Determination of human exposure levels to criteria air pollutants from some

Nigeria’s Commercial LPG cookers

Jacob Faith Ojonuyo
Department of Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Technology
email id: fojacob@student.oauife.edu.ng

ABSTRACT
This study determined the human exposure levels to criteria air pollutants from LPG
cookers in some commercial kitchens in Ile-ife, Osun state. This research is aimed at
determining the levels of pollution from commercial LPG cookers, their levels of
concentration and subsequent levels of human exposure. This study is a field
intervention determining the levels and the measurement of human exposure to the
necessary criteria air pollutants from commercial LPG cookers in Ile-Ife, Osun state.
LPG cookers pollution level will be monitored and compared to standard ambient air
quality.
The objectives are to identify facilities that use commercial LPG cookers in Ile-ife,
measure the criteria air pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, CO S02) emitted from the cookers
in the ambient environment of the facilities identified, compare the results obtained
with national and international air quality standards for air quality and suggest solutions
to aid in the discussion of the criteria air pollutants of commercial LPG cookers in the
ambient environment.
Concentrations of CO2, SO2, CO, PM10, and PM2.5 were measured at the source and
entrance of six different commercial kitchens the BOSEAN multi-gas air quality
detector.
The measured concentrations for PM2.5 ranged from a minimum of 17μgm−3 to
72.66μgm−3, PM10 values ranged between 32μgm−3- 70μgm−3, CO values ranged between
1717.79μgm−3-2387.68μgm−3, CO2 values ranged between 718036.81μgm−3-
1059659.56μgm−3, and SO2 values ranged between 78.53μgm−3- 157.06μgm−3. The
pollutant concentrations were extrapolated to 1-hour, 8-hours as well as 24-hours. CO
extrapolated values for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours ranged from 856.64μgm−3-
1190.70μgm−3, 478.55μgm−3-665.18μgm−3and 351.83μgm−3-489.04μgm−3 respectively,
PM2.5 extrapolated values ranged between 8.85μgm −3- 36.23μgm−3, 4.94μgm−3-
20.24μgm−3, 3.63μgm−3-14.88μgm−3 for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively,
PM10 extrapolated values ranged between 15.95μgm−3-34.91μgm−3, 8.91 μgm−3 -
19.50μgm−3 , 6.55μgm−3-14.33μgm−3 for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively, CO
extrapolated values range between 856.64μgm−3 – 1190.70μgm−3, 478.55μgm−3-
655.18μgm−3, 351.83μgm−3 -489.04μgm−3 for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours
respectively, CO2 extrapolated values ranged between 358076.61μgm−3-
528439.91μgm−3,200037.19μgm−3-295209.55μgm−3,147067.53μgm−3-217038.34μgm−3
for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively and SO 2 extrapolated values ranged
between 39.16μgm−3 -78.32μgm−3, 21.88μgm−3 -43.76μgm−3, 16.08μgm−3 -32.1 μgm−3
for 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours respectively.
The extrapolated values were compared to a 1-hour, 8-hour and 24-hour standards of
ambient air quality according to World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO) and
Federal Ministry of Environment (FMEnv).
The pollutant concentrations were within the standard limits and recommendations to
further reduce the concentrations and their effects were given.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is one of the major issues in today’s world irrespective of developing or
developed countries (David, et al., 1996). Rapid increase in population and demand for
energy have resulted in emission of toxic air pollutants that affect the surrounding
environment as well as human health. Air pollution is the introduction into the
atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort,
disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or
damage the natural environment or built environment. A substance in the air that can be
adverse to humans and the environment is known as an air pollutant. Pollutants can be
in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases Air pollution occurs when gases,
dust particles, fumes (or smoke) or odour are introduced into the atmosphere in a way
that makes it harmful to humans, animals, and plant (Mahendra Pratap & Vaibhav
Garg, 2013). Air pollution is now considered as the world’s biggest threat to the
environmental health and responsible for the seven million deaths over the world per
year (Pallavi Saxena & Saurabh Sonwani, 2019). In communities that heavily rely on
solid biomass fuels, household emission of pollutants can also be a significant
contributor to ambient air pollution (Lim, et al., 2012)Pollution concentrations can
therefore vary temporally and spatially. Exposure also varies from day to day and from
subject to subject that is, within and between subject variability (Munyao et al., 2022).
Three factors greatly determine exposure, firstly, pollutant concentration in the
environment, second factor is time spent breathing in polluted air and thirdly location
and distance from pollution source ( (Nieuwenhuijsen, 2003). Exposure to pollutants
causes a few deleterious effects and causes pulmonary illness, asthma, and
cardiovascular diseases after long-term exposure. Short-term exposure also creates
problems like headache, mood alteration, dizziness, eye-irritation, nausea, coughing,
etc. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has set up the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six pollutants (Pallavi Saxena & Saurabh
Sonwani, 2019).
Criteria pollutants, as designated under the Clean Air Act of 1971, include pollutants
that are ubiquitous and are known to be harmful to public health and the environment
(Suh, Bahadori, Jose, & John, 2000). Currently, six pollutants are designated as criteria
pollutants: particles with aerodynamic diameters under PM10 and PM2.5, ozone, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Air quality is described
according to the Air Quality Index (AQI), which is based on the concentration of
pollutants present in the air at a particular location. Air quality index (AQI) is an
indicator developed by government agencies to communicate to the public how
polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become (Wikipedia, Air
Quality Index, 2023). As air pollution levels rise, so does the AQI, along with the
associated public health risk. Good air quality indicates that the air is relatively free of
harmful substances, whereas poor air quality indicates the presence of pollutants that
may be hazardous to human health and the environment. For each of these pollutants, a
primary health-based National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) under the
Clean Air Act has been established, which sets the "safe" amount of the pollutant that
can be present in the air. Table 1and 2 shows the standards for criteria air pollutant.
Table 1 Standards of Ambient Air Quality
Maximum Concentration (μg/m3)
Pollutants Averaging time World Bank WHO FMEnv
CO 1-hour 30,000 -
8-hour 10,000 - 22,800
24-hour - - 11,400
SO2 1-hour - - 260
24-hour 125 20 26
PM10 24-hour 80 50 -
Annual 50 20 -
PM2.5 24-hour - 25 -
Annual - 10 -
Source: World bank (1998); Source: WHO (2005); Source: (FEPA,1991)

Table 2. National Air Quality Standards (NAQS) in Nigeria.

Criteria Air Pollutants Nigerian National Standard
Particulate Matter PM2.5- 20 μg/m3 (annual average)
PM10-50 μg/m3(annual average)
24-hour average: 150 μg/m3 for PM2.5 and PM10
NO2 400 μg/m3 (annual average)
1000 μg/m3(annual average)
SO2 80 μg/m3(annual average)
365 μg/m3(1-hour average)
CO 10 mg/m3(1-hour average)
40 mg/m3(8-hour average)
Source: National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency
NESREA (2021).
In this study, measurements gotten from the six commercial kitchens were compared to
national and international air quality standards.

2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Sampling area
Ile-ife is in present day Osun state with latitude of 7° 30'N and longitude of 4°30E. Ile-
Ife is about 218 kilometers north-east of Lagos with a population of over 500,000
people, which is the highest in Osun State according to the population census of 2006
(Wikipedia, Wikipedia contributors, 2023). It is a rural- urban transition zone, like
typical rural communities, biomass fuels (wood and charcoal) consumption is high
although there is prevalence of urbanization which has led to the increased use of LPG
commercial cookers. Within the study area, six locations that uses commercial LPG
cookers were selected based on their proximity to residential and commercial areas.
Open space was another consideration while picking these locations. Measurements
were taken both at the entrances and near the LPG cookers at different time intervals.
We measured the concentrations PM2.5, PM10, carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), Sulphur dioxide (SO2) via the gas detector. Temperature and relative humidity
were also monitored.
2.2 Measurement of pollutants
The primary instrument for measuring concentration levels of PM 2.5, PM10, CO, CO2
and SO2 levels were the Bosean multi-gas air quality detector which is well suited for
our application due to its combination of small size, infrared detection technology and
quiet operation to show accurate data. To measure, the gas detector was switched on in
the environment of interest and calibrated prior to the tests in line with the
manufacturer's recommendations, the measured concentration is read directly on the
LCD display of the gas monitor. During this field study, the gas monitor was positioned
1m above ground to correspond to the average breathing zone of adults and to prevent
measurement of fugitive dust mobilized by tides. The sample procedure was completed
between 11:54 am and 3:50 pm, measurement was carried out during cooking hours at
each of the kitchens at the source and entrance. The measured concentrations were
extrapolated to obtain their 1-hour, 8-hours and 24-hours averaging time concentrations
using the atmospheric stability formula (Fakinle, Sonibare, Okedere , Jimoda, &
Ayodele , 2016) given in Equation (1).

C0 = C1 × F (Equation 1)
Where:
C0 = The concentration at the averaging period t0
C1 = The concentration at the averaging period t1
 n
t1
F = Factor to convert from the averaging period t1 to the averaging period t0 =( )
t0
n = 0.28, the stability dependent exponent

Figure 1. Map of study area

Source (Kolawole, Alaga, Ogunyemi, Popoola, & Oloko-Oba, 2016)

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Using data from the source and entrance of the kitchen, multiple standard comparisons
of the level of pollutants during the use of LPG commercial burners in Ile-ife were
made, providing insight on differences in exposures. Interestingly, there was a
reduction in mean of the 1-hour, 8-hour and 24-hour extrapolated data on PM 2.5, PM10,
SO2 and CO concentrations compared to the measured data.
During the field work, the ambient temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed
varied with time and location. Several factors dictated the concentration of pollution at
a particular location like weather. Infact the weather alone can increase ambient
pollution levels by up to 100 times (Nelson, 2000). Wind serves two important
functions in air quality, to transport the pollutant and to dilute it at source. Locations
had a temperature range between 32oC to 34oC. The temperature range of 32°C to 34°C
is relatively small, and it has little or no effect on the observed criteria air pollutants
from commercial LPG cookers since it falls within a typical outdoor temperature range.
The wind speed may contribute to the spread of the pollutants from the commercial
burners into the environment. From the extrapolated data values from table 5 to table 7,
locations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 had lower concentration values at the entrance as compared
with the source.
The pollution gradient could be attributed to the downhill topography of the locations.
The relative humidity was around 52% to 59%. This range indicated that the
environment's surfaces may be wet, which might cause criteria air pollutants to stick to
these surfaces, minimizing their presence in the air. At location 5, contrary to the other
locations, there was lower concentration values at the source than the entrance. This
could be as a result of the impact of wind direction on the pollutants. The wind carried
the pollutants away from the source thereby causing an increased concentration at the
entrance. Despite the outdoor nature of the sampling, the notable concentration
observed at the emission source can be attributed to the utilization of enclosed
structures constructed primarily from wood. These structures have demonstrated a
propensity to facilitate the accumulation of pollutants within their confines, thereby
hindering the ease of pollutant dispersion.

Table 3 Range of measured data for 5 minutes sampling time at the source in μgm−3
Pollutants Location1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Location 5 Location 6

PM2.5 30.50 19.00 72.66 50.66 17.75 19.00

PM10 46.65 32.16 36.17 70.00 32.05 35.00

CO 2387.68 1563.19 1909.04 2290.38 1717.82 1431.49

CO2 812812.23 725835.34 1059659.46 875498.32 731083.81 731983,64

SO2 130.88 104.70 104.70 130.88 157.06 157.06

Table 4. Range of measured data for 5 minutes sampling time at the entrance in μgm−3
Pollutants Location1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Location 5 Location 6

PM2.5 19.00 17.00 17.00 24.00 30.50 18.00

PM10 36.50 32.00 32.00 32.50 39.50 37.50

 CO 1717.79 2290.38 2290.38 1717.79 1717.79 2290.38

CO2 813415.13 727034.76 718036.81 763026.58 730633.94 797055.21

SO2 104.70 78.53 104.70 78.58 104.70 130.88

Table 5. Range of values for extrapolated data for location 1 and 2 in μgm−3
Pollutants PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 SO2
Location 1-hour Source 15.21 24.77 1190.73 405340.04 65.27
1
Entrance 9.47 18.20 1142.18 405640.67 52.21

8-hours Source 8.49 13.83 558.35 226440.60 36.36

Entrance 5.29 10.17 478.56 226608.55 29.17

24-hours Source 6.24 10.17 489.05 166479.34 26.81

Entrance 3.89 7.47 469.11 166602.82 21.45

Location 1-hour Source 9.47 16.04 779.54 361965.65 52.21
2
Entrance 8.48 15.96 1142.19 362563.79 39.16

8-hours Source 5.29 8.96 435.49 202209.78 29.17

Entrance 4.73 8.91 638.08 202543.93 21.88

24-hours Source 3.89 6.59 320.17 148664.82 21.45

Entrance 3.48 6.55 469.11 148910.48 16.08

Table 6. Range of values for extrapolated data for location 3 and 4 in μgm−3
Pollutants PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 SO2
Location 1-hour Source 36.23 18.04 952.02 528439.86 52.21
3
Entrance 8.48 15.96 1142.18 358076.61 52.21

8-hours Source 20.24 10.08 531.84 295209.53 29.17

Entrance 4.23 8.91 638.08 200037.19 29.17

24-hours Source 14.88 7.41 391.01 217038.32 21.45

Entrance 3.48 6.55 469.11 146883.23 21.45

Location 1-hour Source 25.26 34.91 1142.18 383652.17 65.27
4
 Entrance 11.97 16.20 856.64 380512.49 39.16

8-hours Source 14.11 19.50 638.08 214324.82 36.46

Entrance 6.68 9.05 478.56 212570.86 21.88

24-hours Source 10.37 14.34 469.11 157571.80 26.81

Entrance 4.91 6.65 351.83 156282.29 16.08

Table 7. Range of values for extrapolated data for location 5 and 6 in μgm−3
Pollutants PM2.5 PM10 CO CO2 SO2
Location 1-hour Source 8.85 16.08 856.64 364583.00 78.32
5
Entrance 15.07 19.69 856.64 364358.66 52.21

8-hours Source 4.94 8.98 478.57 203671.95 43.75

Entrance 8.49 11.00 478.56 205301.33 29.17

24-hours Source 3.63 6.60 351.84 149739.80 32.17

Entrance 6.11 8.09 351.84 149647.66 21.45

Location 1-hour Source 9.35 17.45 713.86 365031.73 78.32

6
Entrance 8.97 18.70 1142.1 397482.18 65.27
8
8-hours Source 5.29 9.75 398.80 204047.97 43.75

Entrance 5.01 10.45 638.08 222050.86 36.46

24-hours Source 3.89 7.16 293.70 150016.25 32.17

Entrance 3.69 7.68 469.11 163252.00 26.81

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Several measurements were taken in the commercial kitchens with multiple gas
detectors to determine the human exposure levels to criteria air pollutants. The study
concluded that the range of the criteria air pollutants measured is within the set limit for
each of these pollutants by National and International Ambient Air Quality Standard
under the Clean Air Act as shown in table 1 and 2 above. The study data will be useful
in determining pollution concentrations from LPG commercial burners in the ambient
environment and could also be used to evaluate the impacts of LPG commercial
burners on air quality. From this study, outdoor commercial cooking emits pollutants
within the acceptable standard limit by FMEnv, World bank, NAQS and WHO air
quality guidelines. The overall concentration value obtained in this study shows that
LPG burners in Nigeria could be used as a major source of commercial cooking energy.
The study therefore encourages users of LPG cookstove in the country to have a well-
ventilated kitchen, governments should emphasize and ensure, both public and private
sectors dealing in day-to-day use of commercial LPG cookers, the need for cleaner
fuels for cooking through media campaign and/or organization of seminars in other to
create awareness in the country. It has been discovered that increasing the diameter of
the ports of burners admitting the fuel-primary air mixture and drilling the holes
obliquely to impart swirl to the flow improves performance by improving efficiency
and lowering emissions and soot formation. The smaller orifice hole in the fuel
injection nozzle improves performance by increasing efficiency and lowering
emissions. (Basu, Saha, Ganguly , & Datta, 2008; David, et al., 1996). A reduction in
emissions could subsequently reduce the concentration of air pollutants, the CO
emission dropped by 50% or more when the smaller nozzle is used as compared to the
corresponding emission levels with the larger nozzle.
Electro spun PAN(Polyacrylonitrile) nanofibers can be highly effective transparent PM
filters because of its small fiber diameter and surface chemistry. Such nanofibrous
filters can shut off PM from entering the indoor environment, maintain natural
ventilation and preserve the optical transparency when installed on windows. (Chong,
et al., 2015). The utilization of PAN nano fibers facial masks by individuals engaged in
kitchen-related activities holds the potential to effectively diminish the exposure to
various pollutants especially PM2.5 present within the environment. Those performing
culinary tasks can significantly reduce their intake of airborne contaminants that could
otherwise harm their respiratory health. This precautionary measure, which involves
use of facial masks, is a practical strategy for reducing the potential inhalation of
pollutants, thereby contributing to the improvement of indoor air quality and the
protection of individuals' well-being, especially in settings where cooking and food
preparation occur. Individuals can proactively counteract the negative effects of
pollutants by adopting this preventive approach, fostering an environment that
prioritizes health and safety within the culinary domain.

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