NPTEL – Mechanical Engineering – Continuum Mechanics

Module-4: Balance Laws

Lecture-32: The Principle of Frame-Indifference

The principle of frame-indifference states that the form of governing equations must be
independent of frame of reference. In other words, there is no preferred frame such as
‘inertial’ frame in classical mechanics setup. In this lecture, we shall see the assumptions
that are required to make mass balance and laws of dynamics independent of frame of
reference.

Law of mass conservation:

Let ρ∗ , F ∗ and v ∗ be density, deformation gradient and velocity fields observed by observer
in frame F ∗ and ρ, F and v be density, deformation gradient and velocity fields observed
by observer in frame F . As it was pointed out in previous lecture, the position vectors
and times in frames F ∗ and F are related by the following Euclidean transformation:

x∗ = Q(t)x + c(t),
t∗ = t − s,

where Q(t) represents relative rotation, c(t) represents relative translation and s repre-
sents the time difference in clocks.

Let J ∗ and J be determinant of F ∗ and F . Then, as we proved in previous lecture, the

relation between the determinant of deformation gradients and divergence of velocities
can be written as
J ∗ = J and ∇x∗ · v ∗ = ∇x · v. (1)
Let ρ0 (X) be density of reference configuration and which is not affected by frame of
reference. Then the mass balance in Lagrangian framework can be written as

ρ0 = ρ∗ J ∗ = ρJ. (2)

Substituting Eq. (1)1 in Eq. (2), we get

ρ∗ = ρ. (3)

Thus, the density is frame-indifferent. Substituting Eqs. (3) and (1)2 in conservation of
mass, we get
Dρ∗ Dρ
+ ρ∗ ∇x∗ · v ∗ = 0 =⇒ + ρ∇x · v = 0. (4)
Dt Dt
Thus, conservation of mass has same form in all frames.
Conservation of linear momentum:
We now postulate that traction vector is frame-indifferent. Consequently, the Cauchy

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stress tensor becomes frame-indifferent. We emphasize that the frame-indifference nature

of stress tensor cannot be derived from kinematics without using the postulate.

Let Ω be a material volume in deformed configuration B and Γ be its boundary. Let

n and n be normal field observed by the frames of reference F ∗ and F , respectively.
∗

Let Ω0 be a part of reference configuration B0 which is corresponding to Ω. Let Γ0 be

boundary of Ω0 and n0 be field of unit normal to Γ0 . Then
∗ (cof F ∗ )n0
n =
|(cof F ∗ )n0 |
(cof(QF ))n0
=
|(cof(QF ))n0 |
(cof(Q)cof(F ))n0
=
|(cof(Q)cof(F ))n0 |
Q(cof(F )n0 )
=
|(Q(cof(F )n0 )|
(cof F )n0
= Q
|(cof F )n0 |
= Qn. (5)
Let t∗ (x∗ , t∗ , n∗ ) and t(x, t, n) be traction vectors observed by frames F ∗ and F , respec-
tively. Then the postulate of traction frame-indifferent can be written as
t∗ = Qt. (6)
Let τ ∗ and τ be Cauchy stress field in F ∗ and F . Then we obtain
t∗ = τ ∗ n∗ = τ ∗ Qn (Using Eq. (5))
Qt = τ ∗ Qn (Using Eq. (6))
=⇒ t = QT τ ∗ Qn
=⇒ τ n = QT τ ∗ Qn
=⇒ (τ − QT τ ∗ Q)n = 0.
Since n is arbitrary, we get
τ ∗ = Qτ QT . (7)
Thus, the Cauchy stress tensor is frame-indifferent.
We now see transformation for the term ∇x · τ that appear in first Cauchy’s equation
of motion.
∂τij∗ ∗
∇ x∗ · τ ∗ = e
∂x∗j i
∂τmn ∗
= Qim Qjn e
∂x∗j i
∂τmn
= Qim Qjn Qjk e∗i
∂xk
∂τmn ∗
= Qim δnk e
∂xk i
∂τmn ∗
= Qim e
∂xn i
= Q∇x · τ .

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Therefore, the vector ∇x · τ is frame-indifferent. Let a and b be acceleration and body

force per unit mass fields, respectively, in frame F ; a∗ and b∗ be acceleration and body
force per unit mass fields, respectively, in frame F ∗ . Then we have

a∗ = Qa + 2Q̇v + Q̈x + c̈.

We note that the first Cauchy’s equation of motion in F ∗ and F can be written as

∇x∗ · τ ∗ = ρ∗ (a∗ − b∗ ), ∇x · τ = ρ(a − b).

In order to satisfy principle of frame-indifference for the linear momentum balance, we

must have
b∗ = Qb + 2Q̇v + Q̈x + c̈. (8)
We can observe that both acceleration and body force per unit mass are not frame-
indifferent but the difference of these two, i.e., the quantity ρ(a − b), is frame-indifferent.
The body force per unit mass observed by moving frame F can be written as

b = QT b∗ − 2QT Q̇v − QT Q̈x − QT c̈.

The frame-spin W f = Q̇QT is skewsymmetric tensor. Consequently, QT W f Q and

QT Ẇ f Q are also skewsymmetric tensors. The vector field b can be represented in terms
of W f as   2 
b = QT b∗ − 2QT W f Qv − QT Ẇ f + W f Qx − QT c̈.

Using the relation Q̇ = W f Q, we can obtain

d
(QT W f Q) = QT Ẇ f Q.
dt
Let ω be an axial vector of QT W f Q. Then the time derivative of axial vector, i.e., ω̇, is
the axial vector of QT Ẇ f Q. Thus, we have

b = QT b∗ − 2ω × v − ω̇ × x − ω × (ω × x) − QT c̈.

The terms other than QT b∗ are arising due to relative motion between reference frames.
These terms are usually known as

• 2ω × v Coriolis force,

• ω̇ × x Euler force,

• ω × (ω × x) centrifugal force,

• QT c̈ inertial force of relative translation.

Galilean transformation:
The Galilean transformation is a special case of Euclidean transformation where Q and
ċ are constants. Physically, in Galilean transformation the frames move at constant lin-
ear velocity with respect to each other. It can be noted that Coriolis force, Euler force,

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centrifugal force and inertial force of relative translation becomes zero in Galilean trans-
formation. Hence, the acceleration and body force per unit mass are frame-indifferent,
i.e,
b∗ = Qb and a∗ = Qa.
Thus, the linear momentum balance is naturally frame-indifferent in Galilean transfor-
mation. In other words, the linear momentum balance has same form in all frames that
are related by Galilean transformation.
Conservation of angular momentum:
We have shown in Lecture-27 that the conservation of angular momentum is equivalent
to symmetry of Cauchy stress tensor. Let τ ∗ and τ be Cauchy stress fields observed by
the frames F ∗ and F , respectively. Using frame-indifference nature of Cauchy stress and
symmetry property in frame F , we have
 T
(τ ∗ )T = Qτ QT = Qτ T QT = Qτ QT = τ ∗ .

Thus, angular momentum has same form in all frames.

We note that the first law of thermodynamics along with principle of frame-indifference
give rise to all other balance laws. This topic will be discussed in the next lecture. We
now see the material time derivative of stress with change of frame.
Frame-indifferent stress rates:
Even though the Cauchy stress tensor is frame-indifferent, we now show that the ma-
terial time derivative of Cauchy stress tensor is not frame-indifferent. Let τ ∗ and τ be
Cauchy stress fields observed from frames F ∗ and F , respectively. Then taking material
derivative of τ ∗ , we get
Dτ ∗ D   Dτ T
= Qτ QT = Q̇τ QT + Q Q + Qτ Q̇T .
Dt Dt Dt
Clearly, the stress rate is objective if and only if

Q̇τ QT + Qτ Q̇T = 0, ∀Q ∈ Orth+ .

Since W f is skewsymmetric tensor and Q̇ = W f Q, we get

W f Qτ QT = Qτ QT W f .

The skewsymmetric tensor W f is arbitrary as Q is arbitrary rotation tensor. This implies

Qτ QT = λI,

where λ is some constant. Hence, Cauchy stress tensor must have the form τ = λI if
its material time derivative is frame-indifferent. However, in general the Cauchy stress
tensor need not have the form of λI. Thus, in general, the material time derivative of
Cauchy stress is not frame-indifferent.
The rate of stress is required to represent the constitutive relations of rate-dependent
materials. These constitutive relations demand the frame-indifferent stress rates as they
are necessarily frame-indifferent. Clearly, as shown above, the rate of Cauchy stress is not

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frame-indifferent. Thus, we now construct a stress rate that is frame-indifferent using the
invariance nature of second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor.
S ∗ = J (F )−1 τ ∗ (F )−T
= JF −1 Q−1 Qτ QT Q−T F −T
= JF −1 τ F −T
= S
Since the Piola-Kirchhoff stress is invariant, the material time derivative is also invariant,
i.e.,
DS ∗ DS
= .
Dt Dt
Taking material derivative of relation S = JF −1 τ F −T , we get
DS D  −1 
= JF τ F −T
Dt Dt
DJ −1 DF −1 Dτ −T DF −T
= F τ F −T + J τ F −T + JF −1 F + JF −1 τ
Dt Dt Dt Dt
Dτ
= (tr L)F −1 τ F −T + JF −1 Lτ F −T + JF −1 F −T + JF −1 τ LT F −T
Dt
Dτ
 
= JF −1 − Lτ − τ LT + (tr L)τ F −T ,
Dt
where
Dτ
τ◦ = − Lτ − τ LT + (tr L)τ . (9)
Dt
is known as Truesdell stress rate. It is easy to see that the Truesdell stress rate τ ◦ is
frame-indifferent. Using material rate of second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, we can
write
1 DS T
τ◦ = F F .
J Dt
Let (τ ◦ )∗ and τ ◦ be Truesdell stress rates which are observed by frames F ∗ and F . Then
1 ∗ DS ∗
(τ ◦ )∗ = ∗
F (F ∗ )T
J Dt
1 DS T T
= QF F Q
J Dt
= Qτ ◦ QT .
We can obtain alternative frame-indifferent stress rates using Lie derivative. The Lie
derivative of spatial tensor field G with respect to another tensor field P is defined by
D  −1
  
LP (G) = P P GP −T P T .
Dt
Many frame-indifferent stress rates can be obtained using the Lie derivative by appropri-
ately choosing G and P in above definition. We note that the Truesdell stress rate can
also be defined using Lie derivative.
Truesdell stress rate:
Let LF (Jτ ) be the Lie derivative of Jτ with respect to F . Then the Truesdell stress rate
τ ◦ is defined by LF (Jτ )/J. Hence, we can write
1 D  −1
  
τ◦ = F F Jτ F −T F T .
J Dt

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DF −1
Substituting = −F −1 L, we get Eq. (9).
Dt
Oldroyd stress rate:
The Oldroyd stress rate τ  is defined as Lie derivative of τ with respect to F , i.e.,
D  −1
  

τ =F F τ F −T F T .
Dt
DF −1
Using the relation = −F −1 L, we have
Dt
Dτ
τ = − Lτ − τ LT . (10)
Dt

Convective stress rate:

The convective stress τ  is defined as the Lie derivative of τ with respect to F −T , i.e.,
D  T
 
 −T
τ =F F τ F F −1 .
Dt
DF
Using the relation = LF , we have
Dt
Dτ
τ = + LT τ + τ L. (11)
Dt

Green-Naghdi stress rate:

Let R be a rotation tensor that appears in polar decomposition of F , i.e., F = RU =
V R, where U and V are right and left stretch tensors. Then the Green-Naghdi stress
rate τ M is defined as the Lie derivative of τ with respect to R.
D  T  
τ =RM
R τ R RT .
Dt
DR T
Since R is skewsymmetric tensor, we have
Dt
Dτ DR T DR T
τM = − R τ +τ R . (12)
Dt Dt Dt

Jaumann stress rate:

We define Jaumann stress rate τ ∇ as average of Oldroyd and convective stress rates. Since
sum of frame-indifferent quantities is frame-indifferent, Jaumann stress rate is also frame
1
indifferent. Let W be skewsymmetric part of L, i.e., W = (L − LT ). Then Jaumann
2
stress rate can be written as
Dτ
τ∇ = − Wτ + τW. (13)
Dt
It can be verified that τ  , τ  , τ M and τ ∇ are frame-indifferent. Observing all the
stress rates that are discussed above, we can generalize the frame-indifferent material
time derivative of tensor fields.

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Frame-indifferent material time derivative of tensor fields:

Let G be a frame-indifferent field, i.e., G∗ and G in frames F ∗ and F are related by

G∗ = QGQT .

Then the material time derivative of G is not frame-indifferent.

We now choose a tensor field P such that

P ∗ = QP ,

where P ∗ and P are observed by F ∗ and F . Then the frame-indifferent rate can be
DG DP
obtained in terms of G, P , and using the Lie derivative
Dt Dt
D  −1
  
LP (G) = P P GP −T P T . (14)
Dt
Thus, various frame-indifferent rates of both stresses and strains can be obtained.

References

1. C. S. Jog, Foundations and Applications of Mechanics: Continuum Mechanics,

Volume-I, 2007, Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

2. J. Bonet and R. D. Wood, Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics for Finite Element

Analysis, 1997, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

5. I-S. Liu, Continuum Mechanics, 2002, Springer, Berlin.

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