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Lecture 1 Notes ​Sociological Imagination and Sociological Theories

Introduction:

​ ​Many students who take sociology courses appreciate how sociology deals
with familiar topics.

​ ​In this way, sociology feels relevant and applicable to everyday issues. One
of the things that students find useful about sociology is that it often provides a
way of understanding one’s personal experiences. While sociology provides a
unique perspective for understanding the social world, many of you already think
sociologically in your observations of the world, particularly in noticing social
patterns around you.

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Today we are going to look at the following questions:

1. What is Sociology?
2. What is the Sociological Perspective?
3. What is the Sociological Imagination, C. Wright Mills? How can we apply
the sociological imagination to some of the trends we see in contemporary
Canadian families and households?
4. What are the main sociological approaches/theories?

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1. What is sociology?

Sociology is the systematic study of human society. Sociologists conduct research

in order to systematically study our social world. Sociologists use various theories
and research methods, including qualitative and quantitative methods, to try to
understand society. Sociology provides us with the tools to connect our ideas,
feelings, behaviours, experiences, and relationships to our wider society. This
includes both local and global contexts in the past and present. It is a way of
understanding and contextualizing personal experiences and drawing connections
between personal experiences and broader social forces.

2. What is the Sociological Perspective?

The sociological perspective sees general patterns of society in the lives of

particular people. This means that sociologists identify general patterns in the
behaviour of particular individuals and social patterns in society. Although each
person is unique and each person has individual agency, sociologists recognize that
society acts differently on various categories of people. Categories might include
women versus men, the rich versus the poor. We think sociologically when we
realize how the general categories into which we happen to fall shape our
particular life experiences.
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Let’s consider the example of overqualified workers to understand this sociological
perspective.

In Canada we have seen an increase in the past few decades of overqualified

workers. Overqualified workers are those workers who have a university degree
yet they are working in a job that that requires only a high school diploma or less.

How can we explain this? The sociological perspective points us away from
relying on explanations that focus on individual-level characteristics and towards
other social factors and social forces that help to explain the rise in overqualified
workers. individual level
-
social

=/
factors
2 ] Bigger
characteristics social forces perspective
✗ ✓
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Earlier generations of Canadians who had a postsecondary education were more

likely to obtain professional careers and to find careers related to their field of
study. Transformations in the economy include increased credentialism.
Credentialism refers to the fact that employers are now demanding higher levels of
education. This has resulted in a situation where more Canadians are pursuing
postsecondary education and an increasing number of postsecondary graduates are
working in jobs that only require a high school education or less. As our labour
market has changed, a growing number of Canadians with university degrees and
college diplomas are working in jobs that they are overqualified for.

Sociologists are interested in social patterns such as uncovering whether some

groups are more likely to experience over qualification. Canadian survey data find
that immigrants, particularly those who have postsecondary education from outside
of North America, are more likely to be working in jobs they are overqualified for.
Younger workers are also more likely to be overqualified for their jobs. This
reflects their lack of workplace experience which makes it harder to find a job in
their field. Canadians with a graduate degree were less likely to be overqualified.
This suggests that increasing levels of postsecondary education reduce the risk of
becoming an overqualified worker. Canadians who graduated with degrees from
programs in the humanities, social sciences, and business administration were
more likely to be overqualified for their jobs.

We begin to think sociologically when we realize that our individual life

experiences are shaped by the society in which we live—as well as by the general
categories into which we fall. In the case of being an overqualified worker, rather
than suggesting that an overqualified worker is somehow to blame for their
employment situation, a sociological perspective highlights how changes in the
economy have made overqualification more common, particularly for immigrants,
young workers, and those without graduate degrees. A sociological perspective
points out that over qualification has become more common in the past two
decades than previous historical periods.

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Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) is an important figure in the development of

sociology. His classic study of suicide provides another example of the power of
society to shape individual destinies and to shape seemingly private and personal
decisions. Durkheim’s study of suicide was important in showcasing the power of
sociological analysis.

Suicide is often understood from a psychological or psychiatric perspective.

Psychological and psychiatric explanations of suicide focus on individual-level
causes for suicide such as mental illness and depression. Durkheim offered a
sociological explanation in showing how rates of suicide varied by factors such as
religious affiliation, gender, and marital status.
dependent

Durkheim’s theory of suicide suggests that the more strongly anchored an

individual is to society, the less likely they are to commit suicide. For Durkheim,
individuals who belong to social groups that create a lot of integration among its
members are less likely to commit suicide as compared to individuals who don’t
belong to social groups, or individuals who belong to social groups that do not
create a lot of integration among its members.
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Durkheim asserted that suicide rates are related to the level of social solidarity unity / agreement
=

w/ people & group

within a group. This referred to the frequency of interaction and level of shared of common interest .

beliefs within a social group. According to Durkheim, if solidarity is very low or

very high, suicide will increase.
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How might we use Durkheim’s theory to explain whether men or women are more
 OF SUICIDE ON GENDER
DURKHEIM'S THEORY
.

likely to commit suicide? Women will have lower rates because they are more
strongly anchored to society through the social connections embedded in their
caregiving roles.
How might we use Durkheim’s theory to explain the association between marital
status and suicide? Married individuals are less likely to commit suicide because
lol
marriage provides greater social integration and social solidarity. not in the 21st century
.

Not only did Durkheim’s theory of suicide explain suicide rates more than a
century ago, his analysis is helpful in understanding contemporary suicide. For
example, men continue to have higher rates of suicide than women.

Durkheim’s theory can be used to explain the high rates of suicide found in
Indigenous communities, particularly among Indigenous youth and children.

Indigenous communities face social, political, and economic disadvantages as a

result of the legacy of colonialism, the Indian Act, reserve system, and residential
schools. Colonialism reduced social solidarity in Indigenous communities and
Indigenous families by separating children from their families, preventing
Indigenous peoples from practicing their spirituality, speaking their language,
practicing their customs, and disrupting their relationship to the land and other
natural resources.

In contemporary society Indigenous communities experience inequalities in access

to health care, social services, educational opportunities, and employment
opportunities. Colonialism has resulted in food insecurity, lack of access to clean
drinking water, affordable nutritious foods, and inadequate and overcrowded
housing.

The problem of suicide among Indigenous youth and children parallels the high
rate of suicide among Black children and youth in the United States. Durkheim’s
theory suggests that social solidarity has been negatively impacted due to social,
political, and economic disadvantages for both Indigenous youth and children in
Canada and Black children in the United States.

3.What is the Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills)? How can we apply
the sociological imagination to some of the trends we see in contemporary
Canadian families and households?

The sociological perspective overlaps conceptually with the term “the sociological
imagination” which was coined by C. Wright Mills in 1959.

The Sociological Imagination is the ability to connect individual experiences

which C. Wright Mills referred to as “private troubles” to a wider social context .
Let’s use our sociological imagination to work through the following examples of
trends in contemporary Canadian families and households.

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Example #1: The prevalence of divorce. How can we use the sociological
imagination to understand the prevalence of divorce in Canada?

Most people know someone who is divorced. We can use the sociological
imagination to explain the prevalence of divorce, and in doing so move away from
individual-level reasons why a particular couple might have divorced. From this
perspective, rather than reflecting on the shortcomings of individuals or of
individual couples, the prevalence of divorce can be attributed to numerous
broader social changes.
Some of these changes are as follows:
• We have seen demographic change with increasing life expectancy. As life
expectancy increases people have to stay married longer. We have seen an
increase in older people getting divorced, sometimes after decades of
marriage.
• Changes to divorce legislation make divorce more accessible from a legal
standpoint. The introduction of legislated equal division of matrimonial
property and child and spousal support have altered the financial
consequences of divorce, particularly for women.
mark
disgrace
of
• The declining stigma surrounding divorce means that fewer people feel they
have to stay married to avoid being stigmatized.
• Our society has also been characterized by increased secularism (a move away
from organized religion) and as a result many people do not feel religious
pressure to stay married. For example, some Canadians have left opposite
sex relationships to pursue same sex relationships as a result of increasing
secularism and changing ideas and legislation impacting the LGBTQ+
community. For example, the legislation of same sex marriage in Canada in
2005 provided the opportunity for same sex couples to legally marry.
• Women’s labour force participation provides women with greater financial
security independent of a husband; in earlier periods women needed to stay
married because they were financially dependent on their husband.
Women’s increased financial independence was brought about by increasing
female labour force participation and increasing levels of educational
attainment for women, in particular rising levels of postsecondary education
for women.
• _____________________________________________________________

• Some have argued that our expectations of a spouse have increased and that
 these higher expectations are unrealistic. This may lead people to get a
divorce if they feel their spouse has not met their expectations.
• Shifting ideas about appropriate roles for men and women inside and outside
the home may cause tension and conflict among heterosexual couples if they
are not able to agree about gender roles. Unequal sharing of housework and
childcare is a huge cause of marital dissatisfaction and we know that many
couples have an unequal division of housework and childcare.
• Most parents work full-time and inadequate social supports, for instance,
affordable universal childcare, may lead to marital conflict and tension.
• Greater diversity in intimate relationships and families have also shaped
divorce rates as individuals have greater choices about how their relationship
status, living arrangements, caregiving, and sexual relationships might
intersect.
• Somehave suggested that social media and smart phones have increased
opportunities for infidelity (cheating) which can lead to divorce.
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Example #2: The trend of smaller Canadians households. How can we use the
sociological imagination to understand the trend towards smaller households in
Canada?

Over time, Canadian households have shrunk. The sociological imagination

encourages us to look at the broader social changes that have created smaller
Canadian households. Declining fertility is one reason for our smaller households.
Why has fertility declined in Canada? The sociological imagination can be used to
understand the social changes that lead to declining fertility. Historically, the
decriminalization of contraception and abortion provided greater opportunities for
women to control their childbearing. The women’s movement brought more
women into paid employment and postsecondary education. These opportunities
provided women with a greater degree of financial independence to forego
marriage, delay marriage, or leave unhappy or unhealthy marriages. Postsecondary
education delays childbearing and this shortens women’s reproductive years which
results in smaller families.
As more women work full-time the challenges of juggling paid work with
caregiving lead women to limit family size.
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The increasing costs of children, including childcare, result in many
Canadians having fewer children. Societal attitudes about remaining childless
have also changed. There is less stigma today surrounding childlessness as
compared to earlier generations. Infertility has increased and this helps to explain
declining fertility and smaller households, yet many individuals and couples are
voluntarily childless. As more couples decide to remain childless there is less
stigma for this non-traditional choice. Greater acceptance of voluntary
childlessness provides more opportunities for others to make the same choice.
 New reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) allow people to
postpone decisions about partnering or parenting. All of these factors help to
explain declining fertility which is part of the story of why Canadian households
have shrunk over time.
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Smaller households in Canada also reflect the growth in one-person
Canadian households. According to the most recent 2016 Canadian Census, one-
person households were the most common Canadian household structure (Statistics
Canada, 2016).
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The following diagram shows this. The increase in one-person households

had been happening for decades and has also been happening in other
industrialized countries (Statistics Canada, 2017). Many Canadians who are
currently living alone lived with others previously. We can use the sociological
imagination to consider how broader social changes have led to the rise in one-
person households in Canada.
Our population is aging which means there are more Canadian seniors living alone
after the death of their spouse. The rise in divorce, including divorce among older
Canadians also helps to explain the increase in one-person households.
There are an increasing number of Canadians who are financially independent and
do not need to partner to maintain a household. Compared to earlier generations
more women today have the financial means to live independently. While many
Canadian households require two pay cheques to pay the bills, higher-earning
Canadians are not reliant on a second pay cheque to maintain their own household.
Thus this financial reality helps to explain the increase in one-person households;
people are living alone because they can afford to do so. Many Canadians do not
earn enough to maintain their own household; married or cohabiting couples can
pool incomes and share household expenditures.
People are getting married later in life, thus some of the one-person
households counted in the 2016 Census are individuals who may live with a
partner at a future point in time. People are also getting divorced at higher rates
and some of these individuals live alone either temporarily or permanently. There
has been an increase in the number of Canadians who have experienced simps
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relationship dissolution (break up) who do not repartner. Those that do repartner
are taking longer to repartner which increases the number of one-person
households in Canada.
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Why are an increasing number of Canadians who have experienced the end of a
marriage or cohabiting relationship not repartnering? We can use the sociological
imagination to explore this as well.
Some Canadians are not repartnering because of financial reasons. Family
law in Canada structures financial obligations when couples break up, including
cohabiting couples. These financial obligations include a division of assets
(including pensions), child support, and spousal support (which many people refer
to as alimony). Canadians who have experienced financial obligations such as
child support, spousal support, and division of assets, may view repartnership as
financially risky. Many older Canadians who have lost a spouse due to death or
divorce and have grown children and grandchildren may not repartner because they
want their estate to go to their adult children and grandchildren when they die and
they don’t want a lifetime of assets to go to a new partner or spouse.
Financial concerns also impede young adults. For instance, young adults
who have paid down their student loans may not want to partner with someone
who brings debt into a relationship. The issue of financial compatibility is true of
all ages; individuals with high incomes or considerable assets, including a pension
or property, may not want to repartner with someone who lacks assets and carries
debt.
Financial concerns are not the only reason Canadians are not repartnering.
Single-parent Canadians may decide against repartnering because of the
challenges associated with merging households and blending families. Concerns
about potential step-siblings not getting along and co-parenting with a new spouse
may deter some Canadians from repartnering. Single parents are less likely to
repartner or take longer to repartner because they have less time to invest in dating
or new relationships. Women are more likely to have these caregiving
responsibilities which explains why women are less likely to repartner and take
longer to repartner. The decision of a growing number of Canadian single parents
to not form a blended family keeps households smaller.
Ideas about marriage, relationships, dating, and self-fulfillment have also
changed. Compared to earlier generations Canadians are less likely to believe that
marriage or being in a relationship is a requirement for self-fulfillment. There is
greater acceptance of the notion that individuals don’t have to be in a relationship
and can focus on other aspects of their lives. There is less stigma for people who
are single and live alone, particularly women. In the past people felt more social
pressure to be in a relationship or be married. Increased secularism means that
fewer people feel pressured into marriage due to their religion. More people than
ever before reject the idea that individuals are defined by their relationship status.
Many people prefer to date rather than cohabit or marry. Ideas about sexual
relationships have changed and Canadians have greater choices today about their
sexual relationships, dating, and living arrangements. People have greater
opportunities for pursuing sexual relationships and romantic relationships without
having to cohabit or marry. More Canadians are having sex outside of a
relationship context and social attitudes towards sex have changed.
One-person households also reflect the increase in Living Apart Together (LAT
couples). LAT couples live apart for many reasons including that they have jobs or
other responsibilities keeping them in different geographical areas.
Some people who are single and live alone would prefer not to be single. Many
individuals choose to live alone in order to pursue other life goals, including career
or personal goals. Individuals may view cohabitation or marriage as an obstacle to
pursuing other goals. Individuals may prefer to live alone because they don’t want
to make the compromises that come with marriage or cohabitation. For instance,
singlehood and living alone frees people from the weight of dealing with a
partner’s problems or familial obligations.
As people delay marriage and cohabitation they are spending longer periods of
time single and living alone. This means that they have to make adjustments to
living with a partner. Those that become accustomed to living alone may be
reluctant to give up their autonomy and may not want to transition to shared living
space and shared daily routines.
In summary, we can use the sociological imagination to identify the social changes
that have resulted in smaller Canadian households. Declining fertility, the rise in
one-person households, and the decline in the number of Canadians repartnering
following a divorce or break up are implicated in the overall trend of smaller
Canadian households.
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Example #3: The prevalence of adult children living with their parents or returning
to live with their parents (referred to as delayed home leaving). How can we use
the sociological imagination to understand the prevalence of delayed home leaving
in Canada?

The number of adult children living with parents has increased in Canada and
many other industrialized countries (Statistics Canada, 2017).
The terms boomerang adults, revolving door, and cluttered nest have also been
used to describe the trend of delayed home-leaving.
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According to the 2016 Canadian Census almost 35% of all Canadians aged 20 to
34 were living with at least one parent (Statistics Canada, 2017). This can be seen
here (chart).
Among young Ontarians the number is even higher; more than 42% of young
adults were living with their parents (Statistics Canada, 2017).
In places like Toronto and Oshawa Ontario almost one in two young adults were
living with their parents (Statistics Canada, 2017). There has been a significant
increase in young adults living with parents in the last three decades.
Rather than relying on individual-level explanations for delayed home-leaving, the
sociological imagination encourages us to look at broader social factors that help to
account for this trend.
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What are the broader social forces that help to explain the increase in delayed
home-leaving?
Credentialism is the idea that more education is needed today to successfully
compete in the labour market as compared to earlier generations of Canadians.
Young people are spending more years in postsecondary education. The rising
costs of postsecondary education and student debt, the lack of affordable housing,
and the growth in precarious employment are implicated in this trend.
Young Canadians today are less likely to cohabit with a boyfriend or girlfriend as
 compared to their parents’ generation because they often cannot afford to do so.
Sometimes adult children return to live with parents for emotional support or help
with childcare following a break up.
The notion that young adults financially exploit their parents is inaccurate as many
Canadians describe these relationships as mutually supportive.
Delayed home-leaving is shaped by gender. Females leave home at earlier ages as
compared to males. Women’s earlier age of leaving home reflects their earlier age
at marriage and cohabitation and also their greater likelihood of partnering and
establishing an independent household with older males.
Delayed home-leaving is also shaped by family structure. Adult children whose
parents have divorced leave home at earlier ages as compared to those whose
parents have not divorced. The earlier home-leaving of adult children from
divorced parents may lead to long-term disadvantage in terms of home ownership
because rates of home ownership are higher for adults who live with their parents
in their early to mid-twenties. If you have ever heard your parents say that you
should live at home to save money for a house, the evidence backs this up.
Theories

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social social
4.What are the main sociological approaches/theories? order
change

stability ]
1
social
Before I describe each of the sociological approaches I will describe ways of social
evolution
categorizing these approaches or theories.
support
status
quo
Theories can be seen as either social change or social order theories. This means that
they either focus on social change or they focus on social order. Change theories
focus on social change and perhaps even social revolution. Most sociological
theories are change theory.

Order theories focus on social stability and support the status quo. They do not promote
social change or social revolution. 8

Theories can be either focused on the macro level of society meaning how institutions
and social structures impact social groups and individuals. For example, how did
the emergence of industrialization impact society and how did it change work and
family life?
Symbolic Inter
.
. . .

Theories can also focus on micro-level interactions such as face to face conversations,
text exchanges between individuals or interactions between people via social
media, phone, email etc. By focussing on micro-level interactions the suggestion is
that individuals actively create society through their daily, even minute to minute
 interactions. The idea that society is not this external thing that is imposed on us,
rather society is something that is actively created and negotiated each day through
people’s micro-level interactions such as their online interactions.

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The Structural Functional Approach (Structural functionalism)
The Structural Functional Approach is also referred to as structural functionalism.
It is an order theory; focusing on social order and its view of society is at a macro
level.
According to structural functionalism, society is characterized by consensus over
shared values. We all agree on what is important in society. The approach focuses
on social solidarity.
This theory promotes a view of society that focuses on social order and stability.
Functionalists view society as being analogous to the human body.
The human body is made up of parts that are all interrelated.
If one part breaks down, this adversely impacts other body parts
Structural functionalists view society as being made up of many parts. Some of
these parts are institutions. For instance, the family is a social institution. Other
institutions include educational institutions, economic institutions, and political
institutions. If one part of society breaks down, this adversely impacts other parts
of society.
Equilibrium or balance is maintained if all parts of society are working smoothly.
Functionalist -

'" '
entirety working
structuralist -
the
pony
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The following scholars are associated with Structural Functionalism:
Emile Durkheim
August Comte
Herbert Spencer
Robert Merton
These scholars are introduced in chapter 1. Another important structural
functionalist was Talcott Parsons-- who we will study later in the course when we
look at families.
Structural functionalists tend to look at the function of various social phenomena.
Let me give you an example.
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Social inequality—that some of us have more economic resources, make more
money than others.
Structural functionalists have suggested that inequality is functional for society.
Why? What is their argument?
This will be explored in more detail later in the course when we cover stratification
and inequality, and specifically cover the theory proposed by 2 structural
functionalists Davis and Moore—but I’ll give it to you in a nutshell now.
They argue that some jobs are more important for society than other jobs. They
{argue that we need to pay some people more because they are doing more
important work. So, in this way, structural functionalists would argue that social
inequality is functional for society. Without it, we couldn’t be able to motivate
people to do all of the training necessary to fill the most important jobs. Of course
there are problems with this kind of rationale and we will explore this further when
we revisit Davis and Moore’s functionalist theory of inequality.
Structural functionalism has been criticized for emphasizing social order and
neglecting social conflict, social inequality, and social problems. For example, it
doesn’t address inequalities related to social class, gender, race, etc. In this way, it
has been criticized for reinforcing the status quo.
It assumes shared values in society however the reality is that there are many
different groups in society who do not share the same values. For example,
politically liberal versus conservative groups embrace different ideas and values
about the role of government in regulating the marketplace. Politically liberal
groups believe that the government should take a stronger role in regulating the
market whereas politically conservative groups believe in the free market economy
and less government regulation over the market.
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The Social-Conflict Approach (also referred to as conflict theory)
Conflict theory is a change theory in that it focusses on how to bring about social
change to make society better and more equal. It provides a macro perspective on
society by focusing on social class and economic institutions. Conflict theory has
its roots in the ideas of Karl Marx.
The view of the social world presented by conflict theorists is very different from
structural functionalism.
It does not focus on social order or consensus.
__________________________________________________________--
It argues that a basic feature of society is social class inequality. Conflict theorists
argue that under capitalism there are divisions between the working-class and the
-

ruling owning capitalist class (who own the means of production such as factories
and corporations). According to conflict theory, society is characterized by
conflict between these two basic social classes.

Historically, conflict theorists focused on social class inequality, however

sociologists trained in traditional conflict or Marxist theory later used this
perspective to analyze other forms of inequality, such as gender-based inequality
and inequality based on race.
The work of Karl Marx is important in the roots of conflict theory. Marx argued
that the working-class needed to develop a class consciousness in order to revolt
against the social order and overthrow capitalism.
Marx predicted that capitalism would be replaced with socialism if workers could
organize to rebel against the owners of capital.
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According to this theory, our material or economic conditions of life shape how we
think. It shapes the ideas that we hold.
 _______________________________________________________-
To illustrate this, let’s look at this picture of three different size fish.
The small fish thinks: there’s no justice in the world.
The medium fish thinks: there is some justice in the world.
The big fish thinks: the world is just.
The small fish represents the poorest people in society. The poorest in society see
inequalities and social injustice.
The medium sized fish represents the middle class in society. They are less likely
than the poorest people to see all of the inequalities and injustices in society.
The big fish represents the upper class. They are the least likely to have
experienced or to understand inequality and injustice.
---__________________________________________________________
Critique : A major criticism that has been leveled against traditional conflict theory
is that it focuses on class-based inequalities and overlooks other kinds of
inequalities that people experience, such as gender-based inequalities, race and
ethnicity-based inequalities, or inequalities based on sexual orientation, religion,
disability, age, or other factors.
A second criticism concerns the question of the extent to which people can
overcome their social class status. The conflict perspective emphasizes the
powerful influence of social class and overlooks the fact that many people can
overcome disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds and achieve economic
success.
__________________________________________________________
The Gender-Conflict Approach is also more commonly referred to as feminist
theory
It is a change theory in that it focusses on the need for social change to eliminate

E
gender-based inequalities. Feminist scholars look at both the macro level of
society such as our economic and political institutions but also micro level
interactions such as how inequalities may arise through micro-level interactions.
For instance, some feminist scholars have looked at whether there are gender
differences in how men and women communicate and interact.
Feminist theory systematically examines gender inequalities in society in order to
eliminate them. Feminist scholars are interested in studying gender relations in
society.
While conflict theorists examine class-based inequalities, feminist theorists
* examine gender-based inequalities.
Here the focus is on women and understanding women’s social reality. It wasn’t
until feminist scholarship emerged that the focus of researchers shifted to include
an analysis of women’s experiences and lives. For instance, things like caregiving
and unpaid labour were not studied before feminist theory emerged.
There are many specific types of feminist theory such as liberal feminist theory,
radical feminist theory, Marxist feminist theory, and socialist feminist theory---
however all feminist theory seeks to study gender-based inequalities and offer
recommendations for eliminating gender based inequalities.
_____________________________________________________________
Important Canadian feminist scholars include Dorothy Smith, Margrit Eichler, and
Meg Luxton. These feminist scholars made important contributions particularly in
relation to family life and women’s experiences within families—among many
other contributions.

Feminist theory has been criticized for focusing on gender-based inequalities and
not always addressing other kinds of inequalities. Sometimes inequalities are
intersecting.
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Race-Conflict Approach
The Race-Conflict approach focusses on inequalities based on race and ethnicity.
It is a change theory in advocating for social justice and social change, for instance
in addressing anti-black racism. It operates at both the macro level and micro
level.
Racialized groups, including Black individuals, Indigenous Peoples, and People of
Colour, have historically experienced social, economic, and political inequality in
Canada and globally.
For sociologists who study race and ethnicity, one of the primary areas of interest
is understanding race and ethnicity in relation to inequality and power.
Sociologists study the social significance of the categories of race and ethnicity.
Said another way, sociologists want to understand how our life chances and
opportunities are shaped by the socially significant categories of race and ethnicity.
At the macro level scholars may focus on our economic, educational, and political
institutions and how these reinforce racism and discrimination against racialized
groups and particular ethnic groups.
Sociologists examine systemic discrimination and institutional racism.
At the micro level scholars might examine racism and discrimination in relation to
microaggressions in settings such as the workplace and in educational institutions.
Microaggressions take place in person to person interactions and harm the
individual who is being targeted. Racial microaggressions can impact the
individual’s emotional well-being and success in educational institutions or
workplaces.
-________________________________________________-
In the United States the work of William Du Bois was important in advancing our
sociological understanding of race.
Ethnic and racial diversity have long been important themes in Canadian sociology.
Canadian sociologists have examined the experiences of newcomers to Canada and
the challenges they face during the settlement process.
John Porter’s book The Vertical Mosaic (1965) is a classic study that created a lot
of interest and support for Canadian sociology in the 20th C.
Porter challenged the long-held belief that Canada was a land of equal opportunity
by showing how socio-economic status was largely determined by race and
ethnicity.

More recent attention has focused on Indigenous communities and families and
this body of scholarship is increasingly being incorporated into university
curriculum. Indigenous studies programs have been developed across many
Canadian universities and this extends to graduate programs in health, law, social
work, medicine, and education.
Like feminist theory, this perspective has been critiqued for not fully examining
other forms of inequality and intersecting inequalities.

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The Symbolic Interaction Approach (is more commonly referred to as Symbolic
Interactionism)
Is a change theory in examining how society can undergo change.
Unlike the previous perspectives which have a macro-level perspective in
examining how social structures shape society, the symbolic interactionist
approach views society as the product of everyday micro-level interactions
between people. These micro-level interactions can include face to face
conversations (where people are physically together or online), telephone
conversations, text exchanges, and any kind of interaction whether offline, such as
a wave or smile, or online (such as posting something to Instagram or liking a post
on any platform or retweeting a Twitter post).
Interactions can include physical gesturing or any other kind of non-verbal
communication. We communicate through the use of symbols. Examples might
include symbols expressed through our fashion or jewelry or stickers put on our
vehicles.
Symbolic interactionism provides an in-depth close-up focus on social interactions
in specific online or offline settings and situations. The symbolic interaction
approach is a framework for building theory that views society as being made up
of micro-level interactions whereby people actively create and negotiate meaning
in their lives.
Symbolic interactionists do not conceive of society as one where there is an
external social structure that is imposed on us.
Rather, it views society as being an ongoing creation. Society is created through
our everyday interactions.
Since symbolic interactionists are so concerned with micro-level interactions, they
also focus on each individuals’ own subjectivity. Subjectivity is our own personal
view or understanding of what is going on in a particular social interaction. Two
people can have a text exchange and walk away from that text exchange with two
completely different understandings of that text exchange. The same thing can
also happen when two people are in face to face conversation. They can walk away
from that conversation with two different understandings or interpretations of how
the conversation went and this is because each person brings their own subjectivity
to each micro-level interaction.
Symbolic interactionists seek to understand subjectivity. Both how subjectivity
shapes social interactions but also how social interactions shape subjectivity. And,
ultimately, how through our everyday micro-level interactions society is
continually undergoing change, negotiation, and is actively being created.

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Symbolic interactionism is associated with scholars such as Max Weber, George
Herbert Mead, and Erving Goffman who we will learn more about as the course
progresses. These scholars are only briefly discussed in the first chapter you were
assigned.
Symbolic interactionism has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on
micro-level interactions and neglecting how larger social structures shape our
interactions. Critics charge that there is an external social structure that shapes our
life chances and opportunities and that individuals cannot escape social structure
through their interactions with others. A second criticism is that a perspective that
focusses on micro-level interactions is not conducive to creating social policies to
address social problems and inequalities.

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The Postmodern Approach (also commonly referred to as post modernism)
I’m going to spend more time on this theory compared to the others; not because it
is more important than the others, but because it is the hardest to understand.
Postmodernism is perhaps the most difficult theory to grasp as it does not
straightforwardly identify one factor as helping us to understand society. For
example, structural functionalism focuses on social order and social solidarity.
Postmodernism is a term that refers to a broad range of ideas, projects, and theories
that emerged in the mid 20th C and became more notable in the closing decades of
th
the 20 C.
The influence of postmodernism has permeated not only academic disciplines such

h
as sociology, economics, linguistics, cultural studies, philosophy and others but
also many different fields including art, music, literature, and architecture just to
name a few areas of social life that have been impacted by what is known as
postmodernism.
We will revisit postmodernism in our section on culture because postmodernism is
not just a theory but many people suggest that postmodernism has impacted
contemporary culture, for example in art, architecture, music, and many other areas
of life.
Definitions of postmodernism are contested however I think it’s important to offer
a starting point for introducing students to the theory. Thus, know that some
postmodern theorists would critique this introduction for being overly simplistic,
 reductionist, and insufficiently nuanced.
Postmodern theory rejects and is skeptical of grand theories or grand narratives,
particularly any theory that posits that one variable is the most important in
understanding society. For example, the centrality of social class in conflict theory
derived from the writings of Karl Marx, otherwise referred to as Marxist theory.
Postmodern theorists suggest that there is no singular theory or “truth”; there is no
L singular factor that helps to explain our social world.
Instead, knowledge and truth is situation-specific, fluid, and contested. Truth is
shaped and reshaped through discourse. Discourse is knowledge and how
information is constructed and communicated. Examples of discourse include
medical discourse, academic discourse, political discourse, psychiatric discourse.
There are many different kinds of discourses that exist in society. Truth often
reflects power relations as those with power can shape and reshape discourse.
Inequalities and injustices can be reinforced if certain discourses are denied to
people. Discourse is important because it impacts how people view themselves,
how they view the world, and how they live their lives. If people don’t have access
to information or discourse, their understanding of the world and themselves is
limited.
Postmodernist theory rejects the idea of a singular explanatory framework, as
suggested by each of the main theories covered thus far. It rejects the idea of an
objective truth. It emphasizes the fluidity of truth, the power of language, and the
importance of power relations within society.
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Postmodernism operates at both a macro-level and a micro-level depending on the
scholar. It would be a change theory because it does not focus on social order and
social stability.
One of the most influential postmodern scholars, particularly in terms of
influencing the field of sociology is Michel Foucault (1926–1984). Foucault
developed postmodern theory even though he tackled very diverse topics including
the development of the medical profession, the development of the criminal justice
system, the role of psychiatry in criminal justice, a history of sexuality, a history of
social constructions of mental illness, and a history of various academic sciences.
In much of his writing Foucault explores the connections between the
development of knowledge and power relations in society. His writings reveal how
knowledge and our understanding of various social phenomena changes over time.
For postmodern scholars like Foucault, there is no great “truth” or grand narrative
that explains society.
Nothing is absolute and every idea or discourse must be deconstructed.
Postmodern theory points to how sciences cannot be totally scientific because of
human subjectivity.
Postmodern scholars might likely suggest that they are not trying to create new
knowledge, rather their work is intended to explore multiple and competing
interpretations of the social world and by their readers.
One goal is to deconstruct existing knowledge and ideas and challenge the
assumptions of existing ideas and hierarchies of knowledge.
Knowledge is seen to be hierarchical because groups and individuals with power
have greater abilities to produce knowledge than those without power. Ultimately
postmodern scholars suggest that there are multiple truths or discourses in society
—these are fluid, contested, and ever—changing, yet they reflect power relations
in society.
Postmodern theory has been criticized on a number of grounds. It has been
criticized for being difficult to understand and part of this is the writing style of
many postmodern scholars and the very nature of the theory itself. It is not as easy
to grasp as the other theories.
It has been argued that postmodern scholarship—without clear explanatory factors
—makes it difficult to explain society and formulate social policy.
Said differently, ‘Grand’ theories are needed because they are useful as explanatory
tools and for directing social policy.

This concludes Lecture 1. Thank you.

References:
Statistics Canada, 2016. Overview of household types, Canada, 2016.
www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/170802/g-a001-eng.htm
Statistics Canada, 2017. Families, households and marital status: Key results from
the 2016 Census. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-
quotidien/170802/dq170802a-eng.htm?indid=14425-1&indgeo=0)