1380 E. J. Kadim et al.

: Nanoparticles Application in High Voltage Insulation Systems

Nanoparticles Application
in High Voltage Insulation Systems
Emran Jawad Kadim, Zulkarnain Ahmad Noorden and Zuraimy Adzis
Institute of High Voltage and High Current
School of Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

Norhafiz Azis
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Insulation systems of electrical apparatus (fluid and solid) include transformer oil,
insulating paper, glass, ceramic, mica and rubber. Normally, they are designed well to
be stable at high temperatures and provide excellent electrical insulating properties in
different operating loads. There is an increasing demand to modify the effectiveness and
capabilities of these insulation systems to overcome various issues (e.g., overheating,
overloading and short circuits). Moreover, they should match the new high voltage
insulation requirements, safety, ultra-high voltage, and being environmentally friendly
are some of them. Nanoparticles (NPs) are promising compensator materials that can be
used to develop insulation systems with good thermophysical and dielectric properties.
The results of many studies show marvelous enhancements in electrical and thermal
properties. In this paper, the authors present a review that focuses on different NPs that
are used in several aspects of insulation systems to improve the dielectric as well as the
heat transfer properties of high voltage insulation applications. The review covers NPs
types, the preparation methods, analysis approaches, different properties, performances
and results, challenges, and the limitation of the use of NPs.
Index Terms — high voltage, insulation systems, nanoparticles, nanofluids, thermal
conductivity, transformer oil

1 INTRODUCTION impurities [3]. However, for getting further consistent

THE regular growing demand for electrical power is a
continuous challenge for utilities, engineers, and researchers to
improve the electrical apparatuses regarding the thermal,
physical, chemical, mechanical and electrical properties of the
fluid and solid insulation systems. There is a persistent need to
produce a new generation of insulation systems with higher
dielectric strength and enhanced thermal conductivity, which
consequently reduce the volume and capitals and have better
reliability for long-term operations [1], besides, the requirement
of being environmentally friendly [2]. There are many methods
to improve the insulation systems, such as increasing the
dielectric strength of the oil/paper insulation system in
transformers by filtering the oil to remove moisture and other
Manuscript received on 7 January 2021, in final form 2 April 2021,
accepted 12 May 2021. Corresponding author: E.J.K. Almusawi.
enhancement, recently, insulation systems have been developed
based on the use of nanoparticles (NPs) with at least one of the
sides does not exceed 100 nm [4, 5].
Being in that size, less than the visible light’s wavelengths
(400–700 nm) [6], the conventional optical microscopes cannot
capture these particles’ size clearly in practice. Therefore,
special devices are required to detect and analyze this size of
particles. One of the devices is high-resolution scanning
transmission electron microscopy (HRSTEM) [7, 8].
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is another technique
[9] that forms an image by detecting an electron beam
transmitting a specimen [10]. Scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) [11] is used to get information and details about the
chemical composition and morphologies of NPs [12]. Field
emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) [13, 14]
provides information about the topography and elements of NPs

DOI: 10.1109/TDEI.2021.009531

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 IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
at magnifications of 10× to 300,000×. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
[15] device can determine the crystalline structure based on a
beam of incident X-rays. There are different spectroscopic
techniques, which are similar to the function of XRD, such as
energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), energy-
dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA), and energy-dispersive
X-ray microanalysis (EDXMA) [16, 17].
Nanotechnology has been used in the insulation system of
power cables. The main material of power cables’ insulation
systems is cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) that is used in
alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) power cables
[18]. Knowing that there are differences in the insulation
performance between the AC and DC fields due to the
difference in electrical conductivity with temperature [19],
there is a problem of space charge accumulation [20]. Other
types of cable insulating materials are polypropylene (PP) and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These materials are strong, rigid,
recyclable, and fire-resistant thermoplastics [21]. In the
development of high-voltage DC (HVDC) cables, many
researchers utilized NPs to improve the performance of
insulating materials. In [20], the authors used silicon dioxide
(SiO2) to improve the electrical performance of PP HVDC
cables. Their results showed better performance regarding
space charge suppression and DC breakdown voltage (DC
BDV) than conventional XLPE. The authors of [22]
investigated the temperature dependence of conductivity and
space charge of the XLPE with 0, 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 wt% of
graphene oxide (GO) nanocomposites. Their experimental
results revealed that the 0.01 wt% of GO exhibited lower
conductivity and space charge accumulation, but higher DC
BDV than those of the pure XLPE. Another research [23]
utilized isotactic polypropylene (i-PP) as a recyclable material
with titanium oxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO)
nanocomposite. The combination of i-PP and TiO2 showed a
higher resistance to degradation than with ZnO filler. In [24],
the authors regulated the temperature dependence by adding
manganese oxide (MgO) NPs and explained the mechanism
regarding electrical conduction, space charge accumulation and
DC BDV. In [25], PP cables were filled with ZnO NPs as
surface-modifiers. At 0.5 wt% of ZnO, the DC BDV and space
charge suppression with the mechanical properties were
improved.
The use of NPs creates a new group of cable insulating
materials called polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) [26, 27]. In
order to obtain PNCs, NPs are dispersed by a chemical process
using silane coupling agents to convert their hydrophilic
(inorganic) property into the hydrophobic (organic) property for
reducing agglomeration and improving the compatibility with
polymer matrices [28]. Studies demonstrated that the dispersion
of correct NP types, such as MgO or SiO2 and its quantity, is
desirable to improve the electrical properties of cable insulation
systems (e.g., electrical conductivity, space charge distribution
and BDV). On the contrary, exceeding the correct quantity of
NPs can produce impurities and lead to negative effects [22].
Hence, adding NPs to solid insulation needs intense
investigations.
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Vol. 28, No. 4; August 2021 1381
Fluid insulation systems mainly consist of mineral [29],
natural ester [30] and synthetic ester [31] insulating oils that
have been used in electrical apparatuses, such as transformers,
switchgears and circuit breakers [32]. Transformer oil (TO) has
been used for insulation and cooling purposes for many decades
due to its good thermal and insulating characteristics and
oxidation stability [33]. Though nearly 30% of the transformers
failures were caused by inappropriate dielectric insulation [34]
and 32% due to overheating and thermal stresses [35]. Many
attempts have been made to produce alternatives of mineral
oil-based on available crops, such as corn oil, coconut oil, neem
oil, sunflower oil, soya bean oil, rapeseed oil, and cottonseed
oil [36–39]. These types of mineral oils are characterized as
biodegradable oils [40] that do not cause environmental
problems and have a high flashpoint and fire point, but lower
oxidation stability [41]. Dispersing different types of NPs
(conductive, semi-conductive or insulating) into different TOs
(mineral or natural esters) and insulation paper in order to attain
enhanced thermal and dielectric properties was investigated by
many researchers.
The transformer’s insulation system (oil/paper), nanofluid
(NF) [42] and nano-paper [43] have been proven to result in
greater BDV and thermal conductivity than conventional
insulation systems. In [44], the authors prepared mineral oil
using ferrofluids to improve the dielectric behavior where the
impulse breakdown voltage improved 50% when compared to
the base oil. A study [45] investigated cellulose paper as a part
of insulation systems of converter transformers to improve the
electrical performance. However, this paper’s results presented
the effects of Aluminum nitride (AlN) on the space charge of
cellulose paper and theoretically explained the mechanism of
the effects of various NPs amounts on the space charge
behavior. Another study [46] investigated how the cellulose
paper could be reinforced by adding aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
NPs. The results demonstrated that the NP addition produced a
more uniformed distribution of space charge. The degradation
of the insulation paper was investigated in [47]. The authors
compared mineral oil and exfoliated hexagonal boron nitride
(Eh-BN) base oil regarding the mechanical and electrical
strength after thermal aging. It was revealed that the NF with
0.01 wt% was superior to the base mineral oil. Enhancing the
charging dynamics in oil utilizing multi-NPs to slow down the
streamer propagation was presented [48]. Results showed the
success of applying multi-NPs in absorption charges (Fe3O4
+ MgO) can absorb a high number of electrons followed by the
collection of (TiO2 + ZnO). In [49], the authors introduced the
use of NPs to enhance the heat transfer of the mineral oil by
adding 0.01wt% of TiO2. The experimental results revealed that
the thermal conductivity increased with the addition of NPs.
Moreover, the viscosity of NF did not change notably with the
addition of NPs. The authors of [50] studied the effects of
addition NPs to mineral oil on the AC BDV from the aspects of
NPs type, NPs concentration, and the type of surfactants. It was
found that AC BDV was mainly affected by NPs type then the
concentration.
Different results were obtained from the experiments and
simulations with ranging percentages of enhancement based on
 1382 E. J. Kadim et al.: Nanoparticles Application in High Voltage Insulation Systems
the used materials, concentrations of NPs, and the methods of
preparation. Barium titanate (BT) NPs were used in [51]
to improve the thermal and electrical properties of the oil. The
obtained results showed that the addition of BT enhanced the
thermal conductivity by about 33%, but 10% decrease was
observed in the dielectric properties. The authors proposed
adding 0.01 wt% of TiO2. The hybrid NF showed an increase
of 33% in the thermal conductivity and 45% increase in
electrical properties. The authors of [52] modified oil-
impregnated paper based on TiO2 NPs, which were prepared by
the hydrolysis method. The obtained results showed that the
addition of TiO2 restricted the dipole polarization, but enhanced
the interface polarization. The authors of [53] improved the
electrical properties of insulation paper by using ceramic fiber,
which can boost the mechanical performance of the paper. They
managed to increase DC BDV by 120.5%. Meanwhile, the
authors of [54] successfully prepared TiO2 by using the sol–gel
method. Then, different NFs were made based on mineral oil
and the synthesized TiO2. The results showed all the exhibited
enhancement in the AC BDV. In [55], the NF of mineral and
CaCu3Ti4O12 (CCTO) was prepared with the volume
percentage of 0–0.05 vol. %. The results showed an increase in
the AC BDV as the volume percentage of CCTO increased. The
research [56] conducted experimental and theoretical studies to
clarify the role of NPs on the AC BDV. The experimental
results verified the efficacy of the theoretical mechanisms. The
study [57] investigated the dielectric frequency response of
insulation oil-paper modified by NPs from 0.1 to 1 MHz, it was
observed that the addition of NPs produced a new
low-frequency relaxation. However, the main concerns are
the stability and viscosity of the resultant fluids that have to be
considered when preparing NFs. Besides, there are
other challenges that can make obstacles for the large-scale
industrial production of NFs, which will be explained in detail
in Section 6.
Another example of a solid insulation system is the insulators
of supporting outdoor HV transmission lines. Normally, they
are fabricated from vulcanized silicon rubber, glass, or ceramic
[58]. Vulcanized silicon rubber has many features, such as
light-weight, high BDV, strong hydrophobic, and good
flexibility, which make it better than other conventional glass
and ceramic [59]. Nevertheless, the disadvantage of this type is
that it has a low thermal conductivity ~0.3Wꞏm−1ꞏK−1, which is
not a good feature [60]. Overload and partial discharge increase
the temperature of insulators, which gradually leads to insulator
failure [61]. High thermal conductivity fillers can be added to
the silicon rubber materials in order to enhance the thermal
conductivity [62]. For such improvement, besides the electrical
and mechanical properties of the insulators, various NPs (e.g.,
Al2O3, AIN, BN and BaTiO3) have been used as nanofillers in
many studies.
In [63], high temperature vulcanizing polymer insulators
were manufactured based on micro- and nanoparticles. The
insulators demonstrated higher resistance against electrical
discharges, thus, avoiding excessive maintenance, reducing
maintenance costs, and extending the life of the insulators. The
silicone rubber insulators were studied in [64] to investigate the
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effects of adding micro- and nano- SiO2 on the tracking and
erosion resistance. The results revealed that micro-SiO2 filler
exhibited higher tracking/erosion resistance when compared
with neat and nanofillers. The authors of [65] proposed super
hydrophobic insulators based on BN to overcome the problem
of ice gathering on transmission lines. A rise in thermal
conductivity was observed with the addition of BN, about 75%,
and more uniformed heat distribution was obtained. Another
research of the tracking and erosion properties of silicone
rubber insulators filled with micro and nano alumina trihydrate
(ATH) in [66]. The results suggested that nanocomposites
showed better performance than micro-composites, even for
both positive and negative DC stresses. In the work of [67],
several micro-nano composites were applied to reinforce the
silicone rubber insulators. The performance was validated by
inclined plane tests from 3 to 8 kV. The results of the incline
plane test exceeded the expectations by reaching 8 kV without
failure.
The size of NP is significant as the size influences insulator
performance. The shape of used NPs can be in the form of
fibers, pellets, or spheres. Their distribution should be
homogeneous with less presence of any agglomeration of NPs
[68].
NPs applied in other HV insulation systems, such as
capacitors, power generators, and circuit breakers. In [69], the
authors used hydrothermal and precipitation methods to
synthesize Stannic oxide (SnO2) on the surface of TiO2
nanowires of polymer matrices in capacitors. The hybrid
structure (TiO2 and SnO2) introduced extra interfaces, which
enhanced the base polymer dielectric about four times. The
authors of [70] presented a review of the challenges of nano-
dielectric polymers in capacitors and cable insulators. They
summarized the technical approaches for enhancing the
dielectric strength of polymers. The authors of [71] proposed to
use nano-oil based TiO2 to remove carbonates from the internal
contacts of the miniature circuit breaker by inserting it via the
holes located on the sides of the breaker. The cleaning process
was done under the influence of infrared radiation. The results
showed better performance in the breaker function. Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) switchgear was investigated in [72] to detect
the decomposition gas of carbon tetrafluoride (CF4) by using
carbon nanotube (CNT), SnO2 NPs and ZnO nanowire gas
sensors. The SnO2 sensor at 1 wt% showed the highest response
to CF4. SiO2 nanocomposite was proposed in [73] to improve
the electrical and mechanical properties of the insulation of
generator stator windings. The results proved that the use of
SiO2 in epoxy-mica led to a more efficient insulation system,
which increased the lifetime of the generator. The turbine and
hydro generator epoxy-mica insulation filled with SiO2 NPs
was introduced in [74]. The electrical lifetime was improved by
comparing the results with the base insulation.
An HV film capacitor has multiple windings in parallel and
series to acquire the rated voltage and capacitance. It is a good
example of the utilization of NPs in HV applications, where the
multi-nanocomposites materials enhanced the dielectric
characteristics. Hence, lead to a new design of capacitors with
better performance and lower costs [75, 76]. Different thermal,
 IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
mechanical, and electrical stresses during operation diminish
the epoxy-mica insulation structure of the generator’s insulation
and minimize its electrical strength [73]. Therefore, utilizing
NPs to modify the epoxy-mica insulation to improve the
different insulation properties that have been presented in the
literature [77, 78]. In circuit breakers, nano-oil is used to
lubricate the internal mechanical contact points by leaking it
inside the breaker to absorb carbonate and clean internal parts
[79]. This process is considered as one of the maintenance
methods that involves NPs-based oil [71]. The utilization of
NPs to produce nano-fillers that can enhance the mechanical
strength of the circuit breaker without affecting the thermal
properties is another HV application [80].
In this work, the utilization of different NPs in HV insulation
systems was systematically reviewed, covering multiple types
of NPs and most NP applications. The methods of synthesis of
NPs and the method of producing nano-insulation systems were
also discussed. The results of many studies regarding the effects
on electrical and thermal properties were presented. Last,
challenges and limitations that facing the use of NPs were also
highlighted.
2 NANOPARTICLE TYPES
The enhancement of electrical, mechanical and thermal
properties of the HV insulation system is vital in power networks.
Nowadays, many types of NPs have been used in different studies
by considering different concentrations and approaches to
modify the properties of HV insulation systems. Table 1 shows
the NPs used in different HV applications. It classifies them
according to NP type (conductive, semi-conductive or
insulative), texture and color, applications and benefits.
Many interesting implications can be inferred by looking at
Table 1. For liquid insulation systems, like mineral and ester
oils, conductive nanomaterials (e.g., Fe3O4 and Fe2O3) were
used to enhance different electrical properties. These types of
NPs had positive effects on AC BDV, DC BDV, partial
discharge, and resistivity. Meanwhile, insulative NPs like
Al2O3 and BCZT had positive effects on different properties,
especially electrical properties. Both NP types enhanced the
thermal properties differently. Apart from that, semi-
conductive NPs (e.g., GO and WO3) enhanced the electrical
properties of solid insulation systems. Nevertheless, different
tests must be performed to determine the suitability of NPs for
HV insulation system applications.
Recently, a potential method to achieve better performance
regarding different insulation system properties was done by
mixing two or three types of NPs to produce a hybrid nano-
insulation system rather than using only one type of NPs [106].
It is a new technology that is synthesizing a hybrid nano-
insulation system by dispersing dissimilar types of NPs
(conductive, semi-conductive, or insulative) with different
concentrations to have better electrical and thermal properties
at the same time, for example, hybrid NF of TO [107]. Hybrid
NFs are superior, as compared to single NPs fluid, in
thermophysical and thermal properties and dielectric
performance as presented in many previous studies [108–112].
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Vol. 28, No. 4; August 2021 1383
In many studies, this technology has demonstrated to replace
the existing technology, especially for high-temperature
applications [113].
3 NANOPARTICLE STRUCTURES
The structure features of NPs can be characterized using
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) that uses
infrared light to scan the samples and detect their chemical
properties [12]. Raman spectroscopy provides information on
the chemical structure, polymer morphology, crystallinity, and
molecular interactions. It is based on the interaction of light
with the chemical bonds within a material [114, 115].
It is not likely to find studies that have investigated and
obtained comparable outcomes when using the same types of
NPs with the same concentrations for similar applications. The
reason for this disproportion is due to the fact that using
different morphological types of NPs leads to different results.
The NPs structure may have negative or positive effects on the
properties of the insulation system, thus, more investigations
are required. For example, in [116], the positive impulse
breakdown voltage of TO was increased about 55.5% by adding
TiO2 nanorods, approximately 1.23 times more than adding
TiO2 nanospheres. This belongs to the fact that different
semiconductors properties, like optical, electrical and catalytic,
are being subjected to the crystallinity and crystal phase of the
particles [9]. The shape/structure and size of NPs are important
to acquire more stable nano-insulating fluids due to the direct
relationship with fluid viscosity [117] and electrical and
magnetic properties [118]. There are multiple structure types of
NPs that have been used in different studies, such as nanotubes
[119], nanosheets or nanofibers [120], nanorods [121], nano-
diamond [115, 122], nano-sphere [116] and nanowires [123].
The authors of [124] presented an experimental study that
investigated the influence of CNT on the AC BDV of mineral
TO. They found that the addition of 0.001–0.005 wt% of CNT
enhanced the AC BDV. However, more than 0.01 wt% of CNT
showed opposite results. In [18], another study that investigated
the effects of the CNT addition to HVDC cables on the
electrical properties. The DC conductivity of the cables was
similar to pure XLPE at 10−15 S/cm with the addition of 0.005
wt% of CNT, whereas the DC BDV increased about 100%
compared to XLPE without CNT. Nanosheets of graphene were
used by the authors of [125] to enhance the performance of
mineral TO regarding the BDV and thermal conductivity.
Approximately 1.4 times improvement in the BDV was
observed as compared to the base TO at 0.0025 wt% of
graphene nanosheets and 30% increase in the thermal
conductivity. The effects of BN nanosheets on HVDC cables
were investigated in [126]. The experimental results showed
that the addition of less than 0.05 wt% of BN nanosheets
effectively suppressed the space charge, but a higher
concentration (2–3 wt%) resulted in small accumulated charges.
Nanofibers were presented in [127], where the authors used
nickel oxide (NiO) and SnO2 as nanocomposites for Hydrogen
sensing, which were fabricated by the electrospinning method
with the carbonization process. It showed a good gas-sensing to
 1384 E. J. Kadim et al.: Nanoparticles Application in High Voltage Insulation Systems

Table 1. The use of different types of NPs in HV applications.

Chemical Color and
Nanoparticles Type of NP HV Application Findings Ref.
Formula Texture
Aluminum White to Thermal conductivity increased about 7% with the addition
AlN Insulative Mineral TO [81]
nitride pale-yellow solid of 0.5 wt. % of AlN.
Aluminum An average of 45% lower dissipation factor with the
Al2O3 Insulative White solid Rapeseed oil [41]
oxide highest BDV and volume resistivity at 0.3 wt. % of Al2O3.
Alumina Transmission line The presence of NPs affected the hydrophobic properties
ATH Insulative White powder [82]
trihydrate insulator of the insulator as a function of NP concentration.
Barium calcium
Silvery-gray No change in heat transfer, but the BDV improved by 20%
zirconate BCZT Insulative Synthetic ester oil [83]
ceramics compared to the base oil.
titanate
At 1 wt. % of fluorinated NPs, the flashover voltage was
Barium titanate BaTiO3 Insulative White crystals Epoxy resin 20.9% higher than non-fluorinated NPs with better surface [84]
morphology and stability.
Bismuth (III) Yellow crystals or
Bi2O3 Insulative Au-decorated Bi2O3/Bi2WO6 NPs enhanced the
oxide powder
Super capacitor supercapacitance behavior, which increased the electrical [76]
Bismuth Yellow-green
Bi2WO6 Insulative conductivity.
tungstate powder
Calcium This type of NPs enhanced the flashover voltage but lower
CaCO3 Insulative White powder Epoxy resins [85]
carbonate than the other NPs used in this research.
Carbon Black TO thermal 50% thermal convection improvement was obtained when
CNT Conductive [86]
nanotubes cylindrical tubes conductivity adding 2 wt. % of CNT.
Electrical conductivity increased with increased CeO2
White or
Cerium oxide CeO2 Insulative Mineral TO concentration and NPs showed excellent stability at all [87]
pale-yellow solid
concentrations.
Cobalt
Grey to The NPs enhanced the heat transfer rate, which depends on
manganese CoMnFe2O4 Conductive Mineral TO [88]
black powder the strength of the external magnetic field.
ferrite
Copper (II) Semi- Black to Fluid of CuO at 0.2 wt% has excellent stability and become
CuO Mineral TO [87]
oxide conductive brown powder good stability as the concentration was increased
Calcium copper Dark NPs improved the flashpoint and AC BDV as the quantity
CaCu3Ti4O12 Insulative Synthetic ester oil [89]
titanate brown powder increased with no high variation in acidity or viscosity.
Exfoliated 0.01 wt. % of NPs reduced the effect of early
Transformer
hexagonal Eh-BN Insulative Colorless crystals polymerization after 2,000 h of thermal aging, which [90]
insulation paper
boron nitride provided better electromechanical stability.
The dissipation factor decreased to 20.1%, while the
Dark needle-like Vegetable
Fullerene C60 Insulative resistivity and BDV increased by 23.3% and 8.6%, [91]
crystals dielectric liquid
respectively.
Iron (II) oxide 0.001 wt. % of Fe3O4 enhanced PD resistance more than
Fe3O4 Conductive Red-brown solid Mineral TO [92]
(Magnetite) the semi-conductive NP.
Iron (III) oxide Metallic grey, The BDV enhanced at 0.001 wt. %, but contrary to BDV
Fe2O3 Conductive Natural ester oil [93]
(Hematite) dull to bright response at 0.01 and 0.1 wt. %.
0.01 wt. % of GO demonstrated lower DC conductivity but
Semi- HVDC cable
Graphene oxide GO Brown crystals showed higher BDV and smaller space charge [94]
conductive insulation
accumulation.
Magnesium Conduction currents increased at a lower rate with the
MgO Insulative White powder Mineral TO [95]
oxide addition of NPs.
Manganese Transmission line 2D MnO2 nanosheets, among other forms (nanowires and
MnO2 Conductive Brown-black solid [96]
dioxide insulator nanorods), exhibited the lowest AC conductivity.
Multiwalled Black cylindrical TO thermal Thermal conductivity improved by 5.7 and 7.7 % with NP
MWCNT Conductive [97]
CNT tubes properties concentrations of 0.001 and 0.01 wt. %, respectively.
Transparent/solid
Semi- 5% BDV increment with 0.02 wt. % of NP addition and
Silicon dioxide SiO2 amorphous/white Natural ester oil [98]
conductive 15% BDV decrement with 0.005 wt. % of NP addition.
yellow/powder
Yellow/green or
Semi- Heat transfer of Maximum heat rise reduction was obtained numerically at
Silicon carbide SiC bluish-black [99]
conductive TO 3 wt. % of NPs concentration.
crystals
Lustrous white At 4 wt. % hybrid NF of Ag and WO3, the thermal
Silver Ag Conductive Mineral TO [100]
metal conductivity increased by 41%.
Semi- Yellowish or light SF6 insulation Synthesizing SnO2 with CNT enhanced the gas adsorption
Stannic oxide SnO2 [101]
conductive grey powder sensor performance.
Titanium Semi- The BDV was enhanced at 0.001 wt. % of NPs. 0.1 wt. %
TiO2 White solid Natural ester oil [93]
dioxide (titania) conductive and high concentration led to an opposite BDV response.
Tungsten Semi- Canary yellow The supercapacitor exhibited large specific capacitance of
WO3 Super capacitor [102]
trioxide conductive powder 274.3 F g−1 and high energy density of 15.4 Wh kg−1.
Semi- The BDV increased by 40.3% at 70 °C with 0.03 wt. % of
Zinc oxide ZnO White powder Mineral TO [103]
conductive ZnO.
The average AC BDV increased by 10% at 10 wt. % of NP
Silicon nitride Si4N3 Insulative Grey powder Mineral TO [104]
concentration.
Zirconium Polyethylene HV The samples of ZrO2 showed higher DC BDV than samples
ZrO2 Insulative White Powder [105]
dioxide insulation of SiO2 in this particular study.

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 IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 28, No. 4; August 2021 1385

H2 when compared with the pure one for temperatures between insulation system. Prior to the modification, NPs are produced
195 and 210 ℃. Polyamide nonwoven nanofibers were used in via multiple methods. Then, these NPs are added by different
[128] to study their effects on the HV electrical insulation techniques into insulation systems accordingly. There are many
materials (epoxy resin, glass cloth and mica). The results methods which have been developed to produce NPs (e.g.,
demonstrated that the BDV remained unchanged or a little chemical, physical, biological and others) [135]. The chemical
higher than expected with smaller values of dissipation factor. methods, like chemical vapor synthesis, have the advantages of
The effects of the additional TiO2 nanorods to impregnated reducing surface oxidation and agglomeration, besides
pressboard on the creeping flashover performance were studied producing NPs on a large-scale. Nonaqueous solvents were
by the authors of [129]. They compared results with the addition used in these methods [136]. On the other hand, physical
of nano-spherical of TiO2. They found that the negative methods of synthesis NPs can be used in the synthesis of
creeping flashover voltage was increased up to 15% while the organic and inorganic NPs types [137]. While the sonochemical
positive was improved by 5%. However, nano-spherical results method is used for synthesizing metal NPs [138]. Many
showed better performance at 32% and 15%, respectively. A approaches have been created to synthesize NPs, such as
study investigated the effects of nanorod morphology of Al2O3 milling, lithography and repeated quenching [139]. Table 2
on an oil/paper insulation system [130]. The shape of NPs had summarizes the practically used methods to produce NPs.
a diameter of 15 nm and a length of 150 nm. The authors of this
study found that this structure of NPs can slow down the aging Table 2. Methods of NPs production [135, 140].
process of TO and pressboard, where the average lightning Chemical Physical Biological Other
impulse of aged NFs was 11% higher than aged TO. methods methods methods methods
Carbon nano-diamonds were presented by authors to study Chemical vapor Pulse vapor Plant Sonochemical;
their effects on mineral TO in [131] and [115]. The outcomes synthesis; deposition; extract Sonoelectrochemical
Plasma Melt mixing; assisted
of the first study showed that the maximum enhancement of enhanced Flash spray biogenesis;
thermal conductivity was achieved 23% in 0.05 wt% of NPs. chemical vapor pyrolysis; Bio-
However, the viscosity increased and BDV decreased. In the deposition; Laser templates
Sol-gel pyrolysis; assisted
second study, the electrical resistivity, dissipation factor and synthesis; High energy biogenesis;
viscosity remained unchanged with the addition of 0.12 wt% of Micro emulsion milling; Microorga
NPs, although the thermal conductivity improved by 14.5%. In technique; Inert gas nisms
Hydrothermal condensation; assisted
[132], the effects of polypyrrole nanospheres on polyethylene synthesis; Sputtering; biogenesis.
cables were investigated. They found that adding polypyrrole Chemical UV radiation.
nanospheres improved the distribution of space charge and etching;
Explosion
reduced the amount of the accumulated charges. Meanwhile, process.
the authors of [116] investigated the effects of TiO2 nano-
spheres morphology on the mineral TO that were made by using
the solvothermal method. They compared the results with the 4.1 FLUID INSULATION SYSTEM
nanorods results. They showed that the positive impulse BDV Fluid insulation systems contain the electrical apparatuses
can reach 55.5% with nanorods, and 1.23 times with nanosphere. that use oil with other materials for insulation, such as power
Nanowires were studied by [123]. The authors used ZO2 for transformers, capacitors, switchgears and circuit breakers
dissolved gases analysis (DGA) sensing. Their results revealed [141]. There are two well-known methods to produce NFs: one-
that the sensor response is possibly valid to diagnosis acetylene step and two-step methods. As the name suggests, the one-step
concentration in oil that is quantified by gas chromatography. method combines the process of creating NPs and synthesis
The effects of TiO2 nanowires on epoxy resin insulation were NFs in one single technique called physical vapor deposition or
studied in [133]. At 0.5 and 1 wt% of TiO2, the charge and chemical vapor condensation technique [142]. This method
discharge efficiency were improved. At 2 wt% of TiO2, the does not need intermediate steps like drying or storage, because
energy density and BDV enhanced as well. In [89], the authors it directly disperses the NPs into the fluid and makes it more
studied mixing two types of nanoceramics (CCTO and BCZT) stable [143]. Using a rotating cylinder, the method starts by first
and their effects on the performance of synthetic esters. They evaporating a precursor material and then depositing it into a
found that the AC BDV increased with the increase of NP fluid, for example, a TO. This cylinder has an adjustable heater
concentration. Al2O3 and AlN nanoceramics were studied in and exchanger-cooler [144]. When the cylinder rotates, a slim
[134] when used with the mineral TO. From the study, the AlN liquid layer is created on the inside surface. The heater is placed
NPs at 0.5 wt% increased the thermal conductivity of NF by 8% near the rotating layer, so the material starts to heated via
and the heat transfer coefficient by 20%. evaporating a fraction of the material and forming NPs, which
are absorbed by the fluid film to form NF [145]. Another
technique is the submerged arc nanoparticle synthesis system
4 SYNTHESIS OF (SANSS), which was invented by Lo et al [146]. In this
HV NANO-INSULATION SYSTEMS technique, a pure rod of metal, like copper, is heated by a
Modification of an existing insulation system with NPs submerged arc. It is considered an effective method to avoid
creates a new insulation system that is typically called a nano- agglomeration and produce uniformly dispersed NF. However,

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 1386 E. J. Kadim et al.: Nanoparticles Application in High Voltage Insulation Systems

the advantage of the one-step method is producing a fluid that Table 3. Types of surfactants.
has more stability [147], but the disadvantages are it is very Surfactants Ref.
expensive and low scale production. Oleic acid [161]
Sodium Dodecylbenzene Sulfonate (SDBS) [149]
The two-step method is used for preparing NFs more than the Gum Arabic (GA) [162]
one step method, especially for large-scale production [135]. In Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
[163]
polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP)
the first step, the NPs are produced as dry powder via different lauroyl-arginine (L-Arg) and lauroyl-cysteine (L-Cys) [164]
preparation methods (chemical or physical), as mentioned Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) [165]
before in Table 2 [148]. Then, in the second preparing step, the sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) [166]
powder is dispersed into a based fluid (e.g., water, ethylene
glycol, ester oil, or mineral oil). In here, most of the base fluids Adding a low amount of surfactant may not give the proper
that were adopted in many studies are different TO types. This stability, while adding a high amount can increase the viscosity
process is done by using a magnetic or mechanical stirrer for a and reduce the fluid’s stability. However, the main problem of
duration between 15 and 30 min [149], with some studies surfactants is to maintain stability in high-temperature
performing the stirring step longer than 30 min [150]. In other applications [167]. The stability of the NFs is analyzed by using
studies, a hot air oven was used to remove any moisture content Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy [168] or turbidity
in NPs before adding them to fluid, where the temperature could meter [169].
be 150 ℃ for 8 h [151]. NPs tend to agglomerate because of the Finally, the NF is placed in an ultrasonic homogenizer for
high surface area and surface activity. For small-sized materials 1 to 3 h to avoid agglomeration [170]. To remove any bubbles
like NPs, the ratio of surface atoms to interior atoms is high. formed through the ultrasonication process, the resultant NF is
The surface atoms cannot maintain the bonds as the interior kept in vacuum drying [171]. Several techniques can be used to
atoms. When a big bulk breaks, they become surface atoms. detect and analyze the degree of NP dispersion in the fluid after
Thus, unbalanced forces exist at the surface, then, surface obtaining NF, such as SEM, XRD and TEM. After finishing the
energy increases allowing the broken atoms to return to the two-steps method’s procedures to obtain NF, multiple tests
original location. The surface energy produces negative effects should be performed to assess various electrical and thermal
on NFs stability, where it produces an attraction force [152, properties, as summarized in Table 4. The majority of these
153]. Another reason for NPs agglomerate is the attractive tests can be done for both solid and fluid insulation systems.
forces, like Van der Waals forces [154], which can be seen in
Figure 1, dipole interactions among NPs [155], gravity and Table 4. Types of tests.
buoyancy forces [156]. These attractions are relatively weak as Tests Standards
they are not chemical electronic resultant and are more AC breakdown
ASTM D1816-12 [172], ASTM D877-M13 [173],
vulnerable to disturbances and vanish at longer distances. These ASTM D3300-12 [174], IEC 60156 [175], IEC
voltage
60296 [176].
forces make NPs become larger particles and, at the same time, IEC 60247 [177], ASTM D150-18 [178], ASTM
they are dependent on NPs size and shape [143], as well as lead Relative permittivity
D924-15 [179].
to losing the stability of NFs. Dissipation factor
ASTM D924-15 [179], IEC 60247 [177], IEC
61620 [180].
Resistivity ASTM D1169-19 [181], IEC 60247 [177].
Partial ASTM D1868-20 [182], [183]IEC 60897, IEC
discharge/corona 60270 [184].
Relative density ASTM D 1298 [185], ISO 3675 [186].
Visual examination ASTM D1524-15 [187].
Thermal
ASTM C1696 –20 [188], ASTM D7896 [189].
conductivity
ASTM D1533-12 [190], IEC 60814 [191], ASTM
Moisture
E203-16 [192]
Interfacial tension ASTM D 971 [193]
Flashpoint and fire
ASTM D92-16, ISO 2592 [194], ISO 2719 [195]
point
ISO 3104 [196], ASTM D445-19a [197], IEC
Viscosity
61868 [198]
Pour point ISO 3016 [199]
IEC 62021-3 [200], ISO 660 [201], ASTM D974-
Acid level
Figure 1. Van der Waals Attraction Forces. 14e2 [202], ASTM D664-18e2 [203]
Loading temperature IEEE C57‐91‐2011 [204]
Among the techniques to stabilize NFs are carboxyl group Heat capacity ASTM E1269 [205]
Limits of different
formation [113], surface modification (functionalization) [157], properties of oil
IEEE C57.106-2015 [206]
regulating the range of pH [158], and addition of surfactants Oxidation stability IEC 61125 [207]
[159]. As there are many types of surfactants, that are
mentioned in Table 3, it is important to select the suitable To check the stability of the resultant NF, Zeta potential is
surfactants and their optimal concentration to enhance the done to assess the electrostatic potential of free charge on the
stability of NPs, because different types of surfactants can give NPs surface. Thus, Zeta potential is a measuring tool of the
different stability results [160]. stability of NF. The fluid is considered stable if it has a high

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 IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
value of Zeta potential, while the low value of Zeta potential
refers to the unstable fluid [163]. Specifically, if the value of
Zeta potential is less than 30 mV, the fluid is unstable. More
than 40 mV, the fluid has good stability. If it has a value greater
than 60 mV, the stability is excellent [171]. NPs with no electric
charge, the value of Zeta potential approaches to zero, which
means the fluid has poor stability. Moreover, low Zeta potential
means the distances among particles have become smaller.
Accordingly, Van der Waals force is increased. As a result,
more agglomeration and precipitation can happen [208].
4.2 SOLID INSULATION SYSTEM
Solid insulation system refers to insulating materials that are
used in rotating machines, circuit breakers, dry-type
transformers, power capacitors, transmission line insulators,
HVDC cables and HV bushings. Materials like paper,
fiberglass, rubber, epoxy-mica and XLPE [209]. NPs as fillers
for solid insulation systems can enhance different properties,
such as mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, dielectric
strength, discharge resistance, treeing resistance and reduced
permittivity [210]. NPs are dispersed in solid insulation
matrices after being synthesized. Figure 2a shows cellulose
nanofibers without Ag NPs, while Figure 2b shows the Ag NPs
conjoined with the cellulose nanofibers [211].
Figure 2a. SEM images of pure cellulose [211].
Figure 2b. SEM image of cellulose combined with Ag NPs [211]. Authors
received permission to publish figures from the author of [211].
Different methods are available for dispersing
nanocomposites, for example, high shear mixers, roll mixers,
extruders, electrospinning, Banbury mixers [212], (melt, mill,
and solution) mixing methods and latex stage mixing with
coagulation method [213]. Electrospinning is a simple method
to produce nanofibers from the electrostatically-driven jet of
polymers [212]. In this method, an electric force is used to draw
a charged thread of polymer solution to fiber diameters in the
order of a few hundred nanometers. The method can produce
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Vol. 28, No. 4; August 2021 1387
uninterrupted fibers with a diameter in submicron to nanometer
in size and does not need coagulation or high heat to produce
solid threads [211]. The melt compounding method is a good
rubber nanocomposites process that can be used in the industry.
Practically, the polymer (rubber or XLPE) is melted and
combined with the quantity of the NPs using Banbury mixer or
an extruder. The process is done in the presence of a passive
gas, like argon or nitrogen [214]. This method is cost-effective
and environmentally friendly as no organic solvent is required.
[213, 215]. In [53], the authors used a novel method that
combines hydrolyzation with condensation so it can directly
form the matrix materials into a nanostructure based on a
ceramic fiber-porous silica composite to get long-term stability
and 120.5% improvement in BDV.
It is very important to make the dispersion of NPs
homogeneous in the matrix in order to obtain a good insulation
performance. A strong interaction between the matrix and the
filler is required to achieve high performance. A silane coupling
agent is used to improve this process to coherence the filler and
polymer matrix [216]. The same technique of NPs imaging and
analyzing that were mentioned before, besides different
properties tests explained in Table 4, are used to determine the
degree of stability of the nano-insulation system.
5 INSULATION SYSTEM PROPERTIES
There are many properties and characteristics of the
insulation systems that have to be pointed out after adding NPs
before their practical implementations. This section highlights
the important insulation system properties with NPs. These
properties are evaluated via different tests as mentioned earlier,
besides the simulations and experiments.
5.1 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
NPs have been used in many studies that focused on
enhancing the different electrical properties. The outcomes of
the previous studies showed different levels of enhancements
regarding the electrical properties [217–219]. The targeted
properties are resistivity, dissipation factor, AC and DC
breakdown voltage (AC BDV and DC BDV), partial discharge
PD, and relative permittivity (εr). Resistivity is the reverse of
conductivity, where a material resists the flow of electric
current through it. An insulation material like rubber, oil, or
paper with a low value of resistivity denotes there is moisture
or conductive impurities [220]. The ASTM D6095-12(2018)
test method is used to examine the volume resistivity of
thermoplastic semiconductors or insulation shields for cables
[221]. To measure DC resistance for different HV materials the
ASTM D4496 - 13 test method is used [222] and IEC 62631-3-
4:2019 [223]. The dielectric dissipation factor or tan δ is also
called the loss factor. It gives an indication of the nature of the
liquid dielectric. It is a ratio of dissipated energy to stored
energy, which ideally must be zero. Nevertheless, naturally,
there is no such perfect dielectric material [150]. The resistivity
is inversely proportional to tan δ, where the increase of
resistivity decreases tan δ. The permittivity depends on many
factors, including frequency, temperature, electric intensity and
magnetic induction [224].
 1388 E. J. Kadim et al.: Nanoparticles Application in High Voltage Insulation Systems
AC BDV, εr, and tan δ were investigated by the authors of
[39], they used alumina as an additive for mineral TO and
soybean oil impregnated-papers. They found that εr of soybean
oil with 0.01 wt% of alumina impregnated paper was higher
than TO and tan δ was lower. In [14], which is a study of the
solid insulation system, authors used TiO2 for PVC of cables
insulation to study AC BDV, εr, and tan δ. The main outcome
of this study was that the optimal concentration to decrease εr
by 43% and tan δ by 41% was when dispersed 3 wt% of TiO2.
On the other hand, AC BDV increased with the increase of TiO2
concentrations.
The εr, also called the dielectric constant, is directly related
to the dielectric polarization intensity of the material. It is
measured concurrently during tan δ and conductivity tests
[225]. The test methods for solid insulation are IEC 62631-2-1:
2018 [226], ASTM D2149 – 13 [227], and ASTM D1082 – 17
[228]. Fluid insulation test methods are listed in Table 4. The
higher the oil εr, the more uniformed the electric field and the
lower the electrostatic charging. Therefore, in order to have
more uniformity in the electric field, a type of nanomaterial that
can boost the εr of the insulation system have to be dispersed in
oil [108]. The dielectric strength of the material indicates how
much it can withstand high voltages (breakdown voltages).
In other words, it shows the maximum operating voltage for
insulating material. Hence, high BDV is preferred for insulating
materials. Various BDV test configurations can be used for
different insulation systems (needle-sphere [229], sphere-
sphere [230], needle-plate [104], plate-plate [231]). The results
of BDV can be analyzed statistically using the Weibull
distribution [98, 232]. According to the findings of [233], the
authors found that 0.0005 wt% of MWCNT improved the BDV
by about 490.6% and 49.5% lightning impulse based on 1%
Weibull distribution, while the improvement was 156% and
1.9% in BDV and lightning impulse, respectively, based on
90% Weibull distribution.
A study of the HVDC XLPE cables was presented by the
authors of [234]. They investigated the effects of SiO2 on DC
BDV. The addition of SiO2 improved DC BDV by about 29.6%.
Another study in the same field [235] investigated the effects of
adding MgO to HVDC polyethylene cables on the DC BDV.
The main finding was the maximum increase in DC BDV was
377.06 kV/mm with adding 0.5 wt% of MgO, which
represented a 17.61% improvement than pure insulation.
In [236], the authors studied the effects of SiO2 on DC BDV of
HVDC Polypropylene cables. They found that dispersing
1 wt% of SiO2 enhanced the DC BDV by about 29.7%. For the
fluid insulation system in [237], the authors investigated the
effects of three different Fe3O4, TiO2, and Al2O3 on AC BDV
of palm fatty acid ester. The best result of AC BDV was
obtained from oil samples based on Fe3O4 NPs that gave an
improvement of about 43%. The authors of [238] considered
the effects of dispersing ZnO on AC BDV of mineral TO. The
oil with 0.0057 wt% of ZnO showed the best dielectric strength.
In [239], the authors found that when semiconductive or
insulative NPs were treated with carbon quantum dots (CQD)
the AC BDV of corn oil was significantly enhanced despite the
low concentration of nanofiller, nearly 0.05 wt%. They
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hypothesized that the result can be relevant to the attraction
between corn oil and CQD-treated NPs, which makes a better
dispersion of NPs in oil and good stability of NF.
The corona discharge is an unwanted voltage, which is
caused by the ionization of a fluid, like air, surrounding a
conductor, like a transmission line. The phenomenon occurs
naturally in HV, unless preventive actions are taken to limit its
electric field strength. Therefore, many studies improved the
performance of TO against corona discharge by adding NPs
[151]. In [240], the effects of TiO2 to curb corona discharge in
mineral TO were studied. The authors found that the obtained
NF that contained 0.0061 wt% of TiO2 with 0.1 wt% of CTAB
as a surfactant showed the highest corona incept voltage as
compared to the base oil. Moreover, the corona discharge could
inject charge on the insulator surface of HVDC transmission
lines and induced a DC flashover voltage. This attribute could
change the electrical properties of the insulation system [241].
Continuous exposure to stress, like corona, affects the
molecules of the insulation material [242]. In the investigation
by [243], the authors used SiO2 to mitigate corona discharge in
HV transmission lines insulators. They found that 1 wt% of
SiO2 showed a significant enhancement in the decay rate of the
surface charge besides the dissipation time of the fluorination.
Another issue that should be considered is the ability of the
nano-insulation system to withstand the PD [244]. PD is caused
by the breakdown of insulation at a small fraction (solid, or
liquid) under high pressure, where the space between
conductors does not isolate [245]. The test method of rotating
machines is IEEE Std 1434-2014 [246]. SiO2 NPs were used to
protect transmission line insulators from the effect of DC
flashover voltage in [241]. The authors found that DC flashover
voltage decreased as the dispersion of NPs fraction was
between 0 and 1 wt% and increased as the NPs fraction was
between 1 and 5 wt%. The results of different studies showed
the benefits of the use of NPs to enhance the electrical
properties of the insulation systems.
5.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Various studies have improved the performance of insulation
systems regarding electrical and thermal properties by adding
similar types of NPs [100, 247]. In fact, this idea is difficult to
be accomplished as the improvement can be made for each
property with different levels. However, in a lot of research, the
authors reached an optimal point of improvement for both sets
of properties by adding a certain concentration of NPs type.
They focused on thermal properties that include flashpoint,
pour point, viscosity, thermal conductivity, interfacial tension
(IFT), hotspot temperature and top oil temperature. Most of the
thermal properties related to fluids, mainly different types of
TO. There are many NPs types that have a relatively high
thermal conductivity, so these NPs are used to modify the
thermal properties of insulation fluids, including α-Al2O3
with 38–42 Wꞏm−1ꞏK−1, ZnO with 60 Wꞏm−1ꞏK−1 and AlN with
150–220 Wꞏm−1ꞏK−1 [62].
The flashpoint of transformer oil is where the heat produces
enough vapors to make a flammable mixture with air, hence, it
should be more than 140 ℃. It is a very important characteristic
 IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
that specifies the hazard point of fire in the transformer.
Therefore, a high flashpoint is desirable for TO [97]. The fire
point is also crucial because it determines the temperature that
oil may initiate fire if a fire source is available [248]. In [247],
the authors dispersed TiO2 into synthetic ester oil to improve
the flash and fire points. The enhancement of flash and fire
points was 4.72% and 8.5%, respectively, whereas the thermal
conductivity improved by 8.3% and 5.5% for 25 ℃ and 80 ℃,
respectively, by adding 0.05 wt% of NPs. The pour point should
be considered, especially for cold areas (i.e., icy climate).
It represents the minimum temperature that oil starts to flow.
Below this point, oil stops to transfer heat, which is considered
obstructing the cooling cycle.
Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a fluid flow, which
is inversely proportional to temperature. This means that when
oil has a high viscosity, it obstructs the convection cycle inside
the transformer, and this issue is considered as a drawback,
thus, requiring more pumping power [249]. Therefore, an oil
should have as low a viscosity as possible to be less resistant to
the heat flow of oil [250]. By dispersing NPs in oil, the viscosity
will increase. In some cases, if a high concentration of NPs is
added, it can be consider as impurities. Therefore, an optimum
amount should be added to create a balance between viscosity
and other properties. The findings of [152] may clarify this
claim clearly. The authors investigated the effects of ZrO2 and
TiO2 on viscosity and flashpoint when dispersed in mineral TO.
Viscosity increment was 21.9% and 33.1% by adding 0.05 wt%
of ZrO2 and TiO2, respectively, and flashpoint enhancement
was 2.5% and 3.8% with 0.01 wt% of ZrO2 and TiO2,
respectively. Thus, the increment in viscosity was higher than
the enhancement in the flashpoint.
Hotspots refer to spaces within the transformer that are not
cooled by the convection, while top oil refers to the median
between tank outlet oil temperature and oil in tank temperature.
Adding NPs to oil can reduce these two temperatures due to the
enhancement in heat transfer [251]. In [251], the authors
investigated the effects of adding Fe3O4 to mineral TO
electrically and thermally. They found that the dielectric
properties were not severely damaged by adding NPs.
However, oil top temperature and hot spot temperature are
significantly lower in NFs than the base oil. IFT of fluid is a
way to identify the attracting molecular force between water
molecules and oil molecules. A good type of oil has high IFT.
In contrast, contaminated oil has low IFT [55].
Thermal conductivity can be defined as the ability of a
certain material to transfer heat. The produced heat in an
insulation system needs to be dissipated. Naturally, metal can
conduct heat much better than fluid. Therefore, the addition of
metal NPs to fluid increases thermal conductivity [252]. The
study [253] showed how the authors used CNT in four different
fluids including TO and measured their thermal conductivity
using the transient hot-wire method. After that, they compared
the results with simulation results obtained by the artificial
neural network (ANN). The final optimal result deviated within
±5% between the ANN model and experiments. In [109], the
authors focused on enhancing the thermal conductivity of
mineral TO by adding different concentrations of TiO2 and BT.
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Vol. 28, No. 4; August 2021 1389
The addition of 0.01 wt% of TiO2 with 0.005 wt% of BT into
mineral TO enhanced the thermal conductivity by 33% and at
the same time enhanced BDV by 45%. Another study that
focused on using TiO2 and Eh-BN to enhance oil thermal
conductivity is [254]. The main findings were by adding 0.01
wt% of both NPs, NF with Eh-BN enhanced the thermal
conductivity about 37.87% at 45 °C, while TiO2 only showed
3.07% enhancement. In [255], the thermal conductivity was
significantly improved by the addition of BN in mineral TO,
which allowed the generated heat to be dissipated
proportionally with the mass fraction increment from 0.01 to
0.1 wt%. The authors of [256] investigated the effects of Fe3O4
and BT on the thermal conductivity of mineral TO. The results
showed an improvement in thermal conductivity as the BN
concentration increased, where the BDV improved by adding
Fe3O4. This finding was reasonable because BT has good
thermal properties and Fe3O4 has good electrical properties.
The enhancement in thermal conductivity is obtained with
the rise of temperature, which is related to the Brownian motion
[4]. The Brownian motion of NPs is a random motion of the
dispersed particles in the fluid generated from their collision
besides the quick motion of molecules in that fluid. Since the
absorption of kinetic energy leads to more particle collisions, it
can be said that the Brownian motion shares effects on reducing
the aggregation and sedimentation of NPs [257]. However,
the Brownian motion has an inverse relation with the
thermophoresis factor and the local Nusselt number (Nu) [258].
From calculating Prandtl number (Pr) [259] and Grashof
number (Gr) [86], the Nu is given, as in Equation (1) [260]:
𝑁𝑢 𝐶 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 1
where C and n are constants. Gr is the Grashof number and Pr
is the Prandtl number.
The Gr is given by Equation (2), which represents the ratio
between buoyancy force and viscous force. The Pr is given in
Equation (3) which represents the ratio of momentum
diffusivity and thermal conductivity [260].
𝑔𝛽∆𝑇𝐿 𝜌
𝐺𝑟 2
𝑣
where g is the gravity acceleration, β is the thermal coefficient,
T is the temperature discrepancy between the fluid and body
surface, ρ is the density and v is the fluid’s viscosity.
𝑐𝑣
𝑃𝑟 3
λ
where λ is the thermal conductivity of air, c is the specific heat
capacity of oil and v is the fluid’s viscosity.
To have a stable NF with a high thermal conductivity, many
other numbers related to fluid mechanics have to be considered
besides the Nu [261]. These numbers include Reynolds number
(Re) [99], Weber number (We) [262], Capillary number (Ca)
[263], Rayleigh number (Ra) [264], Knudsen number (Kn)
[265] and Péclet number (Pe) [263]. Nevertheless, enhancing
the thermal conductivity of a solid insulation system is a very
crucial matter. The creation of space charge accumulation in
cable insulation is caused by many factors, such as the dependency
on the temperature of insulation, electrical conductivity, and the
 1390 E. J. Kadim et al.: Nanoparticles Application in High Voltage Insulation Systems
formation of a thermal gradient under load conditions [266].
Many investigations were reported in the literature to solve this
problem by relying on the use of NPs [20, 24]. However, the
experimental results of [126] that were reported previously in
Section 3, have showed the possibility of suppressing the space
charge when adding less than 0.05 wt% of BN nanosheets, but
when the concentration reached 2–3 wt% of BN, accumulated
charges were initiated. Therefore, extensive studies are still
required to investigate all the negative and positive aspects of
adding NPs into solid insulation to address this claim properly.
The thermal properties of vulcanized silicone rubber
insulators are modified by adding NPs, like ZnO. By increasing
the concentration of NPs to 1.5 wt%, the thermal decomposition
temperature has raised from 344.6 °C to 420 °C [267]. Epoxy
resin-based nanocomposites have been widely researched for
being potential insulating materials in HV power equipment
[268]. Thermal conductivity with other mechanical and
electrical characteristics is modified after introducing NPs
[268]. Though the use of microparticles of SiO2 improved
thermal conductivity of rotating machines insulation better than
the NPs of SiO2 as reported in [77]. However, samples of NPs
improved resistivity and dissipation factor. For HV cables
insulation, the thermal conductivity has increased linearly with
the increase of temperature when adding BN, hence, NPs
improved the thermal conductivity of cables insulation
polymer. These were the important findings that were presented
by the authors of [269]. In [270], an investigation of the use of
GO with epoxy resin, the authors reported that epoxy with
hydroxyl functionalized GO reduced the dielectric constant by
25.9%. Epoxy with amino-functionalized GO had a 44.86%
increment in thermal conductivity but other physical properties
improved irrelevantly.
5.3 CHEMICAL, MECHANICAL
AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Many other properties have to be considered and studied
extensively by researchers to understand how NPs can
influence insulation systems and improve their stability.
Researchers have studied how NPs react with different
chemical, mechanical and rheological properties of HV fluids
and solid insulation systems, including moisture, acidity, sheer
rate, mechanical strength, pH effect and magnetic field. They
should be taken into consideration through the particle’s
synthesis methods that are mentioned in Table 2. It is
considered the first step to produce a nano-insulation system,
which highly influences the performance of the insulation
system [8]. In addition to that, the size and structure of NPs also
influence stability. Choosing the right manner to disperse NPs
into fluid or a solid insulation material [271] with selecting the
suitable surfactant type influence the stability as well [10].
However, different properties are connected with the change in
temperature especially for insulating fluids (e.g., dynamic
viscosity) [131]. Therefore, experiments have to be conducted
in different operating conditions to assure stability in varied
circumstances. Furthermore, different base fluids have different
levels of viscosity, which can be influenced differently with the
increase of temperature.
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It is important to study the stability of oil-impregnated
insulating paper because the cellulose paper that is in contact
with the mineral oil generates different harmful byproducts, like
sludges, oxides and peroxides. These impurities affect the
electrical, mechanical, and chemical properties of cellulose
paper [47]. The authors of [272] investigated how to improve
the mechanical properties of the press-paper of transformers.
They found a significant enhancement for the tensile strength
of insulating presspaper when they used nano-fibrillated
cellulose compared to other types of paper that were used in the
study. The obtained nanocellulose improved both AC BDV and
DC BDV. In [90], a study on enhancing the electro-mechanical
stability of kraft paper by dispersing 0.01 wt% of Eh-BN into
TO in order to produce an NF. The obtained NF reduced the
early polymerization of kraft paper in mineral TO and provided
better mechanical stability during different thermal aging
durations in the laboratory.
In order to obtain a stable NF, one of the methods is by
controlling the level of pH in the fluid to inhibit the
agglomeration of particles and sedimentation process by
generating repulsive forces [257]. The pH level is related to the
electrical charge density on the NPs surfaces that impact fluid
stability. On the other hand, there is a correlation between the
pH level and Zeta potential, as reported in the literature [143,
273, 274].
Another stability issue is the NF’s behavior, which is being
Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. This characteristic is
affected mainly by the base fluid and the type of NPs. It can be
estimated from the relationship between the shear stress and the
shear rate [275]. If the relationship is linear, or apparent
viscosity, the fluid is a Newtonian fluid. Otherwise, a non-linear
relation, or shear rate-dependent viscosity, is an indication of
non-Newtonian fluid [276]. In other words, a Newtonian fluid
is a fluid that follows Newton’s law of viscosity, where the
viscosity does not depend on the shear rate. On the contrary, the
fluid is non-Newtonian when it does not obey the same law, and
the viscosity varies depending on the shear rate [277]. In [278],
the heat transfer of mineral TO was investigated by adding
different concentrations of three NPs (Al2O3, TiO2, and SiO2).
The addition of 0.001 wt% of SiO2 exhibited the best
improvement in heat transfer, and the NFs behaved as Newtonian
fluids based on the linear correlation between the shear rate and
the shear stress. The authors of [97] studied the heat transfer of
mineral TO when MWCNT was dispersed. Based on the
findings, the NF thermal conductivity changed with increasing
temperature and concentration. These findings confirmed the
Newtonian behavior for different NP concentrations.
Another critical issue is the investigation on the impacts of
moisture on the electrical properties of insulating systems with
different NP types [279]. Moisture distorts the electrical field
and can initiate breakdown. The presence of NPs like TiO2
could absorb moisture, reduce the electric field distortion, and
prevent initiate breakdown. Therefore, it can be said that oil
with NPs has better resistance to moisture degradation than base
oil [280]. The dissolved water content in fluid or solid (organic
and inorganic) materials is usually measured using the Karl
 IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
Fischer titration. It is an accurate tool that gives precise results
within minutes [89, 281]. The presence of acidity in an NF is an
essential factor to be investigated because this factor affects the
BDV strength of the fluid [282] and impacts insulating paper
too. The presence of acid is correlated with the moisture and
dissolved gasses. As a result, high acidity in NF can cause high
oxidation in NF and induce low stability [283]. A low acid
number, which is measured according to one of the test methods
in Table 4, is essential to reduce the electrical conduction and
the metal corrosion in order to maximize the life expectancy of
the insulation system [55]. Different findings in the literature
regarding moisture and acidity can give a prediction of the
insulation system oxidation and ageing with the presence of
NPs. In [284], the researchers observed that the addition of
Fe3O4 into TO augmented the presence of soluble water,
especially when the concentration of NPs was increased.
However, NF has better BDV than base oil. While the findings
of [285] reported that the addition of fullerene C60 reduced the
oxidation and aging processes, but no positive effects were
observed on the resistivity value.
The addition of nanomagnetic particles in order to produce
an insulation fluid as a magnetic NF has received much
attention from many researchers [286–288] because these fluids
are steady colloidal suspensions [276]. Moreover, magnetic
NPs can boost the function of different dielectric properties of
insulating fluid [289]. Therefore, it is important to study the
magnetic properties (e.g., high saturation magnetization and
high magnetic permeability) of different metal NPs to obtain
NPs with suitable magnetic properties and produce stable
insulating fluids [290]. The targeted magnetic NPs are mainly
iron oxides, like magnetite, maghemite, and hematite [291], and
ferrites with the formula of MFe2O4, where M can be any metal
precursor like (Fe, Co, Cu, Ni, Zn, Mg, Mn, Ba, Au, Ag, and
Cu) or any oxides, for instance, (Al2O3 and CuO), carbide (SiC
and TiC) and nitride (AlN and SiN) [292, 293]. One of the
advantages of the addition of small quantities of magnetic NPs
to fluid is enhancing the PD resistance of fluid more than the
pure base fluid [240]. However, the bigger size of magnetic NPs
produces chains nearby proximity electrodes can raise the
internal local electric field and initiate a breakdown [294].
6 CHALLENGES AND FUTURE WORKS
There are many barriers and challenges accompanying the
process of adding NPs to insulation systems that have to be
highlighted before the practical implementations, for example,
environmental and biological, that make the process of industrial
production of a nano-insulation system having harmful aspects,
such as high energy consumption, wastewater generation and
emissions [295]. As a result, the process is considered inadequate
and harmful to humans and the environment.
6.1 TECHNICAL CHALLENGES
OF FLUID INSULATION SYSTEM
The main technical issues of nano insulating fluids are
insufficient dispersion, agglomeration and sedimentation.
These issues affect fluid stability (oxidation stability, thermal
stability and long-term aging stability) [283]. Further practical
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Vol. 28, No. 4; August 2021 1391
studies with different particle shapes and sizes are warranted to
produce more stable fluids. Additionally, stability is influenced
by many factors, such as viscosity, temperature, pH value and
oxidation process. Recently, many authors produced hybrid
NFs as a solution to the stability problem. The preparation of
hybrid NFs by dispersing more than one type of NPs is a more
challenging process due to the particle traits of each type [35].
Although extensive studies of NF viscosity were conducted in
the last two decades, each type of fluid with different particles
needs to be studied independently for special applications. In
general, the viscosity of NFs is higher than the base fluid,
depending on the type, size, and concentration of NPs and the
type of surfactant. Thermal conductivity is the most essential
parameter to improve the heat transfer of NF. In order to
achieve this goal, so to reduce pumping power, it is preferable
to enhance the dispersing methods or innovate new methods of
dispersing NPs in fluids to reduce viscosity by reducing
dependency on the use of surfactants [8]. A high degree of
dispersion of NPs in a fluid can produce a homogeneous fluid,
which is a challenge for researchers as NPs tend to aggregate
due to attractive forces like Van der Waals forces. The physical
and chemical treatments of NFs can be used as well to enhance
oil stability. However, the use of these treatments can provide
stability for a certain level [93].
6.2 TECHNICAL CHALLENGES
OF SOLID INSULATION SYSTEM
The concerns of using NPs for solid insulation systems are
mainly related to electrical properties, such as DC BDV, AC
BDV, dielectric constant, dielectric loss, DC electrical
conductivity, electrical field distribution, space charge
accumulation and stability under high temperature [296]. The
polymeric materials of solid insulation systems have low
thermal conductivity. Improving this property can reduce the
temperature gradient and, accordingly, avert the electric field
inversion. Adding NPs is the most common method that has
been proposed by researchers recently. However, many factors
have to be considered, such as magnetic and mechanical
properties, which can positively or negatively affect the
performance of the insulation system [297]. Balancing these
properties is a challenging matter for researchers; at the same
time, it is a promising field for future work studies that has to
be given more attention by researchers.
6.3 BIOLOGICAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
As the size of NPs is similar to biological molecules (e.g.,
proteins), there is a chance for NPs to be adsorbed into large cells
and enter the tissues and fluids of living beings. The inhaled NPs
may reach the bloodstream and other sites, including the liver and
heart. Many types of NPs dissolve easily in water due to high
solubility, and their effects on living organisms are similar to the
effects of chemicals. Meanwhile, other types of NPs tend to
accumulate a long time in biological systems, making such NPs
of particular concern [298]. For environmental impacts, many
researchers have observed the effects of NPs at a cellular level to
determine their effects on humans. Insoluble NPs may cause
greater problems in the environment than those revealed by
 1392 E. J. Kadim et al.: Nanoparticles Application in High Voltage Insulation Systems
human health assessments [298]. The possible exposure of
humans, living beings and the environment to free NPs from the
products, manufacturing and disposal need to be studied.
Besides, there is a need to specifically study the toxicity of NPs
and the ways of interaction with living bodies. If the impacts of
NPs on the environment are evident, this will be a massive
obstacle for the industrial production of nano-insulation systems.
Therefore, researchers have to find the optimal solutions for the
biological and environmental impacts.
6.4 COST CHALLENGES
Another challenge is how to reduce the high cost of nano-
scale materials. This challenge is related to both types of
insulation systems (fluid and solid). As the production of NPs
need complicated and expensive methods, the high production
cost of nano-insulation systems may prevent companies from
applying this application in the industry. Therefore, reducing
the cost of NP production and nano-insulation systems is a
significant factor that relies on the manufacturing methods and
the right balance with the improvements [299]. Herein, it is a
wide field for researchers to come up with a reasonable cost that
can make large-scale production more economic, hence, can
include NPs with all insulation types.
6.5 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION CHALLENGES
Enhancement in the dielectric strength of fluid and solid
nano-insulation systems becomes more apparent and feasible
after twenty years of endeavor. However, there are many
problems or disadvantages associated with this idea. There is
no correct and approved specific mechanism for choosing the
appropriate type of NPs for a particular application yet,
therefore, all aspects need to be studied thoroughly for every
NP application. Because a clear understanding of the
mechanism of NPs’ effects on the breakdown mechanism needs
more investigations [70]. In addition, when a type of NPs
succeeds in enhancing some of the properties of a particular
insulation system, similar results cannot be guaranteed for other
applications. In a certain application, it can get different results
with the use of the same NPs due to the deviations in the
preparation procedure or the difference of NPs shape and size
[116]. Moreover, the addition of NPs to the insulation system
does not improve all the properties together. Hence, a
compromise among the different properties may be proposed
by the researchers. As well the use of assistive materials can
give an advantage to one of the nano-insulation system
properties, but reduce others. For example, the use of surfactant
is necessary for NFs’ stability, but can increase the fluid
viscosity [160]. Nevertheless, the addition of a small
concentration of NPs can improve the insulation systems for a
certain level, but a higher concentration degrades the properties
of the insulation system. Further understanding of this problem
can provide insight into the mechanism of NP dispersion.
To summarize the above, these problems associated with the
production of nano-insulation systems can hinder the industrial
large-scale production process. At the same time, any realistic
solutions to these problems and others are considered a broad
and large field of research for researchers.
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7 CONCLUSIONS
This paper systematically reviewed the use of NPs in
different studies, focusing on HV fluid and solid insulation
systems. Most of the studies utilized NPs to overcome the
drawbacks of conventional insulation systems and improve
their performance. In these studies, the authors combined NPs
with other existing materials of insulation systems to produce a
new generation of insulating materials called nano-insulation
systems. The electrical and thermal properties improved
significantly. However, not all properties of the insulation
systems can be enhanced by adding a specific type of NPs.
At this moment, more profound knowledge and studies are
needed to understand the mechanism of insulating properties of
an insulation system modified with NPs and how to reach the
right procedure to utilize NPs to get the best results for the
further improved insulation system. As a result, more
investigations have to be conducted in the future to find out
what type of NPs is suitable to be used with a certain insulation
system application, the optimum concentration, as well as, the
method of preparation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support from
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (R.J 13000.2651.18J12). Also,
they acknowledge the Ministry of Electricity of Iraq for funding
the scholarship of the first author.
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Emran Jawad Kadim was born in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1983.
He received his BSc degree from the Al-Mustanseriah
University, Engineering College, Baghdad, Iraq, in 2005.
He was employed by the Ministry of Electricity of Iraq in
2006. He received his MSc degree from the Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Engineering Faculty, Malaysia, in 2016.
Since 2006, he has been an engineer at the Ministry of
Electricity of Iraq. His research interest is in power
transformers insulation.
Zulkarnain Ahmad Noorden received his B.Eng. and
M.Eng. degrees in electrical engineering from Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia in 2008 and 2009, respectively. In
2013, he completed his Ph.D. degree in regional
environment system (electrical engineering) from the
Shibaura Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
Currently, he is a senior lecturer at the School of Electrical
Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.
His research interests include ultracapacitor materials and
technology, energy storage systems, power equipment diagnosis, and high
voltage generation.
 IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 28, No. 4; August 2021 1399

Zuraimy Adzis was born in Singapore, in 1971. He
graduated from the University of Salford, Manchester, in
1995. He received his M.Eng. Degree from the Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, in 2003, and Ph.D. from the same
university in 2012. Currently, he is a lecturer at the
Institute of High Voltage and High Current, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. His research
interest includes EMC in high voltage systems, with focus
in lightning interaction and partial discharge
phenomenon.
Norhafiz b. Azis received his B.Eng. degree in electrical
and electronic engineering from Universiti Putra Malaysia,
in 2007, and Ph.D. degree in electrical power engineering
from the University of Manchester, U.K., in 2012. He is
currently an associate professor with the Department of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Malaysia. His research interests are in-service
ageing of transformer insulation, condition monitoring, and
asset management and alternative insulation materials for transformers.

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