': BULLETIN of the InternationalAssociation of ENGINEERINGGEOLOGY No 31 PARIS 1985 j

k de I'Assocation Internationate de GI~OLOGIE DE L'INGENIEUR

DEVASTATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT BY L A N D S L I D E S A C T I V A T E D BY C O N S T R U C T I O N

DEGRADATION DE L'ENVIRONNEMENT P A R LA R I ~ A C T I V A T I O N D E G L I S S E M E N T S SOUS

L'INFLUENCE DE CONSTRUCTIONS

MAHR T. and M A L G O T J.*

Summary

The landscape environment is presently formed by the system in which there are natural, as well as anthropogeneous components. There is natural
direct and inverse relation between them. The possibility and method of construction of a technical work depends on specific natural conditions.
Of decisive influence are mainly the rock relief, groundwater and geodynamic processes, which Matula (1976) terms the main components of
the engineering geological environment.
The natural conditions of the West Carpathians are suitable for the occurrence and development of slope movements. More than 3 % of the total
Slovakian area is covered by landslides and by other slope movements of a varied degree of activity.
Based on actual examples of an incorrect procedure in erecting some of the ground, hydrotechnical and transport constructions the paper analyzes
the causes of landslide reactivation and devastation of the environment. To avoid negative changes in the geological environment engineering
geological documents are prepared for more important investment units, comprising predictions of changes induced by construction.

Rdsume

Le paysage est la resultante de composants naturels, ainsi que d'influences anthropiques. II y a un rapport mutuel direct et inverse entre ces
facteurs. La possibilitc de construire un ouvrage et les methodes employees dependent des conditions naturelles specifiques. Les facteurs
principaux sont la morphologie du site, I'eau souterraine et les phdnomenes geodynamiques, que Matula M. (1976) appelle les composants
principaux de I'environnement de la geologie de I'ingdnieur.
Les conditions naturelles des Carpates Occidentales se prfitent /t l'apparition et au ddveloppement de mouvements de versants. Plus de 3 % de
la superficie rotate de la Slovaquie sont concernds par des glissements et autres mouvements de ~ersants d'une intensit6 variable.
A partir d'exemples concrets de mauvaises r6alisations de travaux souterrains, de barrages et d'infrastructures de transport, I'article analyse les
causes de la reactivation des glissements et de la d6gradation de l'environnement.
Pour eviter ces influences negatives sur I'environnement g~ologique, on prepare des documents gdologiques et geotechniques pour des travaux
plus importants et qui incluent la prevision des changements provoques par les constructions.

Introduction relations between the natural and anthropogeneous

The natural landscape was formed by the action of
natural processes in the long period of development of
the Earth. The growing needs of man and society
cannot be ensured in the original natural environment,
which is why man is creating for himself a new
environment. The natural landscape changes into a
cultural landscape. Such a cultural landscape creates a
system in which the natural components are found
(rocks, air, water, biota), as well as the components
created by the human society. There is a natural direct
and inverse relationship between them. The cultural
landscape forms an absolutely predominating part of
the relatively densely populated territory of Czechoslo-
vakia.
According to the mutual relationship of natural and
anthropogeneous components, their quality or degree
of interaction, the cultural landscape may be refined,
affected or devastated. In the refined landscape the
* Department of Geotechnics. Slovak Technical University, 81368
Bratislava, Radlinskdho 11 Czechoslovakia.
components are harmonious and autoregulation capa-
city of natural elements is maintained. The affected
landscape has an impaired stability of the natural
components induced by man's activity. The autoregula-
tion capacity of natural components, however, is not
completely eliminated and it can be strengthened by
simple methods and transform the affected landscape
into a refined one. The devastated landscape has the
autoregulation capacities of natural components impai-
red to an extensive degree and its regeneration is
possible solely by means of anthropogeneous, above all
technical, correction interventions, by spending a
considerable quantity of energy and materials. The
devastated landscape is repellent and there are unsui-
table conditions in it for man's existence and construc-
tion. Among such devastated environments we can
include, for example, waste disposal dumps, areas of
surface mines, or territories impaired by the processes
of slope deformation.
The natural conditions of the West Carpathians are
suitable for the occurrence and development of slope
movements. Based on a regional investigation in
 82
1970-1979 (Nemeok et al., 1979), in connection with the
results of the Registration of Landslides in Czechoslo-
vakia from 1962-63 (Matula et al., 1963) it was found
that the slopes impaired by slope deformations cover in
Slovakia an area of 1 474 km z. This represents 3 % of
the total territory of Slovakia. Their distribution,
however, is not uniform in individual areas. Thus, for
example, in the region of the Carpathian flysch, land-
slides and other slope deformations form 8.1% of the
surface. In certain basins there is a still greater distur-
bance of the stability of slopes (above 10%), and it
should be borne in mind that economic activity and
construction is concentrated in the basins of Slovakia.
That is why interaction frequently occurs between the
engineering structures and landslides.
Devastation of agricultural and forest soils
Soil is the basic natutral richness of each country. It is
an irreplaceable production means to ensure the suste-
nance of the population. It is of prime importance
mainly in countries with a high density of inhabitants,
which includes Czechoslovakia. There are presently
102 persons per km 2 on the territory of Slovakia.
Agriculture and t'orest management exploit 90.7 % of
the territory of Slovakia. The remaining part, 9.3 % of
the territorial surface, is covered by high mountain
ranges, water surfaces, covered areas and devastated
areas. Agricultural soil forms 50.6 % of the territory and
31% of the surface cover is arable soil. For one
inhabitant of Slovakia there is in average 0.97 ha
(9 700 m 2) of land from the total territory surface, of
which 0.49 ha is agricultural surface, 0.39 ha forest soil
and 0.09 ha of the remaining surfaces. The acreage of
0.30 ha of arable soil which is presently available for
one inhabitant is a minimum in the attained soil
fertility and consumption of foods to ensure the suste-
nance of the population.
In the decade from 1970-80 the acreage of arable soil
decreased from 0.37 ha to 0.30 ha. This resulted from
population growth, but mainly from taking the agricul-
tural soil for other purposes. The acreage of arable soil
decreased from 34.3 to 30.9 % of the territory surface.
From the total acreage of arable soil about 60 % were
used for housing. Such development would mean in the
future a serious endangering of self-sufficiency in
providing the country with agricultural products.
This is why the government accepted the law on the
protection of the soil which was made stricter in 1981.
According to presently valid law regulations, if the
building industry intends to take protected arable soil,
it must compensate agriculture by recultivating devasta-
ted surfaces.
The agricultural soil in the mountainous parts of
Slovakia is threatened also by water erosion (about
13 % of the total acreage) and recently also by indus-
trial and power station emissions. A certain part of the
agricultural soil decrease is due also to devastation
caused by landslides (Fig. 1).
The predominant dips of landslides in the Paleogene
flysch fill of basins attain 7-12o, whereas slope angles
in predominantly clayey Neogene sediments with a
predominant montmorillonite component are only 5-9 ~
(Mahr & Malgot, 1977). They are slopes which are
currently used for agricultural purpose. The population
of Slovakia tried for a long time to fertilize the surfaces
of slope deformations. Since the most important factor,
which had an influence on the activation of landslides,
was water action, the farmers tried to drain the landsli-
des by simple means. The surfaces of quiescent landsli-
des, which were activated from time to time were used
as meadows, pastures and orchards. They tried to use
stabilized landslides as arable land.
Fig. 1 : Complete devastation of the territory by landslide.
The present methods of agricultural production, howe-
ver, require treatment of the land. Such treatment is not
always successful in areas of landslides. The unsuitable
recultivation of a landslide slope was one of the causes
of landslide reactivation in (_ubietov:i in 1977 (Malgot,
1980). In 1974-1976 vast treatments of the terrain were
made in the scar of a quiescent landslide. The slope
was largely stripped of topsoil over a considerable
surface, which resulted in increased infiltration of rain
water into the landslide body. When in December 1976
and in January and February 1977 there occurred
precipitation anomalies exceeding normal precipitation
by 50%, the landslide activated, passed from the
quiescent creep stage to sliding movement with a
velocity of 2.5 m / d a y (Ingr & Bohynik, 1978). The
length of the sliding flow was 1200 m, its width
450-500 m, the height difference 170 m. The depth of
the shear plane reached in places 35 m and the
landslide area 4.5 mil. m 3. Some houses were destroyed
in the lower part of the landslide.
Total devastation of agricultural soil occurred on a
surface of 30 ha (Fig. 1). As it is valuable agriculture
soil in the vicinity of the (~ubietov~ village, a project of
recultivation is under preparation to recultivate the soil
devastated by landslide.
The costs of correction of active or even quiescent
landslides are usually extremely high and they repre-
sent usually an unbearable investment to save the
agricultural or forest soil. The stabilized landslides~can
be corrected for agricultural production at acceptable
 83
expense, however the correction interventions require
careful maintenance and the lands should be cultivated
by a correct method. The surfaces of quiescent and
stabilized landslides serve as a source for obligatory
recultivation when taking agricultural soil necessary for
construction.
In many parts of Slovakia the devastation of agricultu-
ral soil took place by reactivation of landslides due to
neglecting the old surface and underground drainage.
These examples are not only a warning for a correct
maintenance of drainage, but also an illustration of the
possibility of returning the soil disturbed by a landslide
to agriculture by simple methods.
In recent decades there has been in Slovakia a favoura-
ble development in landscape afforestation. Presently
40.1% of the territory of Slovakia is covered with
forests with relatively a favourable composition and
age of trees. A more favourable situation in this sense
in Europe is possessed solely by three northern coun-
tries. About 80 % form productive forests, meanwhile
20 % of forests are protected. However recently forests
have been strongly damaged mainly by emissions of
power stations. The acid rains are damaging part of the
forest of Slovakia, but to a much lesser degree than in
the western part of Czechoslovakia.
Beside forest fires, strong winds upsetting trees,
droughts, ice accretions, insects and avalanches, even
the landslides belong to the serious factors of damaging
the forest. In Figure 2 there is part of an extensive
landslide, which activated in 1983 near the village of
Zfizriv~ and caused complete devastation of the forest.
Fig. 2 : Forest devastation in the landslide part near Zfizrivfi.
Influence of construction on the activation of land-
slides
Frequently the stability of slopes is affected during
construction and the activated landslide can threaten
the object under construction or other earlier construc-
ted ones.
In founding ground structures it may happen that by
excavation an unstable slope is undercut. In the town
of Zvolen there is under construction a hospital consis-
ting of 14 pavilions. In excavation works for connecting
one of them, part of the landslide reactivated and
threatened the building under construction (Fig. 3).
There were already buildings constructed before below
it on the sliding slope, and so there was fear of
activating the entire sliding area, endangering those
parts of the hospital which were already in operation.
Landslides took place on the Pliocene tuffitic clays,
psammitic and psephitic tufts of the Zvolenskb. basin
fill. The material of the landslide can be characterized
as highly plastic clayey loams with the index of
p l a s t i c i t y lp = 24 - 43 %. The determined value of the
residual angle of internal friction was ~Or = 13 o. Only
a small part of landslides were activated with dimen-
sions about 100 by 50 m and depth 8 m. The activated
part moved with a velocity of 6 - 12 c m / d a y -~ (Mahr,
Kuch~r, 1979).
Correcton measures had to be carried out quickly using
machines and material which were easily accessible.
In the place of excavation a ballast embankment was
built, supported by an "abutment wall" built with
182 pieces of concrete precasts (Fig. 3). The open
cracks on the landslide surface were sealed by clayey
soil and covered by polyethylene foil, to prevent rain
water entering the landslide body. Above the area of
the stabilized landslide a peripheral trench was built to
drain the waters flowing from the higher parts of the
landslide. After achieving these temporary measures,
the movement of the landslide began to slow down and
after "9 days practically stopped. The definitive correc-
tion" was suggested after an engineering geological
investigation of the landslide and after the recalcula-
tion of the slope stability. As definitive correction
measures, gravelly drainage walls were constructed in
combination with horizontal drainage boreholes.
Even unsuitably chosen waste disposal sites may cause
reactivation of slope deformations. In Figure 4 there is
a dump of excavated material from the urban unit in
the town of Ziar nad Hronom, unsuitably placed on the
scar of a quiescent landslide. The landslide reactivated
and endangered the gas line passing through the
middle of the slope into the aluminium production
plant.
The greatest number of problems related to the activa-
tion of landslides occur in building line structures,
mainly roads. Most frequently the landslides are
undercut (release of the accumulation part) or the
upper scar loaded.
In solving the road rerouting around the Domaga dam
reservoir an alignment was suggested which runs along
7-10 m of embankments above the scars of old quies-
cent and stabilized landslides. The bedrock here is
marly shales and sandstones of the Central Carpathian
flysch (Paleogene). Shortly after opening the road,
some of the landslides reactivated and caused damage
to the road. In Figure 5 we can see the road deforma-
tion near HoKzikovce. There occurred subsidences
about 6 m deep of a half of the road. The road was
corrected by a pile wall and deep drainage by trenches.
A serious disturbance of the slope stability occurred in
building the road near the town of Doln) Kubin in
1980. The area crossed by the road is of claystones and
 84

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/

\
\
\
12
\
f
J

\
\
HOSPITA
N

6 16 :~o 3'o ~ ~0m

Fig. 3 : Situation of the landslide in the hospital area in Zvolen.
I : scar of an active landslide, 2 : limit of a potential landslide, 3 : a p p r o x i m a t e l i m i t of a stabilized l a n d s l i d e of an older generation,
4 : part scars in the landslide head, 5 : made-up ground, 6 : observed geodetical points, 7 ; m e a s u r i n g line, 8 : profile line, 9 : u n d e r
passage, 10 : d r a i n a g e gravel wall, 11 : h o r i z o n t a l d r a i n a g e boreholes, 12 : panels, 13 : s t a b i l i z a t i o n fill, 14 : p e r i m e t e r c a t c h m e n t trench,
15 : boundary.

Fig. 4 : A c t i v a t i o n of a quiescent l a n d s l i d e by loading the scar part Fig. 5 : D i s t u r b a n c e of the road by l a n d s l i d e near Hol~ikovce.
with a d u m p of excavated m a t e r i a l from the s e t t l e m e n t in
Ziar nad H r o n o m .
 85
stanstones of the Central Carpathian flysch I Paleo-
gene). The dip of layers is 20-25 ~ to the north-west.
After excavation to a depth of 6-8 m there appeared
signs of movement on the slope. Part of the old
stabilized landslide reactivated. Not only was the
realigned constructed road endangered, but also the
railway track and road, which ran closely beneath the
deformed slope (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 : C o r r e c t i o n w o r k s on the landslide near D o l n y K u b i m
activated d u r i n g road c o n s t r u c n o n .
Construction was stopped. Further excavation to the
originally planned level could not be undertaken. The
alignment was raised and the slope corrected by three
anchored abutment walls (two one above the other)
founded on piles. In addition, the sliding slope was
drained by horizontal drainage boreholes and surface
drainage of the landslide was undertaken.
The area where people by their technical structures
have intervened most in the natural environment is the
creation of water reservoirs by building dams. Apart
from other influences, exercised by reservoirs on the
environment, also important is the activation of slope
deformation along the reservoir perimeter. The activa-
ted landslides decrease the reservoir volume, damage
structures in the reservoir surroundings, and they may
even cause damage to the dam itself. The activation of
landslides usually has two causes. The first is the fact
that by flooding the lower part of lands [ides the statical
balance is impaired, because the gravity of part of the
accumulation is decreased by the upward pressure,
meanwhile loading above the surface is not decreased.
Simultaneously the shear strength of the rock is decrea-
sed. With rapid lowering of the water level the rock is
stressed by the flow pressure, or the effect of water
pressure will appear in the pores. All these factors
decrease seriously the degree of slope stability and
cause the reactivation of landslides.
The second cause are waves causing abrasion of the
banks. As far as the abrasion takes place in the lower
part of a stabilized landslide, the weight of the accumu-
lation part is decreased and landslide instability increa-
ses until it is reactivated.
Problems of stability of slopes occurred in the construc-
tion of almost all dams in Slovakia. Mainly on the
banks of reservoirs constructed in flysch areas the
landslides become active m great number. On one of
the activated landslides near the reservoir of the Orava
dam stands a hotel, so the landslide had to be correc-
ted. Similarly endangered was the recreation centre na
Polanfich near the bank of the Velk~ Domaga dam. The
activated landslide was correctec[ by a pile wall.
Engineering geological documents to prevent activa-
tion of landslides
With regard to the protection of agricultural soil, the
foundation conditions always become more complica-
ted in Slovakia. Construction. apart from other things,
is pushed also to the area of unstable slopes.
In many towns of Slovakia the new residential quarters
are built on unstable slopes. In Kogice. Handlovs
Prievidza, Zvolen and Pova~.sk~i Bystrica preventive
correction measures had to be taken to ensure the
stability of slopes on which urban units are built.
The most complicated was the construction of the
urban unit of Dargov heros in Kogice, where anchored
pilot walls, supporting pile walls and horizontal drai-
nage boreholes were used as preventive correction
measures (Nem~ok, 1982).
For the rational suggestion of preventive measures it is
necessary to have a special analytical engineering
geological map of slope deformations (Malgot & Mahr,
1979).
In Figure 7 is part of a similar engineering geological
map, which was prepared for the purpose of suggest-
ing a route for a highway in complicated engineering
geological conditions. It is the highway section in the
surroundings of the town of Ru~omberok.
From the stand point of minimum intervention in the
environment of the settlement and to make possible
further urban development of the town, the northern
alternative of the highway crossing around the town
was accepted. Two variants of the alignment were
studied. One bypasses the mountain of 12ebrad from
the south, the other passes under the mountain by a
tunnel.
The alignment in this part crosses the territory built by
sedimentary Mesozoic rocks of the Kri~na and Cho~
Mts nappe. The mountain of t2ebra6 above Ru2umbe-
rok represents a tectonic outlier of the Cho~ nappe. The
limestone and dolomites of the Cho~ unit here were
thrust northerly over the marls and marly limestones of
the Kri2na unit. When advancing, lateral erosion of the
Vfih river disturbed the stability of slopes, powerful
block deformations occurred, which used the displace-
ment plane of the nappe as the shear plane (Mahr &
JfinovS., 1984). Blocks of solid brittle rocks of the Cho6
nappe with dimensions of the order of several hundreds
of metres began to detach from the mass along the
planes of mechanical discontinuity and displaced
gradually towards the Vfih river bed (in the opposite
dirertion that they were originally thrust in the nappe).
 86

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Fig. 7 : Slope deformations o n the south-western slope of the Cebrad mountain.

1 : made-up grounds, 2 : alluvium, 3 : deluvial sediments, 4 : loamy-stony material of block fields, 5 : fluvial sediments of terraces (1-5 :
Quaternary), 6 : light limestones (Noric), 7 : hornfels limestones (upper Ladinian), 8 : dolomites (Ladinian), 9 : grey limestones
(Anissian, 6-9 : Cho6 nappe), 10 : shales (Barem - middle Albian), 11 : marls and marly limestones (Berias - Hauteriv, 10-11 : Kri2na
nappe), 12 : scars of block fields, 13 : significant blocks in the block field, 14 : blocks in landslides, 15 : active planar landslides, 16 :
potential (quieted) planar landslides, 17 : stabilized planar landslides, 18 : potential flow landslides, 19 : catchment area of wall flows,
20 : wall-alluvial cones, 21 : scars of rock falls, 22 : ruptures, 23 : water courses, 24 : springs, 25 : c a t c h m e n t s of springs, 26 : waterlogged
areas, 27 : outlets of the displacement planes of nappes, 28 : alternatives of alignment of the suggested highway. -
 87

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The water, seeping gradually through the disintegrating
brittle rocks (limestones and dolomites) of the Cho6
nappe, concentrates on the displacement plane and
over the impermeable plastic rocks, flows down on the
shear plane. In the lower part of the slopes it emerges
in the form of powerful springs, from which several are
collected to supply the town with water.
Landslides developed in the foreground of the block
deformations, which in certain places had already
damaged structures on the southern slope of the
Cebrad, as well as the railway track passing at the slope
foot.
Both variants of the solution affect the slope deforma-
tions on the southern slope of 12ebrad. They almost
exclude the possibility of realizing the variant passing
by the bank so much the more that from the stand point
of damping the noise the alignment was suggested in a
deep cut. The correction of the slope would be expen-
sive and uncertain. They affected also the choice of the
tunnel alignment alternative. From the stand point of
ensuring stability of the northern tunnel face, the most
northern alternative was chosen, which ends in the
rocks of the Kri~na nappe. In this alternative it is also
most probable that the tunnel will avoid the boundary,
and thus also the danger of excessive water inflows to
the tunnel.
With regard to the present problems, which occurred
with the activation of landslides on the banks of
reservoirs built in the flysch zone. landslides in the
surroundings of the future reservoir of Novfi Bystrica
were also studied (Mahr, Malgot & Baliak, 1977). In
Figure 8 there is a simplified representation from the
map of slope deformations, which was prepared for
this purpose.
It is necessary to prepare zoning maps for a total
evaluation of the territory and to enable the use of the
sliding areas (Mahr & Malgot, 1978).
Conclusion
In the basins and flysch areas of Slovakia there is an
extensive part of the territory affected by sliding.
Frequently activation of landslides occur during
construction, because the major part of settlement is
also concentrated in these areas.
The quiet landslides activate under the action of more
significant natural factors, and have morphological
forms sufficiently clear to be identifiable in the engi-
neering geological investigation. Their activation is
usually due to a gross error of the engineering geologi-
cal investigation or to ignorance in building produc-
tion, or by design.
The stabilized landslides reactivate by natural factors.
Their forms are concealed by deluvial processes and by
agricultural activity. The detection of these landslides
in the engineering geological investigation is difficult.
This is why in most cases of activation caused by
building they were just stabilized landslides.
In order to avoid devastation of the environment and
extensive material damages, special analytical enginee-
ring geological maps of slope deformations are prepa-
red for the construction of greater units. These maps
are prepared by engineering geologists specialized in
mapping slope deformations.
Engineering geological documents containing maps of
slope deformations make possible the use of unstable
areas for urban development. It is important mainly
because the law on the protection of agricultural soil
does not allow areas to be taken for construction,
which, as a matter of fact, though more suitable for the
foundation of buildings, are inevitably necessary to
ensure the sustenance of the population.
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