacts of scouring and other marine-
environment multi-factors. The chemical action had both positive and negative impacts on ma
rine concrete when subjected to scouring. The physical action exacerbated scouring and erosion
damage to the marine concrete, and both interact with each other. In addition, the physical and
mechanical performance of marine concrete under scouring action was investigated and
analyzed, as well as deterioration indexes of marine concrete under multi-factors coupled action.
The type and concentration of chemical solution, temperature, flow rate, and load-stress ratio
were related to mechanical performances of marine concrete. The addition of nanoparticles and
fibers, the application of admixtures, and other improvement methods to mitigate the durability
deterioration of marine concrete were generally summarized.
1. Introduction
The lifetime of marine concrete structures depends on the mechanical and durability performance of concrete, and durability
problems are usually caused by degradation of performance attributed to environmental factors, especially in harsh environments [1,
2]. In addition to chloride (Cl− ) and sulfate (SO2-
4 ) attacks and scouring action (SA), marine concrete are also damaged by other factors
such as dry-wet (DW), freeze-thaw (FT), and carbonation. In the tidal zone, concrete is not only subject to chemical action by seawater
under the actions of DW and FT cycles, but also physical action such as SA (Fig. 1). Scouring damage to marine concrete becomes more
intense as the number of SA increases. In the splash zone, concrete is more subject to the DW cycles of seawater, which is accompanied
by a certain amount of carbonation, hence exacerbating the deterioration of marine concrete durability and mechanical performance.
In the submerged zone, the marine concrete is completely immersed in seawater and is mostly eroded by corrosive media. Because of
the reduced exposure, the degree of corrosion damage is minimal. In the atmospheric zone, marine concrete exposed to the air is
usually attacked by CO2, resulting in concrete carbonation.
Spalling and destruction of concrete are caused by SA, the basic principle of concrete being scoured by waterborne particles is
shown in Fig. 2. The erosion of concrete are categorized into three stages under SA. In the initial stage, the concrete was subject to
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mn2617@nefu.edu.cn (D. Ma), zmh7716@nefu.edu.cn (M. Zhang), cuijiyin@nefu.edu.cn (J. Cui).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.105924
Received 19 November 2022; Received in revised form 9 January 2023; Accepted 16 January 2023
Available online 20 January 2023
2352-7102/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Ma et al. Journal of Building Engineering 66 (2023) 105924
micro-abrasion under SA, and the concrete surface was slightly peeled off (Fig. 2(a)). In the second stage, the concrete was severely
damaged by the effect of suspension medium scouring, resulting in cracks on the concrete’s surface (Fig. 2(b)). In the third stage, the
mortar of the concrete surface was constantly crushed and scoured by the waterborne particles, and the coarse aggregate and the
transition interface were dissolved (Fig. 2(c)). The destructive wear damage to concrete was attributed to the action of cavitation forces
resulting from the implosion of bubbles during wave impact. Consequently, concrete loses its strength and barrier against scouring [4].
However, the concrete structure of the cross-sea bridge (mainly the piers) is subject to the coupling effects of erosion and scouring by
tides and surges carrying sediment, etc. The thickness of the reinforcement protection layer of concrete will thin while the Cl− and SO2- 4
in seawater will accelerate the erosion through the expansion of cracks. The surface layer of concrete will be rapidly peeled off and the
reinforcement will be accelerated the rusting under the coupling effect of scouring and salt corrosion. The concrete structure will
experience damage, cracking until it is destroyed.
The durability and mechanical properties of marine concrete structures are not only influenced by the synergistic effect of dual or
multiple mechanisms of extrinsic factors, such as mechanical effects (especially static load, fatigue-load [5]) and environmental factors
(such as FT cycles, DW cycles, carbonation, Cl− attack, SO2- 4 attack as well as erosion of other harmful substances, acid rain attack [6],
etc.), but also deterioration due to changes in internal factors (alkali-silica reaction (ASR) [7], water to cement ratio and type of binder,
etc.) [8,9]. Previous research has concentrated on the single deterioration mechanism of concrete under the SA or the durability
deterioration of marine concrete under the coupling action of two environmental factors. These investigations also include the effect of
scouring rate and scouring angle on the deterioration of concrete durability, or how scour-induced wear and cracking affects the
erosion of Cl− in concrete, or how SA affects salt crystallization and scaling in marine concrete at different temperatures. The influence
of saltwater scouring will undoubtedly accelerate the destruction of concrete by these environmental factors, and the superposition
and interaction of multiple environmental factors have a significant impact on the durability of concrete under SA, resulting in
substantial deterioration of the mechanical properties of marine concrete and making the concrete structure in service a certain safety
risk [10]. To ensure the safety of marine concrete structures subjected to scouring action, it is necessary to investigate the durability
and mechanical property deterioration of concrete under the coupling action of scouring and other multi-factors.
To better solve or alleviate the issues of mechanical properties and durability degradation caused by scouring and other multi-
factor coupling of marine concrete, and to lengthen the service life of marine concrete structures, some researchers are concen
trating on two aspects: on the one hand, continually improving the workability of marine concrete by adding admixtures [11], such as
water reducing agents, air-entraining agents (AEA), retarders, etc. On the other hand, improving the durability and mechanical
properties of marine concrete by adding admixtures such as mineral admixtures including lime, slag, fly ash [12], silica fume [13] and
nanomaterials such as nano-SiO2 [14,15], nano-TiO2 [16,17], nano-CaCO3 [18–20], nano-Al2O3 [21], nano-Fe2O3 [22–24].
Furthermore, some have optimized the scour resistance of concrete by adding new polymer composites with high strength, corrosion
resistance, and toughness [25,26], such as rubber particles [27], plastics, and fibers.
The mechanical characteristics and durability of coastal concrete under the combined/alternating impacts of scour and other
environmental conditions have been the subject of several investigations, but a review summarizing these investigations and dis
cussing their trends is absent. In summary, the combined effects of SA and other environmental factors on marine concrete are
reviewed in this paper. The general framework of this review is shown in Fig. 3. Firstly, this research covers existing knowledge of the
deteriorating process of durability and mechanical properties of concrete under the coupling effects of scouring and other factors. The
effects of the primary characterization factors such as physical appearance, mass variation, relative dynamic elastic modulus (RDEM),
Fig. 1. Primary attack on concrete exposed in the marine environment [3].
2
D. Ma et al.
3
Fig. 2. Scouring mechanism of waterborne particles on concrete surface [4]. (a) Erosion peel (b) Prising by solid particles (c) Abrasive wear.

Fig. 3. Flow chart of the reviewing concrete deterioration under SA.
and compressive/bending strength of marine concrete are discussed in detail. Secondly, the damage to marine concrete under SA are
discussed in order to identify measures to promote marine concrete’s scouring resistance. Some measures to mitigate deterioration in
the mechanical properties and durability of marine concrete are proposed and their mechanisms of action are analyzed, and these
findings provide a reference for improving the mechanical properties and durability of marine concrete and extending the service life
4
of marine concrete structures. Finally, the conclusions and suggestions are provided as a foundation for future research on the me
chanical properties and durability of marine concrete under the coupling effect of SA and other factors.
2. Durability of marine concrete under SA

2.1. Chemical action
2.1.1. Chloride (Cl− ) attack
One of the main factors affecting the durability of concrete is corrosion of steel reinforcement by Cl− attack, which is mostly
attacked by Cl− in the marine environment (Table 1). Cl− reacts with calcium aluminate (C3A) and sulphoaluminate (AFm) to generate
Friedl’s salt (3CaO⋅Al2O3⋅CaCl2⋅10H2O) by physical adsorption and chemical combination in concrete [28–42], as expressed in Eqs. (1)
to (4). The Cl− reacts with the gypsum mixture to generate Kuzel’s salts (3CaO⋅Al2O3⋅1/2CaSO4⋅1/2CaCl⋅10H2O) [34], and as the Cl−
concentration increases, the production of Kuzel’s salt gradually disappears and eventually all of it is converted to Friedl’s salt. The
major product, Friedl’s salt, is stable in alkaline environments (PH > 12), while the acidic environment (PH < 12) will accelerate
dissolution and transform into calcium alumina (AFt) with swelling properties.
When concrete is exposed to MgCl2 solution, it produces both Friedl’s salt and CaCl2 [44], as expressed in Eqs. (5) to (6), whereas
calcium oxychloride (CH) reacts with CaCl2 to generate Calcium chloride oxide complex salt such as 3CaO⋅CaCl2⋅12H2O [45] or
3CaO⋅CaCl2⋅15H2O [44,46], as expressed in Eqs. (7) to (8). These calcium chloride oxide complex salts are extremely unstable complex
salts and are susceptible to decomposition by temperature that can induce marine concrete cracking. Therefore, corrosion attack is
regarded as an important reason for the deterioration of marine concrete [47].
2NaCl + 3CaO · Al2 O3 · 6H2 O + Ca(OH)2 + 4H2 O → 3CaO · Al2 O3 · CaCl2 · 10H2 O + 2NaOH (1)
2NaCl + 3CaO · Al2 O3 · CaSO4 · 12H2 O → 3CaO · Al2 O3 · CaCl2 · 10H2 O + 2Na2 SO4 + 2H2 O (2)
2KCl + 3CaO · Al2 O3 · 6H2 O + Ca(OH)2 + 4H2 O → 3CaO · Al2 O3 · CaCl2 · 10H2 O + 2KOH (3)
2KCl + 3CaO · Al2 O3 · CaSO4 · 12H2 O → 3CaO · Al2 O3 · CaCl2 · 10H2 O + 2K2 SO4 + 2H2 O (4)
Ca(OH)2 +MgCl2 → Mg(OH)2 +CaCl2 (5)
C − S − H + MgCl2 → M − S − H + CaCl2 (6)
3Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2 + 9H2 O → 3CaO · CaCl2 · 12H2 O (7)
3Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2 + 12H2 O → 3CaO · CaCl2 · 15H2 O (8)
Cl− attack and SA interact with each other. On the one hand, scouring is affected by Cl− attacks. The attacks of Cl− promotes SA of
concrete damage. Because the presence of Cl− increases the saturation of concrete pores, free Cl− penetrates into the interior pores of
concrete with a concentration gradients to generate expansion-type corrosion products (oxychloride). With sustained erosion, the
concrete surface gradually roughens; the surface of fine aggregates produces fractures or even peels, so that the wear-resistant
hardened phase (coarse aggregate) is exposed, protruding from the surface of the matrix, making it easier to fall off and promoting
scouring. Costa [48], Cai [49], and Wang et al. [50] investigated the Cl− transportation mechanism of marine concrete in various
marine environments by taking actual marine concrete structures as an example, and concluded that scouring has an important in
fluence on Cl− transport in the splash and tidal zones, which helps to understand Cl− distribution in marine concrete and evaluate the
material’s resistance to Cl− transport. Yao [51] investigated the damage characteristics of cementitious materials on marine concrete
surfaces subjected to Cl− attack, sediment scouring, and other factors. The results show that the diffusion of Cl− reduced the scouring
resistance of concrete. Under the same scour conditions, the surface of the marine-concrete eroded by Cl− attack was more severely
damaged, and the exposed area of coarse aggregates was increased to different degrees.
On the other hand, SA also affects on Cl− attack. Momberb et al. [42] found that erosion of concrete by high velocity water flow
resulted in the formation and growth of concrete microcracks, and that this erosion process was controlled by an aggregate-crack
interaction toughening mechanism, with critical water velocity and exposure time being the two key influencing elements of
erosion strength. The Cl− content at different ages and depths of concrete under the coupling effect of SA and Cl− attack was quantified
(Fig. 4). SA can accelerate the Cl− transport process. The Cl− transport can be sped up by scouring, which also moves the exposed
surface and eventually deepens the Cl− intrusion into the concrete. As the scouring process proceeds, the surface concrete will be
disintegrated and damaged. The unit surface mass loss of concrete will change, accompanied by the movement of the Cl− diffusion
boundary, resulting in increased Cl− diffusion and penetration, consequently increasing corrosion. Several reports have demonstrated
that the Cl− diffusion coefficient of concrete increases with the continuation of scouring. Yu [2], Li et al. [2,45] conducted a durability
test under the coupled action of scouring and Cl− attack to analyze the effect of SA on Cl− diffusion in concrete, and found that SA
promotes the Cl− diffusion in nano-concrete. The diffusion coupling boundary was a dynamic boundary. SA accelerated the deteri
oration of Cl− on concrete, and its diffusion coefficient was significantly larger than that after natural immersion. The coupling
equation of scouring and Cl− diffusion was established and verified.
Therefore, marine concrete is subjected to the combined effects of Cl− attack and SA, and SA not only leads to loss of surface quality
5
of marine concrete units, but also reduces compressive strength and shortens the service life of concrete structures. Yong et al. [3]
concluded that the concrete structure was affected under the coupled action of water scouring and water spray in the splash zone, and
the phase transition occurred mostly on the concrete surface. The SA ripped off and separated the particles on the concrete surface,
weakening the structure and accelerating the decline in the durability of marine concrete construction.
The deterioration of marine concrete surface slurry under the coupled effect of Cl− attack and SA is shown in Fig. 5. At this stage, the
scouring speed is zero (v = 0 m/s), and only Cl− attack (Fig. 5(a)). As marine concrete has many natural cracks and pores, the pore
water pressure will generate tensile stress on the pore surface during the full immersion process, reducing the strength of the concrete
and generating fresh fractures, providing a new channel for the penetration of Cl− . The scouring speed is 2 m/s (v = 2 m/s), the
concrete is in a dynamic water scouring environment, and the pore water pressure fluctuates under the SA, which intensifies the
development of cracks in the concrete, and promotes to Cl− gradually permeate the fresh cracks (Fig. 5(b)). The continual SA wears off
the mortar on the surface of marine concrete, and the coarse aggregates are gradually exposed. At this stage, the protruding coarse
aggregates mainly bear the wear. Furthermore, new damage surfaces are generated in the concrete under SA, which weakens its
strength and increases its degradation by Cl− attack (Fig. 5(c)). The rough, porous, and fragile aggregates are more brittle fracture are
damaged under the continual SA of medium-water sand, resulting in pits on the concrete surface. The formation of craters are formed
in response to the separation of the coarse aggregate from the cement stone as scouring proceed, when the expansion in surface cracks
and porosity causes the bond between the mortar and coarse aggregate to be insufficient to resist the impact of high velocity sand-laden
water (Fig. 5(d)).
In summary, the marine concrete absorbed and drained water dynamically with internal fractures and pores under the SA in the salt
solution. Because of the generation of compound products, the erosion layer was thin, and the penetration resistance of Cl− and the
dissolution of erosive ions were extremely low. As the Cl− attack proceeded, the erosion layer gradually became thicker, the path of Cl−
infiltration inward grew longer, the resistance increased, and the erosion rate slowed down. Some aggregate particles were washed
away from the slurry surface by solution, and the erosion paths became shorter, the Cl− attack was deeper, so the deterioration of
concrete structure was more serious under the coupled action than the single action. The interface transition zone (ITZ), however, was
the weak spot for concrete under the SA, and there is currently limited research on the mechanisms causing microscopic damage to
marine concrete structures under the combined action of scouring and chlorine assault, particularly the changes in performance of the
interface transition zone. In order to lessen the attack of Cl− under the SA, measures must be taken to increase the ITZ of marine
concrete’s strength.
2.1.2. Sulfate (SO2-4 ) attack

In 1818, Vicat reported SO2-
4 attack on concrete in seawater, while Candlot established the theory of the interaction of aluminate and
calcium sulfate aqueous solution to generate swelling hydration products in 1890 [52]. In 1892, Michaelis attributed SO2- 4 attack
damage to concrete to the generation of ettringite (AFt) [53]. The series of reactions that occurred in concrete under sulfate attacks, as
expressed in Eqs. (9) to (13) [54–56]. First, SO2-
4 combines with calcium hydroxide (CH) to generate gypsum (CSH2), and then gypsum
reacts with aluminate (e.g., tricalcium aluminate (C3A), tetracalcium aluminate (C4AH13), and calcium monosulfate (C4ASH12) to
generate ettringite (C6ASH32). AFt crystals may fill large pores in concrete and optimize its microstructure, meanwhile, sulfate is easy
to decompose Friedl’s salt and convert it to AFt.
Concrete expansion can be caused by AFt [57]. According to the investigations, Na2SO4 had the most severe erosion damage, with a
large volume expansion of the hydration products, although their expansion rate was nearly constant. Internal expansion of concrete
fracture was promoted with an increasing erosion rate in the MgSO4 solution. While the surface double layer of hydromagnesite and
gypsum provided a barrier to the free intrusion of external solutions into the interior of the mortar, these deposits of gypsum and
calcium alumina beneath the surface layer of hydromagnesite produced many microcracks attributed to the transformation of C–S–H
gel to non-gel M-S-H in the highly metamorphic region of the cracked hydromagnesite layer under sulfate attack, as expressed in Eqs.
(9) to (13) [44].
2Na+ + SO2−4 + 10H2 O ⇔ Na2 SO4 · 10H2 O (9)
−
CH + SO2−4 → C S H2 +2OH− (10)
− −
C3 A + 3C S H2 + 26H → C6 A S 3 H32 (11)
− −
C4 AH13 + 3C S H2 + 14H → C6 A S 3 H32 + CH (12)
− − −
C4 A S H12 + 2C S H2 + 16H → C6 A S 3 H32 (13)
Table 1
Main chemical compositions of seawater [43].
Chemical name NaCl MgCl2 Na2SO4 CaCl2 KCl NaHCO3 KBr
Concentration (g/L) 24.53 5.2 4.09 1.16 0.695 0.201 0.101
6
− −
Cx Sy Hz + xM S + (3x + 0.5y − z)H → xC S H2 + xMH + 0.5yS2 H (14)
4MH + SHn → M4 SH8.5 + (n − 4.5)H (15)

SA and SO2- 2-
4 attack interact with each other in marine concrete (Fig. 6). On the one hand, SA promoted the attack of SO4 , the mortar
surface layer was gradually worn away and the coarse aggregate was subsequently exposed. This was the reason that the coarse
aggregate was broken or carried away under the effect of water-borne particles, which led to the formation of tiny voids along the
aggregate surface in the mortar, and the coarse aggregate was exposed under the continuous scouring. Chen [46] performed a 100-d
dilute sulfuric acid scour corrosion test on two batches of cement mortar specimens with a homemade rotating scour corrosion test
apparatus. The results of the tests revealed that the diffusion coefficient of SO2-4 and the scouring speed were related, and the corrosion
rate of the specimens was greatly increased after adding the scouring factor, and its flow boundary layer had an influence on the
concentration boundary layer, and the larger the scouring speed, the thinner the mortar, and the more visible the trend of deterioration
of its mechanical characteristics.
On the other hand, SO2- 4 attack exceeded the deterioration process of scouring on marine concrete. The damaging process under
SO2-
4 attack was divided into two stages [43,48–50], namely the enhancement stage and the weakening stage. The expansion rate was
very small during the enhancement stage, and the pores of the concrete were filled with ettringite and gypsum. The mechanical
characteristics of the concrete were improved. As the expansion rate increased, the expansion rate was almost constant and reached the
weakening stage, where the expansion of ettringite and gypsum induces concrete deterioration till failure. With the change of concrete
surface stripping, the penetration path of SO2- 2-
4 through pores became shorter, and the concentration of SO4 was higher near the newly
exposed surface of the concrete, which improved the permeability of sulfate. The corrosion products were generated by the chemical
reaction, the initial fractures of the outer concrete were progressively filled. The extension of the primary fractures and the emergence
of additional cracks were found after the overfilling of hydration products in the initial cracks. The formation of fresh fractures
provided additional diffusion pathways for SO2- 2-
4 attack, and the variations in concentration gradient enhanced the diffusion rate of SO4
in concrete, establishing a vicious cycle and aggravating the marine concrete degradation under SA [4].
2.1.3. Carbonization
CO2 penetrates the concrete in a humid marine environment and chemically reacts with alkaline substances such as Ca(OH)2,
C–S–H, C3S, and C2S. The primary products are CaCO3 and water, and the pH of the concrete is reduced to about 9. The passivation
coating around the reinforcement steel is broken at this pH, resulting in corrosion of the reinforcement and eventually to structural
damage of the concrete, as expressed in Eqs. (16) to (20) [51,58–60], where the affinity of CO2 and Ca(OH)2 is greater [61].
Carbonation proceed in concrete only under certain conditions. Furthermore, the relative humidity is increased with the carbonation
rate of concrete rising [62], resulting in the dissolution of silicates and the consumption of chemistry products and anhydrous
destabilization of the cement paste [63]. The concrete carbonation area gradually becomes less alkaline, more brittle, and less durable.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2 O (16)
C − S − H + 2CO2 → SiO2 + 2CaCO3 + H2 O (17)
(2CaO · SiO2 ) + 2CO2 + nH2 O → (SiO2 · nH2 O) + 2CaCO3 (18)
Fig. 4. Cl− content of concrete at different depths under the coupled effect of Cl− attack and SA.
7
Fig. 5. Diagram showing concrete deterioration caused by SA and Cl− attack [9].
(3CaO · SiO2 ) + 3CO2 + nH2 O → (SiO2 · nH2 O) + 3CaCO3 (19)
3CaO · Al2 O3 · 3CaSO4 · 32H2 O + 3H2 CO3 → 3CaCO3 + 3(CaSO4 · H2 O) + Al2 O3 · xH2 O + (29 − x)H2 O (20)
The marine concrete structures are primarily exposed to the atmospheric, the splash, and the tidal zones, and are subjected not only
to carbonization but also to effects under different factors such as drying-wetting cycles, temperature, and scouring. As a result, the
relationships of multiple factors must be thoroughly studied. Li et al. [64] investigated whether concrete’s loss of mechanical per
formance could be attributed to the combined effects of carbonation and multiple mechanisms. Harmful substances such as Cl− , SO2- 4,
and CO2 entered concrete by capillary pores and caused deterioration of concrete. Variations in temperature, humidity, and external
loading accelerated the rate of intrusion of harmful compounds into concrete, thus exacerbating the deterioration process. The per
formance of certain concrete carbonation in terms of degradation under the coupling effects of multiple factors is summarized in
Table 2. However, investigations on concrete durability under the coupling impact of carbonation and scouring are rarely reported.
Fig. 6. Schematic illustration of concrete deterioration under the combined effects of SO2-
4 attack and SA.
8
Based on previous research, the damage principle of concrete under the coupling effects of SA, CO2, and Cl− attack is established
from a macroscopic perspective (Fig. 7). The concrete is subjected to the coupling effect of CO2 and Cl− attack at suitable temperature
and humidity in the wave splash zone and tidal zone (Fig. 7(a)). The CO2 and Cl− that invaded into the internal pores and cracks of the
concrete underwent a series of chemical reactions, and the expansion of their products (mainly CaCO3 formed at the initial stage of
carbonation) intensified the formation of internal microcracks. The mortar layer on the concrete surface was progressively peeled off
by SA, increasing the rate of CO2 and Cl− attack and enlarging the microcracks inside the concrete (Fig. 7(b)). The coarse aggregate was
gradually exposed after the surface mortar of marine concrete was worn out by the SA, and fresh cracks were formed with the change of
erosion interface and the generation of crystalline matter (Fig. 7(c)). The coarse and fine aggregates of concrete underwent brittle
fracture under the effect of continuous SA, and in this vicious cycle until the concrete structure was completely destroyed (Fig. 7(d)).
In summary, the SA weakens the carbonation resistance of concrete by abrading the concrete surface and enlarging fractures,
forming a pathway for the penetration of CO2 and damaging ions from seawater, increasing the marine concrete’s carbonation depth
and deterioration.
2.1.4. Alkali-silica reaction

The alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is one of the important causes of the deterioration of the serviceability of offshore engineering
structures [72]. The ASR was identified in 1940 as a chemical reaction between the active components of cement aggregates and alkali
(K+ and Na+) and hydroxyl (OH− ) ions in the interstitial pore solution of concrete [73–75]. The products of the ASR are defined as ASR
gels. Alkali-calcium-silicate hydrate gel is generated during the diffusion process of this hydrated alkali-silicate gel by aggregating into
a cement paste, which then reacts with Ca2+ in the slurry (Eqs. (21) to (25)). The gel has a high expansion rate under sufficient
moisture, and the expansion generates internal pressure, causing microcracks in the transition zone of the interface between the
aggregate and the cement paste. The liquid gel invades more capillaries as the reaction proceeded, and stresses gradually increase,
increasing the number and width of cracks and deteriorating the mechanical and physical performance of concrete [76], and the
process of ASR chemistry in concrete is depicted in Fig. 8.
≡ Si − O − Na + nH2 O = ≡ Si − O− (H2 O)n + Na+ (21)
≡ Si − O − Si ≡ +2OH − = 2Si − O− + H2 O (22)
≡ Si − O − Si ≡ + OH − + R+ (Na / K) = ≡ Si − O − Na + H − O − Si ≡ (23)
≡ Si − OH + OH − + Na+ =≡ Si − O − Na + H2 O (24)
≡ Si − O − Na + nH2 O = ≡ Si − O− (H2 O)n + Na+ (25)
The expansion of ASR gel within the concrete was influenced by seawater erosion, and hazardous ions entered the concrete through
micro cracks for erosion damage. Jan Lindgård et al. [78] found that the NaCl solution invaded the mortar body and that Na+ and Cl−
significantly raised the OH− and PH of the pore solution, speeding the ASR to expand the concrete, and that the higher the concen
tration of the NaCl solution, the faster the swelling rate. Shayan [79] found that the swelling performance of the ASR in concrete was
unaffected by the presence of NaCl solution, whereas NaOH solution at 80 ◦ C accelerated the ASR and produced swelling [80]. Tang
et al. [81] found that the swelling value of concrete increased with SO2- 4 concentration in concrete under the coupling of ASR-SO4
2-
2-
action, and that a high SO4 concentration induced a significant increase in AFt crystals and structural loosening at the interfacial
transition zone (ITZ). It has been demonstrated that the damaging stress of concrete under the combined action of ASR-Cl--SO2-4 attack is
greater than that under the action of a single factor. However, the influence of ASR on SA is connected to the pore structure within the
concrete, while the continuance of scouring has no substantial effect on the ASR process. There have been few papers on the mech
anism of wave scouring action on ASR within concrete and the research of concrete durability deterioration.
In summary, the coupling effect of Cl− , SO2-
4 , and CO2 attack, as well as the response of temperature, humidity, and ASR, results in
changes in the physical and mechanical properties of marine concrete. The hazardous substances generated by these coupled effects
penetrate the concrete through capillary pores and microcracks, prompting the durability of concrete to degrade. However, the
scouring action factor has an effect on the ASR of concrete, and the combination of numerous factors increases the rate and depth of
erosion of hazardous substances, exacerbating the degradation process. This is consistent with the presence of synergistic damage
between two or more mechanisms in marine concrete structures subjected to actual service. It is advised to investigate the synergistic
effects of various combinations under scouring action, particularly the combination of chemical reactions and SA.
2.2. Physical action

2.2.1. Salt crystallization
Marine concrete is physically attacked by salt crystallization, which occurs in saline environments. When marine concrete comes
into contact with seawater, the salt solution near the concrete is saturated by capillary suction transfer, and the pore solution is
repeatedly exchanged attributed to evaporation or subcooling and DW cycles, and as the concentration accumulates, the pore solution
concentration increases to saturation/freezing, and the crystal salt begins to precipitate after saturation or freezing [82] (in Fig. 9).
Because of the continual development of crystals inside the pore structure in a confined region, the crystalline salt that precipitates on
the concrete surface is referred to as “bloom”, but the salt that forms in the concrete pores is referred to as “under bloom,” and it is the
reason for concrete degradation [60,83,84]. When the crystallization pressure exceeds the tensile strength of concrete, cracks occur
9
[47].
Several researches have demonstrated that the synergistic impact of scouring and other various factors can hasten the process of salt
crystallization damage to concrete. The hazard of Cl− and SO2- 4 crystallization in marine concrete is gaining attention; the major salt
crystallization pressure in complicated marine environments is induced by NaCl, CaSO4, and Na2SO4. In SO2- 4 rich environments,
damaged concrete contains both chemical and crystalline erosion products, and high crystallization pressure can cause fractures in
marine concrete, increased porosity and linked pores, and substantial damage to the concrete ITZ due to SO2- 4 attack [85].
The crystallization pressure of different types of salt at different temperatures varies, as does the damage to marine concrete. Xie
et al. [86] found that relative humidity and ambient temperature have a large effect on the type and rate of crystallization of Na2SO4.
As shown in Fig. 10, when the temperature reaches 50 ◦ C, NaCl crystals are the most abundant, followed by Na2SO4 crystals, and the
degree of damage caused by the precipitation of these crystals on the concrete specimens is also more visible, and a high number of
crystals develop in ITZ where the force is less and more pores are present. Tsui et al. [87] determined that crystallization from saturated
Na2SO4 solution was the primary source of damage enhancement in concrete at low relative humidity. This is because NaCl has little
influence on the physical crystallization of concrete erosion at room temperature, and it is difficult for the NaCl solution to attain
saturation. Gentilini et al. [88] found that Cl− damage to the specimens was visible and SO2- 4 played a strengthening function, which is
due to the chemical interaction between SO2- 4 and cement hydrate within the pores, creating calcium alumina and gypsum, which filled
the concrete by pores to reinforce the concrete. The SA further destroys the crystallization products of salt on the surface of marine
concrete under the effects of temperature and humidity, and via layer exploitation, the weaker regions on the surface of each layer are
the first to be damaged, and the newly produced cracks are again filled with crystallized salt, and the resultant crystallization pressure
leads the cracks to develop further, and the destruction of the synergistic effect of the two is further exacerbated. Wang [89] found
through investigation that salt crystals formed on the surface and in the concrete under the coupling action of scouring and chlorine
attack, and it was these salt crystals that caused the coarsening of concrete pores, making the link between the components in the
concrete thinner and prone to spalling when hit by external scouring action. There has been little study into the influence of crystalline
salt combined with water scouring on the degradation performance of marine concrete, particularly the internal weak zone (ITZ) and
pore structural alterations, which should be researched more.
2.2.2. Dry-wet (DW) cycles

The durability and service life of marine structures are greatly affected by the combined effects of SA and DW cycles on concrete
structures exposed to wave splash and tidal zones [90]. A dynamic damage degrading process known as “repair-damage-repair
again-damage again” has been demonstrated to exist in concrete under DW cycles. The reason for this is that, on the one hand, the
alternating action of DW greatly accelerates the penetration of corrosion ions in concrete, and erosion ions primarily enter the concrete
interior through a combination of capillary action and diffusion, with the two most important erosion ions being SO2- 4 and Cl . On the
−
other hand, changes in ambient humidity not only cause changes in concrete moisture content but also have a significant effect on
corrosion ions, especially causing salt crystallization in the pores.
DW cycles and SA interact with each other. The aggregation of Cl− is induced by the DW cycles action, which increases the transfer
of water to the interior of marine concrete and promotes the deterioration of concrete under SA. In the tidal zone, a lot of water is
transported, and when the concrete dries at low tide, the temperature rises, increasing the penetration of harmful substances like
chlorine. The phase transition of the concrete surface changes, weakening the structure and contributing to spalling and delamination
under the scouring of waves at high tide. The SA of the waves contributes to the visible wear of the concrete. The deterioration caused
by this abrasion can interact with the DW cycles and lead to salt crystallization. On the one hand, the chloride salt crystallization in
cracks and pores of marine concrete locally is inevitably generated under the action of DW cycles. The crystals will expand in volume
and the dynamic water scouring may contribute to the closure or partial closure of connected cracks. On the other hand, in the case of
insufficient external solution, the aqueous solution in the crack will continue to penetrate and diffuse into the low humidity area
around the crack, leading to saturated crystallization of chloride salt and precipitation, and the crystals will drain the solution from the
pore space outward or precipitate out from the supersaturated solution, producing a crystallization pressure on the pore wall. The
increase in the number of salt crystals in the marine concrete will make the pore walls subject to more and more pressure, which will
lead to more severe deterioration of the concrete when the pressure on the pore walls exceeds its own bearing capacity [2].
Table 2
Effects of carbonation and other environmental factors on marine concrete.
Item Coupling factor Exposure conditions Important notes
1 Freeze-thaw (FT) cycles Sulfate solution The rate of carbonation slowed, and negatively affected the stability of porosity system
[65,66]
2 Wet-dry (WD) cycles Sulfate solution Carbonation is detrimental to the resistance of sulfate attack [67]
3 Chloride solution A strong carbonation occurs for the C–S–H, degrading their mechanical properties [59]
4 Wet-dry (WD) cycles and Freeze- Chloride solution Multi-factor coupling can significantly reduce the carbonation resistance of recycled
thaw (FT) cycles concrete [68]
5 Fatigue-load 20% and 60% relative It is through changing microcracks and pores that fatigue loading affects carbonation of
humidity concrete [69]
6 Chloride solution The Cl− permeability of concrete decreases first and then increases with the increase of
carbonization days under different load levels [70]
7 Wet-dry (WD) cycles and flexural Chloride solution Flexural loading results in higher chloride content and deeper carbonation depth in
load concrete [71]
10
Fig. 7. Diagram depicting the degradation of marine concrete caused by the interaction of SA, CO2, and Cl− attack.
The SA also promotes the erosion of concrete by DW cycles. In the tidal zone, the continuous splash scours these deposits, exposing
the internal intact parts to repeated effects of seawater, resulting in a gradual loss of concrete volume and a gradual change in the depth
of Cl− penetration on the concrete surface under SA, while the higher relative humidity around the concrete also increases the free
water in the concrete pores, which facilitates the penetration of external ions and the chemical interaction between ions and the solid
phase [3].
In summary, the concrete fractures are induced by SA and DW cycles. However, investigations into the durability of marine
concrete under the coupling effects of SA and DW cycles are limited. Therefore, it is necessary to further investigate and verify whether
the actions of the SA and the DW cycle might combine to degrade concrete with more intensity.
2.2.3. Freeze-thaw (FT) cycles

The marine concrete structures will undoubtedly encounter FT cycles of seawater in cold climates, which will exacerbate surface
scaling and internal deterioration, affecting the mechanical performance of the concrete. Furthermore, chemical changes caused by
seawater include the infiltration of various harmful ions and the dissolution of calcium, and the concrete surface structure produces
either invisible or explicit deterioration, making it particularly susceptible to spalling under external ice or wave scouring.
The internal damage of concrete was caused by expansion stresses attributed to ice and salt crystallization. The corrosion products
and expansion stresses were generated in the pores of the concrete during the initial stage of freezing (Fig. 11(a)). The swelling stress
caused by the continuing accumulation of corrosion products contributed to the microcracks surrounding the pores as the number of
freeze-thaw cycles increased (Fig. 11(b)). The cracks expanded and increased exponentially as the freeze-thaw cycles proceeded.
Additionally, the solution froze and expanded in the microcracks, the corrosion products also filled the whole pore space and extended
toward the fractures, and linked cracks also formed.(Fig. 11(c)). As the freeze-thaw time of the concrete progressed, the corrosion
products filled the cracks, resulting in expanding fractures and serious fissures in the concrete (Fig. 11(d)).
The freeze-thaw cycling action promotes the damage of marine concrete under SA. Liu et al. [91] found that the relative mass loss
rate of concrete was greater than that of unfrozen-thawed specimens under SA after FT, and the number of FT cycles had a significant
effect on the abrasion resistance performance of concrete. Lv [92] found that the cement paste between the aggregates was damaged by
expansion stress and infiltration pressure under FT action, and microcracks emerged through alternating tests of dynamic water
scouring and FT cycles, and the cement paste between the aggregates was more easily dislodged under the SA, and as a result, the
coarse aggregates lost their bond and peeled off. During the scouring process, the FT cycling action promotes Cl− diffusion in the
concrete. Wang [93], Sun [94] et al. found that the FT cycling action had an important effect on the diffusion of Cl− by an on-site test on
the diffusion of Cl− in concrete under marine tidal environment, the boundary Cl− concentration of concrete increased rapidly, the
11
D. Ma et al.
12
Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the mechanism of the ASR in concrete [77].

Fig. 9. A schematic portrayal of salt increase, evaporation, and crystallization in concrete [60,83,84].
Fig. 10. Crystallization pressure of common salts.
diffusion coefficient increased gradually, but the convection effect gradually decreased. There existed another driving mode of Cl−
transport. Furthermore, the apparent Cl− diffusion coefficient and surface Cl− concentration increased significantly with the degree of
freezing for the same exposure time. The concrete pores were divided into big and small gel pores during the pre-freeze-thaw stage
(Fig. 12(a)), but only the large pore solution was frozen during the freezing stage (Fig. 12(b)). The majority of the Cl− was driven to the
unfrozen solution area, increasing the Cl− concentration. As the ice expanded, some NaCl crystals precipitated and migrated. The water
was subsequently transported from the gel pores to the macropores by osmotic pressure. Cl− at the gel pore and macroporous water-ice
contact migrated back into the gel pore with the melting solution during the melting phase (Fig. 12(c)). The Cl− that entered the deeper
parts of the inside cannot be repelled. The FT cycles induced a sustained migration of Cl− from the exterior to the interior of the
concrete by absorbing the salt solution and filling the pores swelled by the freezing extrusion [47,94].
13
D. Ma et al.
14
Fig. 11. Deterioration process of concrete under sulfate FT cycles [47].

The SA promotes salt freeze hazards in marine concrete. As shown in Fig. 13, a large number of micro-open voids inside the
concrete store a large amount of water under the action of dynamic water scouring. FT cycles cause the persistent frost swelling to
occur, a large number of micro-cracks are generated, and the micro-cracks gradually penetrate under the continuous SA, which
contributes to an increasing void ratio. Seawater moving through the voids and pores leads to a gradual increase in cracks inside the
concrete with the change of temperature. Dynamic water scouring promotes fine aggregate loss from the concrete surface, increasing
the amount of surface fractures and promoting Cl− penetration from seawater. The coupling effects of SA and FT cycles exacerbates
concrete surface degradation, since frozen damaged areas of the concrete surface are removed and fresh surfaces are damaged during
scouring proceeds [95]. Marine concrete is subjected to Cl− attack under the coupled effect of FT cycles and SA, and the erosion process
is from shallower to deeper parts of the marine concrete for erosion damage [96]. ITZ of marine concrete is a weak zone, which is easily
damaged by the coupling action. At the beginning of the coupling action, the concrete surface is damaged, the internal microcracks
increased, the crack width expanded, and the Cl− permeability is enhanced. A large amount of mortar was spalled off under the
scouring action. With an increase in the number of salt-containing coupling actions, a large amount of mortar in the concrete was not
only scaled and washed out in the freezing process, but also new surfaces and coarse aggregate were exposed. Therefore, measures
must be taken to reduce the combined effects of seawater SA and chlorine attack on the damage to marine concrete in the cold season.
2.2.4. Fatigue loading action

Several studies have demonstrated that the coupling effect of seawater scouring and external loads accelerates the degradation of
marine concrete in the marine environment and reduces its service life. Marine concrete was subjected to stresses such as compression
and tension during service condition, and these stresses affected the deterioration performance of marine concrete. As shown in
Fig. 14, the microcrack evolution development and fine structure damage degradation of concrete during the external loading phase.
The compressive stresses in the concrete dominated the load stresses at the beginning of the external loads, and the crack width was
small. The various deformations of the different phases inside the concrete gradually increased and the cracks gradually appeared with
the change of temperature and humidity (Fig. 14 (a)). The formation and expansion of cracks in the concrete matrix are further
aggravated under the coupled effects of moist heat and load stresses (Fig. 14 (b)). This was mainly manifested by the expansion of the
initial cracks in length and width as well as the increase in crack density. A vertical fracture emerged between the initial cracks and
extends through the cracks in the late stage of interaction, showing that the extensional stresses induced by the moist heat effect and
the long-term loading stresses aggravated the degeneration of the crack structure inside the matrix (Fig. 14 (c)). As stress affected the
pore performance and crack growth in concrete, the cracks in concrete gradually increased in width and density with the continuance
of stress, and finally the cracks gradually expanded to connect the pores with ITZ to form a penetration, which provided a pathway for
the transport of harmful ions in seawater and improved ion permeability (Fig. 14 (d)).
2.2.4.1. Bending fatigue load. Bending fatigue load and SA interact with each other. The flexural fatigue loads action accelerates the
deterioration of concrete under SA. First, the development of microcracks caused by bending stresses accelerates the intrusion of Cl−
[98]. Su [99] found that tensile stresses promoted the rate of Cl− transport as the load stress ratio rose, but compressive stresses
inhibited Cl− transport within a particular range. Yu et al. [100] found that cyclic loading and solution concentration are the two key
parameters influencing Cl− diffusion in experimental research. Meanwhile, dynamic loading considerably enhances Cl− permeability.
Secondly, fractures can be easily generated by tensile stresses in the concrete compressive zone, and the concrete produces plastic
deformation as the flexural load stress ratio increases, which leads to the rapid expansion of internal micro-cracks into main cracks, and
the main cracks bend along the weakest direction (especially the weaker interface transition zone). Meanwhile, the creation of primary
fractures increases the transfer of detrimental ions, and the cracks and pores are filled and saturated with salt solution, accelerating
abrasion erosion of concrete [5,101].
Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of Cl− migration with phase transformation of pore solution in concrete [94].
15
The SA exacerbates the deterioration of concrete under fatigue loading. The fine aggregates of the concrete surface were detached
under the SA, and the number of ion transport channels increased accordingly with the microcrack gradually increasing in the mortar
layer (Fig. 15(a)). The fine aggregate was gradually shed on the surface of the pressure zone by scouring action, and the coarse
aggregate was exposed. Under the loads repeatedly action, the width of the microcrack of the mortar layer was expanded, the
microcrack of the new interface layer are generated, as well as the permeability of harmful ions was promoted (Fig. 15(b)). The coarse
aggregate was worn and shed under the action of punching and grinding shear stress in the pressure zone, and the new interface of the
micro-crack was gradually expanded under repeated fatigue loading. Salt solution penetration erosion and the concrete’s internal
damage were promoted. (Fig. 15(c)).
2.2.4.2. Compression fatigue load. The presence of compression fatigue loading has an effect on concrete scouring resistance. Firstly,
the compression fatigue loading has an effect on the erosion of Cl− . When compressive loads exceed the critical stress level, the
permeability of concrete increases dramatically with rising stress ratios, enhancing concrete deterioration. Lower compressive stresses
result in denser concrete, which decreases the rate of Cl− diffusion, which is directly connected to the change in pore structure and the
early formation of bonded microcracks caused by lower compressive stresses [103], hence lowering the degree of erosion damage.
Jiang et al. [104] found that when the compressive stress surpasses 60%, the permeability coefficient of concrete rapidly rises, and that
stress-induced changes in concrete permeability are related to changes in the cement paste-aggregate interface and crack state. Second,
the positive effect is overcompensated by high compressive stress ratios, resulting in a significant increase in the area/length and
quantity of microcracks, increased Cl− permeability [105], and rapid degradation of the marine concrete under erosion.The pores at
the interface of aggregate and cement paste are stable, there is no evident cracking activity, and the depth and content of Cl− pene
tration are initially decreased in the first stage (stress level less than 30% of Fc). When the load reaches 30%–50% of Fc in the second
stage, the interfacial cracks grow slowly in the loading direction in the transition zone, and the number, length, and width of cracks
continue to develop, but there are no visible mortar cracks, and the depth and content of Cl− penetration progressively increases.The
interfacial cracks between cement mortar and aggregate continue to develop in the third stage, when the load reaches 50%–60% of Fc,
cracks begin to appear in the mortar and are connected with adjacent interfacial cracks, Poisson’s ratio of concrete increases signif
icantly, both sides of concrete at this stage in the joint action of the load leads to a decrease in the permeability of concrete, and the
diffusion of Cl− is delayed. When the load exceeds 70%–90% of Fc in the fourth stage, fractures in the cement matrix expand greatly and
link, the permeability of Cl− increases rapidly, continuous loading and scouring action can modify the pore structure and further
Fig. 13. SA and FT cycles’ effects on the PC’s damage mechanisms [96].
16
connect microcracks, and harmful ions infiltrate into the concrete from the microcracks, resulting in enhanced scouring action damage
[106].
In summary, SA coupling factors such as salt crystallization, DW cycles, temperature, and external loading have a significant effect
on the deteriorating mechanism of concrete. However, the inherent limitations of the indoor test apparatus and its conditions make it
difficult to simulate the actual conditions. Although accelerated test apparatus is applied to shorten the test cycle and predict the long-
term durability of concrete, it still needs further improvement and research.
3. Performance of marine concrete under SA

3.1. Physical performance
3.1.1. External changes
Evaluation of concrete’s physical performance enhances in the early detection of concrete degradation and enables the imple
mentation of preventative measures prior to structural failure [60]. Researchers investigated the degradation of scoured concrete
surfaces by analyzing changes caused by several environmental factors. The solubility of the created erosion layer products, such as the
erosion of carbonate [107], sulfate and chloride salts [108] of cement substrate, will fill the erosion layer to densify its structure in the
pre-erosion phase, and a specific thickness of the erosion layer will play a suppressive function in the diffusion and scouring of the
erosion medium [9].
Some researchers think that the scouring rate and scouring angle in the sea water hostage sand surge service environment of the
marine concrete scouring resistance performance has a significant influence on the marine concrete stable wear rate, as shown in
Fig. 16. When the scouring angle is less than 45◦ , the increase rate of stable wear rate is larger, and the increase rate tends to slow down
after exceeding 45◦ . When the scouring angle is 90◦ , the stable wear rate is the largest, and the scouring resistance decreases gradually
with the increase of scouring rate [109].
The scouring resistance of marine concrete is affected by the water-cement ratio. As shown in Fig. 17, the scouring mass loss rate of
high w/c marine concrete is greater than the mass loss rate of low w/c marine concrete. When w/c = 0.28 and the scouring angle is less
than 45◦ , the scouring damage to the concrete surface is mainly cutting damage, and the concrete sub-microscopic surface is flatter and
has lower roughness. When w/c = 0.5 and the scouring angle is 60◦ –90◦ , the mass loss rate increases more, the concrete surface
scouring damage is dominated by impact damage, the concrete sub-microscopic surface roughness is higher, and the mortar area has a
drop-off of about 500 μm.
In addition, some scholars believe that the increase in the concentration of different solutions promotes the surface damage of
marine concrete under the effect of erosion (see Fig. 18). Santhanam [111] concluded that mortar in concrete swelled more in
high-concentration salt solutions than in low-concentration salt solutions. Yin et al. [9] conducted a scouring test on concrete by setting
a water flow rate of 2 m/s in an organic acid solution, and the test results showed that the net cement paste surface cracking was
Fig. 14. Microcrack morphology of concretes caused by fatigue load at different stages of interaction [97].
17
D. Ma et al.
18

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of the deterioration of marine concrete under the coupling effects of SA and FT and external loading: (a) Pre-damage; (b) mid-damage; (c) post-damage [47,102].
serious, the cracks were wide and deep, and the concrete surface quality loss was 3.77 times greater than that of single-factor with
event immersion erosion. Zhang [46] applied dilute sulfuric acid with a PH of 3.4 and a scouring speed of 0–1.57 m/s to conduct a 100
d scouring test. The test results showed that the number of etch pits on the specimen’s surface increased with the flow rate, the color of
the corroded surface of the specimen changed with the PH of the scouring solution, and the mass loss rate of the specimen increased
with the scouring speed.
The impact of temperature change on the degradation of marine concrete caused by scouring is more pronounced. Liu [91], Lv [92]
et al. performed erosion experiments on concrete with alternating effects of FT cycles and dynamic water scouring and compared them
to single-factor testing, concluding that the alternating effects of concrete generated greater damage, mostly because the cement paste
between the aggregates was damaged by expansion stress and infiltration pressure, and microcracks were produced by FT. Under the
SA of water containing sand, the cement paste between the aggregates is more likely to fall off, and the coarse aggregate also loses its
bonding force and falls off as a whole. Yu et al. [2] conducted scouring tests in NaCl solutions of various concentrations at a tem
perature of around 45 ◦ C to analyze the effect of surface changes of concrete under the combined effect of Cl− attack and SA. As shown
in Fig. 19 (a) to Fig. 19 (c), the surface of concrete specimens immersed in NaCl solution showed minor deterioration. When the
samples covering the surface layer were washed in clean water, the mortar aggregate on the edges and corners of the surface peeled off,
and a few etching pits appeared on the surface. The coarse aggregate gradually came off after being washed in the NaCl solution. The
area ratio of exposed aggregate grew greater and larger, and the number of etching pits increased, resulting in a severely abraded
concrete surface.
3.1.2. Mass loss

The change in mass loss is an important indicator to assess the degree of deterioration of the concrete surface under scouring action.
The scouring mass of concrete in chloride solution is substantially more than that in water under SA. When concrete was washed in a
NaCl solution at 45 ◦ C with a concentration of 10.24% at the same rate, the mass loss was nearly three times that of water. As pre
viously stated in section 2.1.2, in an environment rich in the SO2-4 and Cl of complex salts have a weak influence on Na2SO4 induced
−
mortar mass loss in normal concrete caused by Na2SO4, and Cl− penetration increases with increasing Na2SO4 content, which will not
be discussed in detail here. However, whether or not the change in the quality of marine concrete in composite salt solutions is caused
by scouring should be investigated further in future experiments (in Fig. 19).
The effect of scouring under the influence of temperature will accelerate the relative mass loss of concrete. The mass loss for
concrete specimens subjected to scour (flow rate L = 2.4 m/s, M = 3.7 m/s, H = 5.3 m/s) under the effect of 0, 50 (A50), and 100
(A100) FT cycles, respectively (in Fig. 20). In general, the relative concrete mass loss after FT was greater than that of the specimens
under SA, and the number of FT cycles had an important effect on the scouring performance of concrete. The effect of sand-laden water
flow velocity on the scouring of ordinary FT concrete was greater for the same number of FT cycles, and the rate of concrete mass loss
was greater under high-velocity water scouring than under low-velocity conditions, and scouring of the surface layer of FT concrete
was evident when the water velocity was more than 5.3 m/s. External loads and stress ratios have no effect on the mass loss of concrete
under SA, since the loading action only promotes crack propagation and expansion without affecting surface spalling.
In summary, the change in temperature and the type of solution under different erosion rates and erosion angles are the major
factors affecting the physical properties of marine concrete, with the first three elements belonging to the change of physical factors
and the type of solution belonging to chemical action. Therefore, the deterioration of physical properties of marine concrete can be
attributed to the coupling of multiple factors promoting the development, growth and cross penetration of surface and subsurface
Fig. 16. Stable abrasion rate of marine concrete with different w/c under different scouring angles (v = 30 m/s).
19
cracks in marine concrete. Microcracks are formed at any stage of concrete, i.e., coarse aggregate, matrix, and ITZ (boundary between
cement paste and aggregate), and the formation of microcracks depends on the relative strength between them [112]. The mass loss is
caused by the deterioration process of marine concrete under SA. In particular, it is determined by the concrete’s strength. The rate of
mass loss is lower for high-strength concrete than for low-strength concrete. Changes in physical performance such as appearance and
mass of concrete can be used as the main index of deterioration of marine concrete.
3.2. Mechanical performance

3.2.1. Compressive strength
The most essential index for evaluating the mechanical performance of concrete is its compressive strength. The rate of scouring
leads to a rise in the loss of compressive strength, and variations in the compressive strength of marine concrete are influenced by the
type, concentration, and temperature of the solution [47,26]. Yao [41] conducted a scouring test of concrete in water and a con
centration of 9.603% NaCl solution, respectively, and found that as the scouring progressed, the compressive strength of concrete
declined, the Cl− diffusion coefficient and the concrete scouring wear rate gradually increased. The composition of the complex salt
solution for each high concentration is listed in Table 3. The compressive strength of marine concrete was greatly influenced by high
concentrations of complex salt solutions, which gradually decreases with increasing concentration (Fig. 21). As the marine concrete in
the tidal zone was subjected to chemical erosion by the compound salt of Cl− and SO2- 4 in seawater and the crystallization of salt, the
corrosion products generated swelling and crystallization stresses. These swelling and crystallization stresses accelerated the chemical
erosion of marine concrete. Accompanied with the SA, the concrete surface aggregate was rapidly peeled off, and its compressive
strength decreased more quickly.
Temperature is one of the parameters that has a significant impact on the compressive strength of marine concrete under SA. The
compressive strength of marine concrete decreases more rapidly as the number of FT and DW cycles increases with the time of SA in the
Fig. 17. Images of scouring concrete surfaces under SA [110].
20
seawater, especially in the more corrosive high concentrations of Cl− and SO2-
4 . The alternating effects of SA and FT cycles, DW cycles,
and carbonation make the concrete compressive strength more damaging than the single-factor action. The early carbonation enhances
the compressive strength of marine concrete, whereas the late carbonation under coupled action reduces the compressive strength of
marine concrete. This multi-factors coupling mechanism of marine concrete degradation accelerates even more. The higher the stress,
the greater the intensity of the damage, which is consistent with the degradation mechanism described in section 2.2.4 and is not
repeated here.
3.2.2. Flexural strength

The primary mechanical property index for evaluating concrete cracking is flexural strength, which can be determined by bending
tests. The research on the flexural strength of marine concrete under the SA in the tidal zone is scarce. First, different concentrations of
salt solutions promote the loss of flexural strength of marine concrete. Tang et al. [113] found that the loss of flexural strengths of
marine concrete in 10% Na2SO4 solution was more severe and the rate of strength loss was greater compared to 5% concentration
Na2SO4 solution by conducting indoor DW cycles tests in different concentrations of Na2SO4 solution.. Yin et al. [114] studied and
analyzed the flexural and tensile performance of concrete under the action of DW cycles and FT cycles or temperature increased in 5%
NaCl solution and found that the ultimate flexural loads of concrete decreased significantly with the increase in the number of FT cycles
or temperature, the penetration of Cl− increased and the flexural strength decreased more than the compressive strength. Secondly, the
flexural load accelerates the diffusion of Cl− in concrete in the tensile zone, and the effect becomes more pronounced at higher stress
levels where concrete cracks due to SO2- 4 attack and salt crystallization, contributing to a greater loss of concrete resistance to tensile
stresses in SO2-
4 and Cl of complex salt solutions [60,115].
−
3.2.3. Relative elastic modulus

Relative elastic modulus (RDEM) is an important indicator for damage assessment of concrete under SA. Wang et al. [47] suggested
that Cl-salt solutions have an effect on the RDEM loss of concrete. Jiang [116], Cheng [117], and Jin [118] concluded that the loss of
RDEM in concrete is greater in different sulfate solutions than in other salt solutions, and the loss can be divided into three different
periods, i.e., the declining period, the stabilization period, and the accelerated declining period. The RDEM loss is divided into three
different periods, i.e., declining, stable, and accelerated declining periods. The cycle of drying and wetting as well as the destruction of
salt crystallization may be responsible for the development of the first phase. The generation of calcium alumina and gypsum, which
somewhat enhances the density of the concrete, is induced by the chemistry of the SO2- 4 salt during the second phase. The third stage
accelerates the RDEM loss due to the attack of SO2- 4 leading to the formation of more microcracks in the late stages of corrosion. Chen
et al. [119] concluded that the higher concentrations of SO2- 4 would have a mitigating effect on the RDEM degradation of concrete in
complex salt solutions. However, the RDEM loss of the marine concrete decreased sharply under SA in the marine tidal zone and wave
splash zone, and the workability of the marine concrete was subsequently reduced, and the SA of seawater intensified the deterioration
of the marine concrete structure (Fig. 22). The composition of the complex salt solutions SWL, SWH, GWL and GWH is shown in
Table 3.
Temperature also has a positive effect on RDME loss in scoured marine concrete. The SA increases the growth rate of cracks caused
by ice expansion and frost damage under the action of FT cycles in marine concrete. Wang et al. [47] concluded that as the number of
FT cycles increased, cracks continued to expand, resulting in a significant reduction in RDEM. Single-factor external loading effects did
not have a large effect on RDME loss in scoured marine concrete [120]. The flexural load stress ratio has a substantial influence on the
RDEM of concrete when combined with FT cycles and SA [121]. The RDEM fell quicker as the stress ratio increased. The action of the
multi-factor coupling mechanism also has a significant effect on the change of RDME of marine concrete, which accelerates the damage
process of marine concrete, which is consistent with the deterioration mechanism mentioned in sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.4.
In summary, SA of seawater in marine tidal and wave splash zones can degrade the mechanical performance of concrete, such as
compressive strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity. These cracks in marine concrete are mostly brought on by chemical
reactions such as salt erosion and crystallization, as well as physical erosion brought on by external stresses. Tensile stresses generate
cracks in concrete, while compressive stresses seal off damage-causing pores, and shear forces under the effect of scouring exacerbate
the development of cracks. Regarding the effects of scouring and other environmental multi-factor coupling on the compressive and
tensile strengths of concrete, as well as their intrinsic performance, further research is necessary to understand how scouring interacts
with other environmental conditions to affect the intrinsic correlations between concrete’s compressive and tensile strengths.
Fig. 18. Damage on concrete surface under SA in chloride solutions, (a) Immersed 200 min in NaCl solution (b) Scouring 200 min in pure water; (c) Scouring 200 min
in NaCl solution [89].
21
Fig. 19. Marine concrete mass loss under the SA in different NaCl solution concentrations.
Fig. 20. Relative mass loss rates of specimens under SA.
4. Improvement methods
The addition of external admixtures, fibers, and admixtures, such as nano-materials, fly ash, and silica fume, to fill the pores and
improve the pore structure, promote cement hydration, and improve the seepage resistance and compressive strength of marine
concrete, is the mainstay of marine concrete modification. To mitigate the deterioration of marine concrete caused by the coupling
effect of SA and environmental factors, fiber materials are applied to increase crack resistance and flexural strength. Cai et al. [111]
analyzed the scouring strength of concrete mixed with different cementitious materials and combined it with concrete scouring test
Table 3
Composition of different complex salt solutions [109].
Complex salt solution NaCl (%) MgCl2 (%) MgSO4 (%) CaSO4 (%) CaCl2 (%)
SWL 2.7 0.32 0.22 0.13 0.06

SWH 6.75 0.8 0.55 0.325 0.15
GWL – 0.14 0.3 0.04 –
GWH – 0.7 1.5 0.2 –
22
methods and evaluation indexes for a comprehensive evaluation of concrete scouring resistance. Add admixtures such as
water-reducing agents, air-entraining agents (AEA), early-strengthening agents, and retarders to minimize the size and quantity of
pores, as well as their continuity, to enhance the internal pore structure of marine concrete, as well as to improve the construction
environment and ease of use to increase marine concrete’s erosion resistance.
4.1. Adding external adulterants

4.1.1. Addition of nanoparticles
The addition of nanoparticles improved the compressive strength, flexural strength, and impact abrasion resistance of marine
concrete [122]. The damage of nano-seaware concrete by corrosive media is much less than that of ordinary concrete. Vivek et al. [123]
found that the incorporation of nano-SiO2, silica fume increased the bond between aggregates by curing tests in dilute concentrated
hydrochloric acid, which resulted in better mechanical performance, and improved the impermeability, porosity and acid resistance of
concrete, thus making it more durable. Wang et al. [124], In Kyu et al. [125] concluded that nanoparticle-infused RPC with nano
particles had better anti-Cl- permeability performance than RPC without nanoparticles and that the enhancement mechanism of
nanoparticles on the abrasion resistance and anti-Cl- penetration performance of RPC was primarily attributed to their nucleation
effect, which resulted in the refinement of CH crystal orientation, densification of matrix organization, and modification of the
interfacial (in Fig. 23).
The corrosion resistance of concrete is improved under the surface effect of nanoparticles, volcanic ash reaction, and microscopic
aggregate filling effect. The structure of the interfacial transition zone is also affected by these factors, and aggregate surface energy is
increased. Li [45], Yu [2], and Yao [41] demonstrated that adding different proportions of nano-particles (nano-SiO2, nano-TiO2)
improved the anti-Cl- penetration and anti-scouring performance of concrete. Zhang et al. [126] found that the concrete durability of
concrete under the combined effect of carbonic acid attack and alkali aggregates was improved by incorporating 2% nano-SiO2, with a
minimum CO2 attack depth and concrete expansion, maximum sound velocity, and a minimum decrease in sound velocity.
The resistance of concrete to salt and scouring has been substantially enhanced by the addition of nanoparticles (As shown in
Table 4). Zhang [127] found that the porosity and total pore volume of marine concrete specimens increased first and then decreased as
the amount of nanoparticles increased, and that the optimal admixture amount of 2% greatly improved the anti-scouring, anti-freezing
and anti-SO2-4 attack performance of concrete. Kumar [128] found that the doping quantity of 2% nano-ZnO has a good filling effect and
the pore size varies less throughout the FT process by applying electron microscope scanning, which enhanced the FT and Cl− attack
resistance of concrete. Wang et al. [129] investigated the degradation of carbon nanofiber mortar performance under the combined
effects of FT cycles and fatigue loads, concluding that both the effects of FT cycles and fatigue loads greatly accelerated the mass loss of
the motar in NaCl solution, and that the resistance of carbon nanofiber mortar was more sensitive to the degradation state under the
coupling effects of FT cycles and mechanical loading.
4.1.2. Addition of other external admixture

As shown in Table 5, several researchers improved the scour resistance of marine concrete with some additional external ad
mixtures. Such as adding modified rubber particles [134], which are usually done by modifying the surface morphology of the rubber
particles, increasing their surface hydrophilicity, and strengthening their interfacial adhesion qualities with cementitious material
matrix. Fly ash is added to cement paste to increase the interfacial bonding between the two materials. This is mostly attributable to the
volcanic ash effect of the fly ash and Ca(OH)2. As a result, the addition of fly ash enhances the concrete’s compressive, tensile, and
flexural strengths. Additionally, for a certain fly ash content, the mass loss is reduced, and the concrete’s wear resistance is
Fig. 21. Compressive strength of mortars under SA in different solutions.
23
subsequently increased. Since silica fume reacts with calcium hydroxide to generate additional calcium silicate hydrate, which has the
effect of decreasing porosity and increasing strength, it is primarily responsible for filling the microporosity of the concrete matrix and
the interval between coarse aggregate and mortar when it is added [135,136]. In general, silica fume can be added to concrete to
strengthen its resistance to scour. Additionally, to increase the abrasion and corrosion resistance of marine concrete in conjunction
with ecological issues, some researchers have modified concrete by adding ceramic sand [25], coral sand [137], shells [138], and a
silica fume/fly ash combination [139], and plenty of other materials.
4.2. Addition of fibers

The addition of fibers promotes concrete crack resistance, inhibits concrete surface peeling, and reduces mass loss in concrete. The
fibers are well diffused and can generate a chaotic distribution inside the cement concrete matrix, and the fibers are interlinked and
connected in the concrete to establish a chaotic support system that limits fracture expansion and connectedness, which can improve
the strength and impact resistance of marine concrete [144]. Liu et al. [145] conducted wear and erosion tests on concrete doped with
steel fibers and found that the wear resistance of the concrete was improved by the addition of fibers. Zeng et al. [146] found that the
introduction of carbon nanofibers into concrete successfully postponed the formation of incipient cracks, improved the shrinkage
resistance, tensile characteristics, and erosion resistance of cementitious materials, and decreased the permeability of Cl− . Yildizel et al.
[147] found that adding glass fibers to concrete increased the material’s compressive strength, flexural strength, abrasion resistance,
and FT resistance while reducing the quantity and size of cracks that formed when concrete was subjected to mechanical loads. Yuan
et al. [148] concluded that the addition of 0.3% by volume of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers was the most effective in improving the
mechanical and frost resistance performance of Class F fly ash base polymer concrete (SFGPC). Kosior-Kazberuk et al. [149] conducted a
test on concrete under the coupled effects of freeze-thaw cycles and loading, and found that the susceptibility of concrete surface
scaling and the formation and expansion of microcracks was reduced by adding the steel fibers during scaling, resulting in significantly
decreased mass loss of concrete.
4.3. Addition of additives

The workability of marine concrete mainly includes fluidity, water retention and cohesion. One of the main measures to improve
concrete workability is the addition of additives. The addition of early strength and retarder agent has an effect on concrete during the
“dormant period” of cement hydration, which mainly affects the binding force of the free ions in the pore solution during hydration,
and these changes in the binding force of ions lead to variations in the volume of concrete. The integration of early strength agents
induced the shrinkage in the volume of concrete, whereas the incorporation of retarding agents created the expansion in the volume of
concrete. The right quantity of retarding agents can also increase the frost resistance, abrasion resistance, fatigue resistance, and
ultraviolet (UV) aging resistance of concrete [150]. The addition of defoamer eliminates a certain amount of air bubbles in the con
crete, the elimination of air bubbles makes the concrete less porous, denser, and with better strength and durability.
Water reduction agent is a commonly used admixture to reduce water consumption during cement hydration, enhance the fluidity
of concrete, improve the mechanical characteristics and scouring resistance of marine concrete in the process of early cement hy
dration process, and improve concrete properties. Wang et al. [151] found that short side-chain polycarboxylic acid high efficiency
water reducing agents are the most successful in strengthening concrete resistance to chloride ion penetration and sulfate attack, with
the lowest total concrete porosity and densest structure, and that this water reducing agent has the most substantial impediment to the
cement’s early hydration, and that this delay minimizes the frequency of microcracks generated by fast heat release. Hu [152], Zhang
Fig. 22. Dynamic modulus of mortars under SA in different solutions [109,113,114].
24
et al. [153] found that water reducing agents can increase the compressive and splitting strengths of marine concrete and have a little
influence on the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
The use of a small amount of air-entraining agent (AEA) can not only enhance the water retention and cohesion of marine concrete
but also prevent frost damage. The application of AEA not only decreases the mass loss of marine concrete caused by the combined
action of scouring and salt freezing, but also minimizes the loss of RDME due to continuous bending fatigue loading [154], whereas the
amount of flexural strength loss of concrete is less than that of compressive strength loss [155]. The lower AEA not only minimizes the
risk of ice swelling, a lower porosity and a higher level of small pores are exhibited in the concrete under FT cycles [156], which
prevents CO2 erosion and considerably reduces the degradation of concrete due to frost damage and carbonation under SA.
5. Conclusion
This paper summarizes the effects of SA coupled with other environmental factors on the mechanical properties and durability of
marine concrete. The deterioration mechanism of marine concrete is analyzed and the effect of the coupling effect of multiple factors
on the performance of marine concrete is discussed. The measures to mitigate the performance deterioration of marine concrete under
different environmental conditions are summarized. The following conclusions are drawn from the review of literature.
(1) SA and chemical action influence and control each other. The formation of hydration products under chemical action changes
the internal pore structure of marine concrete. Scouring induces fractures on the surface of marine concrete to develop until the
aggregate is stripped and destroyed, establishing a channel for the synergistic effect of ion erosion and carbonation, promoting
ion diffusion and leading to more severe corrosion of marine concrete. The effect of ASR on SA is related to the internal
expansion of marine concrete, and there is a correlation between the swelling of the ASR gel and the degree of erosion.
(2) Physical actions can exacerbate the deterioration of marine concrete under SA. The physical deterioration factors of concrete
include salt crystallization, FT/DW cycles, and external loading, which are actually the coupling effects of temperature &
humidity and external loading. The erosion of marine concrete due to temperature changes caused by crystallization pressure,
frost swelling pressure, and internal pore pressure and leads changes in the internal pores of marine concrete due to external
scouring shear stress on the concrete surface of the peeling effect and the role of the external load so that the concrete’s internal
micro-cracks interconnect, thereby increasing the degree of damage to marine concrete. The coupling of multiple physical
mechanisms further aggravates the damage of marine concrete.
(3) Changes in the rate and angle of erosion and the type of solution have a significant impact on the durability of marine concrete.
Concrete deterioration begins with the formation, expandation, and cross-through of surface and subsurface fractures, which is
followed by mortar delamination and coarse aggregate dislodging. The formation of microcracks depends on the bond strength
between ITZ. Concrete quality changes with its strength, and variations in concrete strength are negatively correlated with its
quality loss.
(4) The mechanical performance of concrete increasingly deteriorates when SA and chemical attack become more closely coupled.
The temporary strengthening of concrete can be caused by the filling of pores with calcium alumina, gypsum, or calcium
carbonate. Internal stress damage from chemical attacks such as salt erosion and crystallization, as well as physical damage
induced by the action of external scouring shear pressures, exacerbate the loss of compressive and flexural strength and decrease
in elastic modulus of marine concrete. This is particularly true in high concentrations of salt solutions corresponding to seawater
complexes, where the compressive/flexural strength declines rapidly with increasing time and rate of scouring.
(5) The degree of damage to the eroded marine concrete can be effectively reduced by the addition of nanomaterials, fibers and
admixture, but the addition should be identified in accordance with the real environment. The tiny size effect of nanoparticles
fills the internal pores of marine concrete. Fiber improves the marine concrete’s anti-scouring property, and water reducer
improve the compatibility of concrete. Therefore, it is recommended to use nanomaterials and admixture together, both from
the point of view of physical performance and mechanical performance. In addition to choosing appropriate methods to
mitigate concrete deterioration, ecological and environmental issues must be considered, such as the addition of fly ash and
rubber particles, ceramic sand, coral sand and shells, etc., through proper proportioning and maintenance, in order to improve
the erosion resistance of marine concrete.
6. Prospects
The issue of concrete erosion in the marine environment is rising in popularity. Although various measures have been taken to slow
the degradation of marine concrete, further study and analysis are required. Therefore, the following research prospects are
summarized.
(1) The current research mainly focuses on the single factor or the single factor coupling or alternating action of scouring and other
environments, and the alternating action mechanism of scouring and mechanical loading. Marine concrete structures are
subject to a complex and dynamic service environment that is affected by the coupled action of multiple chemical and physical
mechanisms. For instance, marine concrete is destroyed by scouring in a variety of complex salt solutions of seawater, the
diffusion of SO2- 2-
4 is blocked by the presence of Cl , and the Cl binding capacity of concrete is weakened by the action of SO4 as
− −
the concentration of SO2-4 increases. However, the surface of concrete is cracked and damaged under the SA of seawater,
aggravating the internal chemical deterioration of concrete. There have been few studies in this field, most of which have
25
Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of the enhancing mechanisms of nanoparticles [124].
Table 4
Methods of adding nanoparticles for improving the performance of marine concrete under the coupling effects of SA and other factors.
Addition material type Action mechanism Results Reference
2% Nano-SiO2/1% nano-TiO2 Improvement in microstructure and porosity Mass loss reduction Li et al. [45]
Yu et al. [2]
Nano-SiO2/nano-CaCO3 Increase the reaction area and route of cement slurry and the surface effect Mass loss and RDEM Yang [19]
loss reduction Wu et al. [18]
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers Prevent the increase of cracks and increase bonding ability. Mass loss and RDEM Zhang et al. [130]
and nano-SiO2 (NS) loss reduction Ling et al. [131]
Nano-SiO2/nano-Al2O3/nano- Improve the internal density of cement hydration products solidity, reduced Mass loss and RDEM Thanmanaselvi et al.
Fe3O4 microporosity, limit the migration of water and diffusion of CO2. loss reduction [132]
Joshaghani [23]
Zhang et al. [133]
concentrated on one-sided erosion damage to concrete specimens. Therefore, the deterioration of concrete under the coupling
effect of SA and other environmental factors must be further investigated.
(2) In order to simulate the environmental problems of seawater wave scouring, the existing test device can only realize the
simulation of a single environmental factor, and it is difficult to realize the simulation environment with the coupling effect of
multiple factors. Meanwhile, the test conditions and test methods are different and mostly focused on indoor tests, and the
accuracy and relevance of the simulation environment have not been verified. It is suggested that the indoor tests should be
revised and improved in combination with the field exposure tests.
(3) Whether it is DW, FT, or salt crystallization, temperature fluctuations are related to scouring processes. These changes in
temperature affect the internal pore pressure, crystallization force, and ice expansion of marine concrete, which in turn affects
how much of the marine concrete’s surface deteriorates. As a result, more research into the effect of seawater scouring on
marine concrete under temperature and humidity variations in the marine tidal zone is advised.
26
Table 5
Methods of adding other external admixtures to improve the performance of marine concrete under the multi-factor coupling effects.
Addition material type Action mechanism Results Reference
Rubber-particals Prevent crack propagation and increase the toughness of concrete Mass loss reduction Feng et al.
[140]
Liu et al. [141]
HF fly ash Increase liquidity and reduce dry shrinkage Mass loss reduction Siddique et al.
[142]
High volume fly ash Increase cementitious materials (i.e. binder) in the mixtures and Flexural tensile strength and compressive Naik et al.
(HVFA)/fly ash reduce the water to binder ratio strength loss reduction [143]
Silica fume Filling the micro voids of the concrete matrix and the interfacial Mass loss and RDEM loss reduction Liu et al. [136]
zones between coarse aggregate and mortar Wang et al.
[135]
Coral reef sand Improve the mechanical properties of the interfacial transition zone Mass loss and compressive strength loss Qinet al. [137]
reduction
Mussel shells Decrease the permeability and the loss of aggregates Mass loss reduction Cambaet al.
[138]
(4) Carbonation and ASR aggravate marine concrete SA damage. The calcium carbonate formed by early carbonation can improve
the internal microstructure of marine concrete, whereas ASR delays the degree of carbonation deterioration. The concrete
surface is damaged by SA, and Cl− reacts with CaCO3 to accelerate the deterioration of marine concrete. Thus, it is recom
mended to further investigate the coupled effects of seawater SA and the synergistic action of carbonation and ASR on marine
concrete.
(5) Concrete cracks are generated by the erosion of harmful ions in seawater and the shear stress of scouring, and the external
loading effect also promotes the formation and expansion of concrete cracks. The combined effect of SA and external loading
should be considered, and further research into the effect of abrasion on the tensile strength of marine concrete is advised.
(6) Current research focuses mostly on the addition of admixtures, nanomaterials and other cementitious materials, fibers, and
other methods to improve the mechanical properties and durability of marine concrete, while the use of two or more to enhance
the erosion resistance of marine concrete is still relatively limited. As a result, more research in this field would be advantageous
in order to better mitigate the deterioration of the mechanical properties and durability of marine concrete.
Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, China (Program No. 52078109; 51878130).
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Journal of Building Engineering 66 (2023) 105924

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

A review on the deterioration of mechanical and durability

Fig. 1. Primary attack on concrete exposed in the marine environment [3].

Journal of Building Engineering 66 (2023) 105924

Fig. 3. Flow chart of the reviewing concrete deterioration under SA.

2. Durability of marine concrete under SA

Ca(OH)2 +MgCl2 → Mg(OH)2 +CaCl2 (5)

C − S − H + MgCl2 → M − S − H + CaCl2 (6)

3Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2 + 9H2 O → 3CaO · CaCl2 · 12H2 O (7)

3Ca(OH)2 + CaCl2 + 12H2 O → 3CaO · CaCl2 · 15H2 O (8)

2.1.2. Sulfate (SO2-4 ) attack

2Na+ + SO2−4 + 10H2 O ⇔ Na2 SO4 · 10H2 O (9)

Chemical name NaCl MgCl2 Na2SO4 CaCl2 KCl NaHCO3 KBr

Concentration (g/L) 24.53 5.2 4.09 1.16 0.695 0.201 0.101

4MH + SHn → M4 SH8.5 + (n − 4.5)H (15)

C − S − H + 2CO2 → SiO2 + 2CaCO3 + H2 O (17)

(2CaO · SiO2 ) + 2CO2 + nH2 O → (SiO2 · nH2 O) + 2CaCO3 (18)

(3CaO · SiO2 ) + 3CO2 + nH2 O → (SiO2 · nH2 O) + 3CaCO3 (19)

2.1.4. Alkali-silica reaction

≡ Si − O − Na + nH2 O = ≡ Si − O− (H2 O)n + Na+ (21)

≡ Si − O − Si ≡ +2OH − = 2Si − O− + H2 O (22)

≡ Si − O − Na + nH2 O = ≡ Si − O− (H2 O)n + Na+ (25)

2.2. Physical action

2.2.2. Dry-wet (DW) cycles

Item Coupling factor Exposure conditions Important notes

2.2.3. Freeze-thaw (FT) cycles

Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the mechanism of the ASR in concrete [77].

Journal of Building Engineering 66 (2023) 105924

Fig. 10. Crystallization pressure of common salts.

Fig. 11. Deterioration process of concrete under sulfate FT cycles [47].

Journal of Building Engineering 66 (2023) 105924

2.2.4. Fatigue loading action

3. Performance of marine concrete under SA

Journal of Building Engineering 66 (2023) 105924

3.1.2. Mass loss

3.2. Mechanical performance

Fig. 17. Images of scouring concrete surfaces under SA [110].

3.2.2. Flexural strength

3.2.3. Relative elastic modulus

Fig. 20. Relative mass loss rates of specimens under SA.

SWL 2.7 0.32 0.22 0.13 0.06

4.1. Adding external adulterants

4.1.2. Addition of other external admixture

Fig. 21. Compressive strength of mortars under SA in different solutions.

4.2. Addition of fibers

4.3. Addition of additives

Fig. 22. Dynamic modulus of mortars under SA in different solutions [109,113,114].

Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of the enhancing mechanisms of nanoparticles [124].

Addition material type Action mechanism Results Reference

Addition material type Action mechanism Results Reference

Declaration of competing interest

No data was used for the research described in the article.

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