Chapter 5.

GAUGE FIELDS
In this chapter, we will quantize the Maxwell Lagrangian. This will lead to massless spin-1
particles. As we will see in the next chapter, these particles mediate long range forces between
charged particles.

1. WIGNER’S CLASSIFICATION
Particles are classified by mass m and spin j:
• massive particles ⇒ 2j + 1 dofs ⇐ little group SO(3)
• massless particles ⇒ 2 dofs ⇐ little group SO(2)
However, Tµ1 ...µj has 4j components, so it is not an irrep of spin-j particles.
We need to impose extra constraints to isolate the spin-j component of the field.

2. MAXWELL EQUATION
Goal: Construct a Lagrangian for Aµ that propagates the right dofs.
Lorentz invariance and locality allow 2 possible kinetic terms

Lkin = a1 L1 + a2 L2 ,

where
L1 = ∂µ Aν ∂ µ Aν ,
L2 = ∂µ Aµ ∂ν Aν = ∂ν Aµ ∂µ Aν + boundary terms .

Let us write Aµ ≡ µ + ∂µ φ, where ∂ µ µ = 0.

↑ ↑
transverse longitudinal

We then find Lφkin = (a1 + a2 )(φ)2 , which is equivalent to

 2
1
Lφkin = (a1 + a2 ) φ̃φ − φ̃2 ,
4

after integrating out the Lagrange multiplier field φ̃ = 2φ.

Defining φ ≡ φ1 + φ2 and φ̃ ≡ φ1 − φ2 , this becomes
 2
1
Lφkin = (a1 + a2 ) + φ1 φ1 − φ2 φ2 − (φ1 − φ2 ) .
4

One of the two fields is always a ghost, unless a1 + a2 = 0.

In that case, the longitudinal mode is non-dynamical and the transverse mode
satisfies
LÂ 2
kin = a1 (∂µ Âν ) ,

which has the right normalization for a1 = 12 .

The only allowed kinetic term therefore is
1 1 2
Lkin = (∂µ Aν ∂ µ Aν − ∂µ Aµ ∂ν Aν ) = − Fµν ,
2 4
where Fµν ≡ ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ .
A massless spin-1 field therefore must satisfy the Maxwell Lagrangian

1 2
LMaxwell = − Fµν .
4
This Lagrangian has a gauge symmetry: Aµ → Aµ + ∂µ α.
The theory therefore only has two propagating dofs.
This can be seen explicitly in Coulomb gauge, where ∂ i Ai = 0.
The Lagrangian then is
1 1 1
LMaxwell = Ȧ2i − (∂j Ai )2 + (∂i A0 )2 .
2 2 2
We see that A0 is non-dynamical and can be set to A0 ≡ 0 using the residual
gauge freedom, A0 → A0 + α̇, with ∂i2 α = 0. The Lagrangian becomes
1
LMaxwell = (∂µ Ai )2 ,
2
subject to the constraint ∂ i Ai = 0. This describes the two transverse polariza-
tions of Ai .

2
A masssive spin-1 field must satisfy the Proca Lagrangian

1 2 1
LProca = − Fµν + m2 A2µ .
4 2
The corresponding equation of motion is

∂ µ Fµν = m2 Aν .

Acting with ∂ ν , we find ∂ ν Aν = 0.

The theory therefore has three propagating dofs.
This can also be seen by substituting Aµ ≡ µ + m−1 ∂µ φ, which gives
1 1 1
LProca = (∂µ Âν )2 + m2 Â2µ + (∂µ φ)2 .
2 2 2
We see that the longitudinal mode has been revived by the mass term.

3. QUANTIZATION
In Coulomb gauge, the Maxwell equation is

A = 0 , with ∇ · A = 0 ,

whose solutions can be written as

A(x) = λ (p) e−ipx ,

where p · λ = 0, for λ = 1, 2.
The mode expansion of the operator A(x) therefore is

d3 p
Z
1 Xh λ +ip·x ∗ λ† −ip·x
i
A(x) = λ (p) ap e + λ (p) ap e ,
(2π)3 2Ep
p
λ

0  0
where aλp , aλq † ≡ (2π)3 δ (3) (p − q) δ λλ .


The commutator of Ai and its conjugate momentum Πi = −F 0i = E i is

d3 p ip·(x−y) ij pi pj
Z  
i j ij
[A (x), E (y)] = i 3
e δ − 2 ≡ i δ⊥ (x − y) .
(2π) |p|

3
Substituting the mode expansion into the Hamiltonian and momentum opera-
tors, we find

d3 p X
Z
H= 3
Ep aλ† λ
p ap ,
(2π)
λ
Z 3
dp X
P= 3
p aλ† λ
p ap .
(2π)
λ

Hence, aλ† p |0i creates particles of momentum p and energy Ep = |p|. With a
little bit of effort, we could also show that they have spin 1 and helicity λ = ±1.
We have discovered photons!

4. PHOTON PROPAGATOR
The Feynman propagator for the field Ai is

∆ij i j
F (x − y) ≡ h0|T {A (x)A (y)}|0i

d4 p i j
Z  
i p p
= 4 2
δ ij − 2
e−ip·(x−y) .
(2π) p + i |p|

What about Lorentz invariance?

Consider
1 2
L = − Fµν − Aµ J µ + · · · ,
4
where ∂µ J µ = 0, so that Aµ → Aµ + ∂µ α remains a symmetry.
In Coulomb gauge, this becomes
1 1 1
L = Ȧ2i − (∂j Ai )2 − A0 ∇2 A0 − A0 J 0 + Ai J i .
2 2 2
Unlike before, we are not allowed to set A0 = 0.
Instead, the equation of motion implies

J 0 (t, y)
Z
∇2 A0 = −J 0 ⇒ A0 (t, x) = d3 y .
4π|x − y|

4
Substituting this back into the Lagrangian gives
Z 0 0
1 2 i 1 3 J (t, x)J (t, y)
L = (∂µ Ai ) + Ai J + dy .
2 2 4π|x − y|
↑
nonlocal Coulomb term
We could capture the Coulomb term by defining the following propagator for
the field A0 (x):
0
− 0
d4 p e−ip·(x−y)
Z
δ(x y )
∆00
F (x − y) = = .
4π|x − y| (2π)4 |p|2

The propagator for the field Aµ (x) then is

i


 2
µ=ν=0



 |p|
i j
  
µν
∆F (p) = i ij p p
δ − µ = i, ν = j


 p2 + i |p|2



0 otherwise


This can be written as

µ ν µ ν µ ν
 
i p p − p p̃ − p̃ p
∆µν
F (p) = 2 −η µν + ,
p + i |p|2

where p̃µ ≡ (0, pi ).

Since pµ Jµ = 0, we have
−i ∗
Jµ∗ (p)∆µν
F (p)Jν (p) = 2
Jµ (p)J µ (p) .
p
We would get the same if we used

−iη µν
∆µν
F (p) = .
p2 + i

A more direct way to obtain this propagator is to work in Lorentz gauge.