CHAPTER 7 ULTRASONIC TESTING 1 HISTORY ‘The us of sound energy to determine te iter of slid objet is probably a old as mankind's ability to manufacture objet in postery ané met. The Engh languages ‘many words and phrases that atte te acceptance ofthis at ad hint the 3 ‘which sound was used nthe ps fo fet for ineriy. Expressons sich asthe rng oF truth or sound as ell” ate commonplace in everyay speech oa uit, hs sty, oF good heath Bath phases alla othe fact that a sharp tap ona oid objet wil yp vibration at he natal flegueney’ of the objets show bell or any paras istunen ‘ales msc, Any major distin of te homogeneity of te objec wl itr tht nt ‘al equeny and indeate ta thee sa problem. The stint 0 ap at abject i 9 ‘rind into iuman atize at probably accounts feral hos people who, when View Inga prospective second-hand ear puchass unconsciously ick ie! “Te problem wih tis simple approach o testing an objec that takes a elatively large imperfection o case ania change insu for the ua ea fo dtc. TH ‘is became the doting factor is the wavelength ofthe sun! wave encotering a0 Imperfection in relation othe sizeof the imperfection. Wavelength a tr, depends 09 the speed of sounds he abject and the frequency, or pitch, ofthe sound wane: Win ‘he imam range of euile sound roguncoy, the wavelength rather large ost t= als twat util the abit to genre and detect sound waves a tach higher Reque ‘ies existed that sale dncontntes coud be detected in meals “The ist steps toward this ability were ake othe 870s wih tne publication of Lord Rayleigh’ work on sound, "The Theory of Sound" This work explained he nares properties of sound waves in solids, igs, and asses, which edo the dovlopment of ‘he fechniques tat are curealy in ise n nondsttve esting ‘The means for generating and dtetng sod waves equecis above the audible range flowed shorty ater wih the dicovery ofthe pizoeleci fle by the Curie brothers and Lippmann. In 1890, the Caries fund hat an lec potential gould be generated by applying mechanical pressure to ples ut ns patil fashion fom t= tan crystal The elewing yer Lippmann dacovered tht he reverse waste and ha theapplicaion ofan lett spa o hese pts cao a mechani! sro, Natt rally occuring crystal of quartz ourmaise, and Roctele salt wee among those mae als dplaying the pieneerine ete ‘Over te years thee Have been many’ ses made ofthis ff, rom cesta iro phones and gramophone pickups to spark generatrs for cigarette ighlets and, of couse, “lrasonie wansducers or NDT. However, growth in ute of prernlectney ws slow ‘As ely as 1912 following the Tian disse, twas suggested that sound waves oul be uted to detect eebergs at se, ania hat reeived further simulation uring ‘Worlé War forthe deen a submarines. The pulse echo system developed for ths ‘epi Te Me Coie Ch i Tree,72 cuore seven plication gave ise o peacetime uses between th two world wars inthe ds oF ydo- phic auveys charg the ocean depts ad Hahing, whore echa soni wat wed Yo de= fect shoals of, ',¥, Sokolov in Rusa, asthe irs to sggest using ultrasonic waves o detect dis- tom sagt angles tothe dren of prpapation, fashearwaveissetup so tat justskns log the surface of soli it grin changes ‘mode'o on, wish is contotrfollowing witha pela parle motion. Tht conto fle Towing wave scaled surface wave ani defined ae «wave which te pate motion sella, wth themajor ai othe elipeperendcsar othe ietion of propagationNORMAL PRESSURE IGE PRESSURE DROP Compression Tensien FIGURES cyliades. Lamb wives, like surface waves, propagate parallel the test surice and hae a pat= ticle motion that is eliieal They car when the eke of thee materi nly few wavlenghs 3 heel frequency apd where th test pice of union hoes In ‘fer word te can ext best in pt ube, and wie Finaly ees seca typeof emspeesion wave hat skim slong the srce rahor like a surtice wave and it called creping or aera we, Its desorbed under ‘TOFD techniques ‘The four man modes of propagation ae the compression wv, the sbear way nd te srface wave ae ofthese san aleve are thas sometimes use. These Compression aves are sometimes ale longi! waves Shear waves are sometimes called transverse waves Surface waves are sometimes aed Rayleigh waves Lamb waves are sometines eae pite wavesProperties of Sound Waves Veloiy Sound tavels at dfferen speeds trough ferent materials, This nticeale when, for ttomple, a raltosd worker Is oberved from a dance etiking rail with «hae. Since the speed flights much asr tanta of sound, the obser ft ses he hat Ime strike the al Ihe observer is standing eos othe al he othe next hess the Sound ofthe bow coming fom the al Final, che bore sound resol rom the blow ier This shows us that he speed of Sound inthe ail ifs tan the sped of sound in i leis tne hat Sound raves faster in gids han gases ad fatr meats ge ids However, i io tue tht sound travels a ferent specs Indifferent mas, ‘Theresa stint speed of sound for each materi. ltesnis thie call the velo lity of sound for that material. This being, I would be wef fve an understanding ofthe easons forte erence, Factors Affecting Vloiy ‘The two mn factors affecting velocity ae the dest ad the elasticity of the mei To grasp a lopial explanation fr thi, mayne atthe molecles of ny materi are balls whose weight i analogous to the material densiy. So fr lead the ale would be heavy; they would be ihr for aur, and Faterweight frat. Also imagine dat thse ball are joined together by springs representing the elastic, or song, af he ‘ati For sie, sings would be strong; they wuld be weds Yo leat an very ‘wea fora. Wit hese two concept in mind the sree i se. ‘The speed with which sound propagates troughs material depends oo ow quickly one tall ean get its neighbor 1 take up the vibration tee ord, ops he mes Sige, To get neighbor moving it has to overcome the inet ofthat neighbor. Sappose two ull fa given weight rejoined by song spring and vo more of eq eight are joined by weak pings Ifthe st alsin each pa aze moved simultane, he Bll Facing the song spring wil uk bd yp enough fre to overcome te ts of ‘neighbor. On te cher hand the ball acing he weak sping wll ave o move fer end thus take longer o bud wp he equivalent fre, From ths the og tls ws tha ts eae Sonable to expect mail witha igh vale for Young's modulus of eat haves igh velocity of sound, as isthe case, or example, with te, ‘Consider two mae pairs of als. This tie the sprig ne ll the sre rength but one pir of bass Ugh and the other hey. If gn, the fist alle in cach pl ae ‘moved simltzncowsty, the Tghtweght par quickly exchange messages but he takes Tonge in th hey pi. Ain, the general ei cated the higher the density of rated lower the veloc of sound. Lend, for example, bast lower velocity hn eel Density and elasticity ae the dominant factors ffi velocity, but here is another one that plays elatvly minor, bt noneteles signifi, oe and i i alld Pee Son's. eis ay tose tat when an esi band stretched elo ges hiner The ‘mor itis wretched the thinner it ges Poisson's aio relies thei othe steching fndcan be caleultd by dividing the change name ofthe ela and bythe change inlet ‘The velocity ofthe compression wave for given material can be caloulsted fom the (Ee | “Np + ox 20)7.0 cen even where 17 compression wave velocity 'E~ Young's moduls of elasity ‘p= material density (7 Poieson's ra ‘Shear waves ar able o exis in solids and they do not tavel atthe same woot ‘he compression wave ina given materia. This Bonu it is the toduls of gy, rather than Young's modls, that deste the velo, aod the modus of rigidity Is Tower than the medulus of elasticity. This means Bat the shear wave velocity ealvay slower than the compression wave elocty ina mater. AS rule of tham®, the shear ‘wave velocity is Yously halla compression wave velocity, The velocity ca below Ted fom rm - [Fey oratemaivly where Faber wave velocity modules oii p> material dens Surfice (Rayleigh) waves alo have thei own prcuar velocity, which ie generally taken tobe approximately 90% ofthe sede wave vel. “Although te veloc fo acho these modes of propagation can be caused = ‘quires a precise knowledge of al the parameter, and thee ae no ually avaiable ote “luason pesctonr Prometers sch as density ad strength vary wih alloying, bet {ccatment, Easting, ling, and forging processes, all of which make it dificult to kao thatthe comet vales af Being use. Instead is more nonmal o cary ott rotine called “lation” daving the sting up procedure, fo a ulrasonie inspection. Inthe ‘allraon procedure th law detector tmebose irate t give convene eae nuns aeaibration sample of known chcknes snd made ofthe se mnie ‘vk tobe ested. Wavelengeh The distnton becween the oscilting motion of the particles making up a sli, lig, ‘or gas ad the veoeity ofthe sound moving trough the subance Hae aleay ben ‘nade. As the parle ae compleing each ecle of thir vibration, the sound wave is ‘moving on nthe detion of propagation athe etaraerte velocity for tht ter= AL Te oows dha daring the Une taken to complete ae ele of vibraton the sound ‘wave willmove a cera dance depending onthe velit in tht mnt For esses ‘vt low velocities, hat dsance is small campared to the distance n metal, which ave high Veloises. This dstnce fora sven mater sad sou ibn freuen i called the wavelength, Wavelength is given he Grevk symbol (ama and forany materi quency ean be clelnted from fe eatin 0 sound fe oa where Ws wavelength(f= frequency Exomple 1. Calculate the wavelegth of a 5 Mitz compression wave insta, given ‘hat th ect f Sound in mld sta i 960 meters per second (nls). ee A a meters (m) soo Fp00.000 A= 0.00192 m Iwo be beter to expres such small dscein imeem) by multiplying ‘he answer by 1000: A= 0.00192» 1000 A= Listmm Atuleasoni frequencies, the wavelength of sound in mt i latvly sor an 0 itisusual expec the wavelength in milimetr Thi is dope the sar heels. tion by changing te velocity fom meters to mlimeter pr second by malniing By Too Example 2 Calelte te wavelength of a 5 Mile compression wave in sluninum, sven thatthe velocity 0252 in se (6400 mls). 5.400» 1000 5,000,000 126mm ‘Wavelength is wsfl in many ways insta flaw dts. In the frst pie, the smallest refetor that can be dco spt ve 9 major dimension of est half 9 wavelength athe test equency Ifthe etl size a he dssontnity tht mt be de tested is kxown, the knowlege hepe with sclecon of an appropriate tet fegucey. ‘Wavelength als used in he ealeulation of he sound Bea shape andthe nerfed it tance, The significance ofthese wll be dseuss ater Reflection ‘The boundary beeen one medium sn nother fr instance, sec to a a the side set plateiecalled an interice" Ata interface, a proportion of the sound ray be transite othe next eto and the remainder reflected tock to the ist med. the cas of sea oa interface, almost ll the energy reflects and virualy nove gee ino the a ithe ste funder wate, so hat there eel water interfce 88% ofthe ery i reflected and 12% is tansmie into the water. The proportions th wil bere ‘ected oe transite depend upon the properties ofthe riers ether side a thei terface In order to understand this phenomenon, consider sain the balls and springs. This ‘ime, considera train of tihty packed heavy alle jomned by rong Springs representingsteel. Thestel ain ads os wai of widely spaced ligt balls tachod to weak pings, ‘epreseting the at. Ira compression Wave i aed st the tt ofthe sel tei, Tao ‘message i passed cn along the ain wih each ball nied isos by te nei bor unl the lst bll nthe see ain finds more space and ger neighbors and is abet move agree distance fom is mean poston nthe Gestion ofthe it In dong thi it stretches the sping oming to the lst tone te al ul the spring fenson snes its motion, The st sel ball now starts o aerate back to poston a 0 fast when it get ther that overshoot, cases ino the last bu on ball and ars ‘compression mate gong back te ote way. This a flection. "The two big ferences Between sir and stele density and elosiciy, and these se he fet that devide how much eneay is Yefected and how mach is ranemited Stiheifrfice, Each mater given factor that is asod 0 eau eles at fn imerface, This factor called he “acoustic impedance” an given the sya 2Z. Acoustic impedance iste product of density and velocity for thst mater. State ‘mathematically wv ‘p= material density Fo material elsty ‘To cleulte the percentage of energy reflected an iterice between any two mate sil, the flowing foals se Where Z; & 2; are the acoustic impedance ofthe materi on cite ie of he interface Example 3. Caleult th percentage energy reflected at elo water interac, gv- ‘entbatthe acoustic impedance for sels 469 and Renete energy = (0.93856) » 100% Reflected eneray ~ 0.8809» 100% Reflected energy = 88.09% Example 4 Calculate the pereniage energy refi ata sta oar nerfs, given that the sous mpodance forte is 46 and that for ais 0.0008, Refer ener = (222) 10%467 -.0004 46.70.0008 45.596 ‘e004 Reflected energy ~ (098998) » 100% Rented energy ~ 1.000 * 100% apprax Reflected eneray ~ 100% When a beam of sound raving through a metal sample encounters a disconinvty suelasa crack, lamination, vid or anneal inlsion there fan nerfs Ono sil isthe sound meal and one other the escotinuty- Atti neta, some energy wil ‘efectd and some transmit, Ihe discontinuity sie of te intefbe i a then he re ection ital; bueven fora nonmetal nla, mot ofthe energy wll be reese This property of souné waves allows forthe detection of donne omit, stoma) rata (626) Gonptent ‘The popenty of refeton can also bea problem because fa ansse is simply pled oma pr there must bean a gap, however smal. Bua sold ir interace crests 100% Felestion, so the sound aves sigh bock nto the ransdcer without antiga the meal To overcome this problem there his oe some wy to ele thes sig 8 medium hat will match the aeousi impedance ofthe tranadce to the metal Since tis ‘medium must also allow th wander tobe scanned over the srface ofthe etl i ‘ead o Bea gud, grease, o pase Such substance i called “aupla.” ‘There are many stable substances tat ean be used a couplnts the man riers be- ‘ng he test posible mate and no adverse chemical rection betwee the couplan thd the metal. Most couplnts only allow lnited matching bee iui in gene! have Jow acoustic impedance In immersion esting, the auplnt 6 usly water shih ly allows about [26 of he energy nto the ste and, of course, only 12% of any echoes 0 pss back srs the interface and back tothe reeving ancien Moe copa pet between 10% and 15% sound tansmission The bes of tee lyern a round 13%, ‘Cormonly used eouplants ar: + Wate Kerosene =o + Grease + Walpper pate + Glen + Special els designed forthe purpose Refraction and Mode Conversion So fr only sound entering Te etal perpendicular tothe surface hasbeen dlscuse, ‘When the sound is nreded tan ange fo these called the “angle o incidence.” several things ms Ippen depending on he ata angle of incience, Figure 7-5 shows a beam of sound traveling tard an interface stan angle of ine dence? tothe perpendicular that usualy called te “norma.” The velocity of seund in “Medium 1s 7 and Medium 2, on the other side of th inerfce ne cacti PAssume for ths example tht Yi slower than 7, a would be the cate i Meio had been water an Medium 2 ste. As the eam tel ova thetic, he whole ‘ram is moving a tho same sped until the lend edge fe sis te intace. The ‘momen: the edge ofthe beam reaches Madam 2 i speeds up. But the sun stl in ‘Medium 1 says at theo speed. Gradually asthe cae waveont sexperts, ‘speeds up uni atlast he right hand ege passes acres the interface and the etre bea raves ann Medium at the ew sped uring this wanston, te beam ss aound oa new angle in Medium 2 called he “ange of fain” Ils bit ike somebody passing tough a doorvay, ashing thet pct onthe door hand, and being diverted y the braking action tha ie. The 0 for thisvefation he velo difference on either side othe interface Sol ny slows the pew ange fo be auld if the wo vloctes and he angle of idence are ‘own, Sols law sates the ste of the angle of incidence divided by he vlosty in ‘Medium I equss te sine ofthe angle of refnetion divided bythe velo i Mediu 2. Stated mathematically sin _ sine nw shore ‘sin ~The sine ofthe engl of incidence sin R°= The sine ofthe angle of easton j= The velocity ie Mediu 1 P= The velocity in Medium 2 Refation ees tote uansmited postion of he sound energy athe inefe he proper of energy reflected ithe same a before bur the eles nergy leaves then feface tan anle of eleton equal fo the ange of incidence, as shown in Figure 1. ‘This diagram shows the ange of toidence (7), angle of eestor) and angle ofr fiseton FIGURE7-6. Refiaton.vutasonterstIn 748 Example 5 Caleulte the anle of resto in sel for an cident angle in water of 10° given thatthe empress wave woos of sound nwa 1480 miso and sel $960 mis, 0° _ sing 80” 5960 59605010 ae a" in 5960 «01736 ns ITS in (0.6993 = sin The lationship between velocity and ection can be seen inthe above example the compression wave velocity of sound in ste! is raughly fries that ne, ad he Fetactedcompresion wave angle is ogy four tne the ace ange Mode Conversion [Aste Beam of sounds introduced at an angle of incidence tsi, another phenome on Begins to ase, and thats mode conversion. Although he ica bear sco Pression wave, eiacied shear wave bepns o develop inthe sold a the sound erosses the interface, in aon fo the reacted compression wave. For small angles of nc ‘ence te alte ofthe shear wave isl end ca be goed ba ste neo n= idence increases, so does the amplitude of the shear wave. Evel, bot ie shea ‘wave andthe compression wave are abot equa in amplitude. Spell’ I abows ue ht the two modes will at reac hough the sme angle becuse the veloc of he shear ‘waves es than he compression wave Example 6. Caleulat the anal of tefration ofthe shear wae in sel fran incent ompreston wave? 10in water given hat he saa wave vel nse 3240 mss, I i FIGURE7-7. Siesta,716 ‘ouarren seven sin % m0 5240 sin SI 3240 «0.1736 AOI ne ‘The problem for ulrasoic Maw detection is mmeditely obvious—two beams travel- ing at diferent speeds ad in diferent dvetions spells has! Ths was «problem thst beso the erly prctianes unt Sprole cue up ith son in 1947. What he dd ‘was o gerd of ene ofthe beams. He di his inereasing the angle of sence tl the efit compresion wave refacted 1.907 Any futher cease in icin sale leaves only a eased shear wave. The compression wave ssid tbaveundegore tl ‘tral election n Med The angle of incidence giving 90" reficted angle forthe compression waveiclled ‘he st etal angle" The fist excl angle for s water f ste trac about 15 ‘nu for Pleas Lite or Pepe) fo tel he fit etal angle s abut 28%. Above the frst eieal angle of ncdene, omy a shear wave remsin. By sible choice of incident angle above the fst real angle, sear wave Beam of ny dese gl can be achieve, For immersion testing the tanadoer x smply ited through the elated angle of incidence in water For manual scening th ataducr is mounted ona Plex ‘is wedge angled othe died cer ange Tithe cider ale is ineresed more nd more beyond he fit srl angle, event ally the shear wave wil also be reacted 9°. The angle of inidene to achive thi Called the "second etal angle” At the second crcl eng the shear nave undergoes ther mode conversion; this ine it becomes 4 sce (Rayleigh) wave, whih he entour-fllowing wave. Any inetease in angle of incidence beyond the second crcl tne Faves no Sound sn Media 2a al thee tl intemal reflection io Mediu For water fo sec, the second cata snl esbout 27, and Tr Pleiles fo tel aout 58. Figure 7-8 shows the angle of retaction in sto obained for ineressing anges of i ener in Plexiglas at a Pleniglstosel interface, and Figure 7-9 shows the sre Tor eter to sel interface Reflective Mode Conversion ‘Moe conversion also aks plae insides sli when an ulasonic hem sie efee- tocat an angle of incidence eter than perpendiclr. Figure 7-10 sows a compeston ware, C, sinking ase! ti inerfce aan angle af inesdenee to the orl The ected compression wave, Cis ta reflected ange equal to the angle of nckence, However, there is also a mode conve shear wave, S, ssn ale derived fom Sell’ {Lv ulasonie law detetion, ths mode conversion ean esis confusion, depend Ingon the lative ampitodes of he eflecod compression wave, ad the mode converted shear wave,incident angle Plexigias Incident Angle water Compression Refzacted Angle Steet FIGURES. compression Refracted Angle Stool FIGURE 7.FIGURE 710 Tocideot od rested gs Figue 7-1 shows the elaive amples ofthe reflected compeesion wave and the mode canvesion shear Wate fr incensing angles of inden ofthe compression wave sel toa nterface. ean be sen hat tlw angles of ineideee the sexe wave It ‘weak and canbe lgnred. At an angle of incidence of about 25" the sflectad compres: sion wave andthe sear wave are tthe same ample, and at about 70" the elected ampesion wave is very weak whereas te shear wave silvery song Figure 7-12 shows the angle ofthe mode converted shear wave with seapct to the eal for increasing angles of tcience forthe compression wae atthe sl oe terface, These wo graphs show the stengh and diet ion of the mode conversion. The Ppacionr may eneomter these ckreumstances when saying ost onyreston ae (staight beam esta reflecting sree et parallel the scanning sutase Mode conversion can also take place when shear wave meee electing sufi, shown in Figure 7-13, Ip his case, te reflected sear wave i guna the sme angle the angle of incidence, but the mode convened compression wave it at an angle ‘which canbe called fromm Slaw, igre 716 sows the amplitades of th elected sear wave at the nde convert compression wave relative the ampli of the cient shear Wa ure 715 hows the ange ofthe modeconverted cmnression wave Itcan be sen fom te praph that wheo a shear waves incident toa electing src t about 30° ee than 10s ofthe shear wave i refed, bot te mode converted compression ave at plitude ses steeply ands fr greater han he elected shes wave, Fiore 7-15 shows tht fortis incident angle of sear wave the mode-comvertd compression wave wil Be stan angle of about 65 othe normal. This situation wil occur if 60" angle beam ash ‘cer is chosen fo examine weld nih vera fasion foe, such san lector Seam ‘weld othe oo face oF adele “V" weld preparation. As shown in Figure 1-50, te Shear wave will meet any vetealnonfision at an inedent angle of 20" and the tong ‘mode converted wave wil rach the tance, The pa ake by this wave an sve oct will nse confsion de practioner unaware of th ple, Obviously, a 0 beam angle a wrong choie i those coumstances. Beam Characteristics “Mary ofthe usations so fr used have uated the sound fit were a singe ry, bat in fat, the sound propagates asa beam. Within Ue Dean ian ramp of theRelative Anplituce FIGURE 7-1 ose angle igh. sound energy varies. The folowing pasuraphs deal wilh those varistions and with the Shape of he beam. Fer convenes the beam divided int wo distinct zones called the “net fl” andthe Trl" thee tw ils, eiterent mechanisms art wok 0 ‘vary the sound intensity. The word used to deserbe what efetivly a grad oe of Sound nergy is “attain” Atenuatio isthe combine effet ofa number of parame- ‘+ lnereence and difacton effets * Intereenee Absorption (ition an bet) «Interference Seer * Inefeence Beam spread Ierfrence and Difraction Efe. Ruygens develops a convenient way of looking at ‘wave energy propepting fom a source, He sid that & pot source was rather ike ope ping stone ints ponte distrbance moves ou ean expanding cle on the pond, fut tom 2 sound souce the cle becomes t expanding spere—i moves ot all ce restos. spereiss te dimensional objet that ici to potay ona shes of p= Per, ofr exercise eile wl vet do Figure 7-16 shows pint source surrounded by concentric cles represcting sue- coxsive pessue waves of sound frozen in fne a shot tie afer the sound ats, The720 ocident Angle FIGURE 7-12 nse sgle grap 2 AR FIGURE 7-13 Incident and eet anges 2UctRasomie TESTING an Relative Aaplitude Tuckdent Angie FIGURE 7-14 side sgl rp spaces between the circles represet the efcton par of ech eyle of ound the pat- {em had ben zen alte erin time th outer cele woud hve been bigger in am tte. The space becween each ele epesenis one wavelength ofthe sound in fhe aer- SL But an lean tranedocer i not pot sarc, as «nto na sfce ae, all of which i active. This sealed a "nite source” and Huygens si hal scot Eonidered es Being made up ofan site number of pont sures. Figure 7-17 shows 8 finite source wi few ofthese infinite pont sours frozen a short time afer te via tion has ben started ean be see thatthe wave fons fan the pla sourses combine tomake a uted wave feta the "beam propagates from the stree But nate how lie bt ofthe sound isos arund he edges ofthe source: itis sad to "fact around ‘he edges this one o the energy loses nthe neal. “The next sure of lst meas ile more explanation, Figure 7-18 shows a finite source agin, but tis time oly the pos scurss ine center ana the edges a shown, for simplicity. n font of he source isa pat “Phish waiting Tor sound sv. In the diagram, the fist presi wave fo te mi of the source ha sessed, bat ‘ound fromthe edges as Some way ogo ye. "Ps piven a geile mein he daecton ‘of propagation by the sound fom tie middle ofthe source Figoe 7-19 show the sain shot ume ater, hen the iret preset wave rn the edb ofthe somes ave at "Po722 ‘urn seven i tf iF zw» i g Inesdent Angle @ FIGURE 7-18) Incident ange graph 4.(b) Mode conve bam,vurSONC TESTING 223 CR CEES) Gh Nr GY) FIGURE 718 Point source, The result ofthese to mages fom ster side ie agin to move “P* in the dieton of ‘propegaton. Bu huts without ontdering what i arving fom the centr of the sous Frntelusraton the thid presse waves ivi rom he center resting ina exe lange nde for"? represeting the combined nudges row he edges sh mile. These tive simoltancous andes ae cll “consists terecnoe”besuse the end eff ‘local presen sound neni. rhs happened beesre san exact umber of wae- Jens frm bo the center abd the edges of te source foe the Tequency ofthe sound ‘wave A change equeney ora shi nthe positon of"P” might retin he sound fom the center and fiom te edge rv at "out of phase a shown in Figure 7-20.FIGURE7A19 Pontsouce’. In this gue, te fist presse waves from the oes have uve at Pa artic. tin aves rm the seater. Two Frcs ae pushing and pling t"P.” This elle > Susie nerfrene” and leads fo oel Foun in sound energy, For an abst ‘ure fequeney continous wave sound, the destruction coud be tot: in aber words, ther woud be o sound atall at“P." The pulse, broadband transdsers used in arc lela detection never quite cane ut “The reason for this desrutive inferference ithe ifference in ath length fom to the center of the source and to te des compared tothe wavelength. Ths being 5, rently there wil bes distance for “Pin fron ofthe suice where te path erence ‘ecomesSgnicaly ls than a wavelength ec Figure 7-21) and the ttseence of ‘es ees. Thisdstance isthe endo he "het fl.” The near fld stanee, NF canbe ¢slelated rom FIGURE20 Post sourceF = Frequency = Velocity Example 7 Calculate te eat fe distance in stel fora $ Mie compression wave when nig racer ta i 10 mm in amet, 100 5,00,000| NE“ S360,00 +5000,000 2840 NP =2097 en Absorption Sound propagates through the vation of parties of soli igi or gn an the move ‘men of tog parties causes ton and absorbs some ofthe ener. The rat wich ‘cay is asorbed depends onthe material roagh which he sound passing andthe ie ‘gency of the sound. general higher he equene, the greater te absorption oral ther way the lower he sound fequeny, he utr ponte note ae FIGURE 7-21. Point source728 carrer seven ‘Seater Sound waves wl eet fom interfaces within te mateial beng ele, nd grin bond ties in soir intrfe that maybe rondo ected othe bea. These ome Othe sound io eet in andom diction or scat” Very ie-raned mei eases ‘ery ite seater but comsegained mater cases considerable seater Seateed ene ‘ha does ot each he receiver transders"oet” nergy. Seated ney tha doesent {he receivers wor! reenter signals arose timebase. Thi cenditon led noise," "gss" “ash” andit tends to mask signals fom discontinuities 'Both shsorton and scter exis ae sources of last energy in beh the ner field and the fri: Beam spre is he remaining cause of sea) las alecsing the fel, Beam Spread Inthe nar ed the beam istaken tobe roushlyeyindrel an the sme diameter asthe transtucer cyst, Beyond the pea fe, in what called the “rfl” the eam Spreads out ike a cave, The angle ofthe cone ar ahown in Figur 7-22, cane auld from 1a yD ere (82 = Hal sngle of eam speed ‘A= Wavelength = Transducer crystal diamter ‘Te above equation nse the constant 122, Tis caus the beam spread tothe sol mi ofthe Beam where sound ceases io exit. This ot x pratt or the “luasoni practioner becaure if sound Soest exit ict be detaced or mesure. Ty ‘racic, it fs ote ual to replace the constant 1.22 wih iter 0.56 oF LO The O36 Value pedis te limits ofthe team where he sound has doppot to one fal ofthe n= ‘enya th beam center The 08 vale defines the limits wha he sur sone tenth ‘ofthat atthe bean contr "Note:The ements sed above (0.56, 1.08 and 1.22) are commonly wed force calatin of torte! bo shapes I the shape ofthe bea eee for dacontinay Sizing purposes, itis more pacicl lo plot the beam sbape sing «special elation och rater than calulat the beam spread (ee ltensty Drop Tesh on page 792). ‘Example 8 Calculate the Beam sea angle fora $ Mie compression wave in sel os using {0mm dimeter transducer (\=I.192 tt). ig = 22a 2 8 aa ise 10 1asanaPar Field FIGURE 7-22. Near rls 8 ase sin = 36 on 167 Figure 7-2 shows the overall beam shape, ichng the et-feld potion, Figure 7-28 shows the way in which amplitige changes along te Bam center. In te nea eld her are Hotton in amplind because ofthe nterferene effets. The Jast maximum amplitade mars the end ofthe sear field and the beginning of the far field This is calle th Zp ln the fr ls, the intesity canbe seen to day ex ponent rom a practical pia of view, Figue 7-23 implies that fie uni to "se amplitude ban aecepaanc>eritevion far Mas detected inte nea il In seAmplitude Near Fiold ‘Far Fld Distance FIGURE 7-23. New and fr ld plo. plications this peoblem is overcome by using a ely fine (a Plexiglas column between the tansdocr and the woek piece +0 thatthe near folds contained within the ely ine The Decibel System In ede o compare dats, some form of easement i cesar; efor length, the ‘Sanda used is either ices or milietrs. Because electric powers proportions othe Squire othe volage produced it can be std that he vag produce a the tense ereltveto he sound neni. When measuring sud inesies the unof mere ‘ent the be, The bel named for Alexander Gahan Bel (1887-1922), inventor oF {he elepbone ‘The bel being a large wit of measurement, it pest be broken dow int smaller nits Thee te are clled decibels or “Dest pref thts brrowed from he Tus. Itmeans “one eth,” so decibel ison tenth ofa Be The deste! ft uit wed to expres he intensity of sound energy Ii esa o twenty times he eommon logit ofthe eto othe pesureproducd by he sound ener, ta reference presto Swords itis used © expres the aio ofthe magnitudes of wo restos (gal), each having diferent nantes, egal to vent mes the common logarth ofthe lage ‘oreurent ate In practical ems, there arto signals onthe sree nd te differs between these signals nods be own, it en be calculated. Altay, i signal of ‘oar amplitude were tobe reduced by a.cerninperosnags hs reduction in gain an be calculated For eunpl, isp Height of 100% i tobe rede to 10%, the redoton ‘gun can be ales ‘Of couse this can e messed by using he gan conrlo ans on an lason- fe insrument, assuming that the struments ines nthe veel axe ace subsscons ‘lines Section 1). To calculate the diffrence between two signal amples, the fullowing forma is wed a-n-uf 4) = "i= the st percent signal eight ‘As the second percent signa eightlumsome est 720 TABLE 7-1_Ampliude Ratios 2aat a 10001 vane. Two signals are noted onthe seren. Te int san ampli of 80% ll sereen height (FSH and the second is noted wo be 4% FSH. Call the diferent BS between hero x ona ‘The 80% signal is 6 4B greater than the 40% sina. tan be sen rm hi clele- tion hat 6.8 ice the smpde ‘Consersly, ithe 80 and th 40 were inverted, thst i ithe 40 were placed over the ‘0 and divided, the result would be 0 The log of isthe se asthe of 2: hower= er, iealeaateso negative or O10. if this spied by 20, ian be aod tht a ‘Sone lf the smplitade “This means that ifthe signal amplitude were wo incease by 6 dB, the signal height would double I the sian mpi were decreased by 6B, the sgl bight would be fal ofits orginal amplitude. “The above fouls splied to first signal amplitude of 100% and second signal am plitude of 10% wl result na ierene of 20a se Table 7-1), ving noted the signfictaceof the presse (amplitude) eerences of reflection, it follows that the sume raonale applies vo the cress sotion of the lrsonte energy “beam.” Ifthe beam intensity were show as slice sree the beam section, would ap pea sin Figue 7-24 tnfrmaton regarding the stl presse cifereccs actos he beam sections very important, partially when using anaes movement nest ute o evaluate the characterises of scone Seton IV) IN, EQUIPMENT FOR ULTRASONIC APPLICATIONS ‘As with computes, the technology concerning vltasonic equipment ad syste is be ‘coming somewhat ansitoy- Ultasnse sytem ate either bteryoperted rable ‘mts, multicomponent laboratory uluasnic syst, or something inbetween, Whether they ae bast on mode digital technology or the fs sappearing analog cig tes (olen dod a isitument ps tansder a abl) basally comprise the following componens- The appropiate cals are shown inthe elise in Figure 7-25)720 caren seven a8 2008 \ ‘eam Ege 1, Transducer 2, Pai (loek) 3. Receiveramplifier 4. Display (een) To understand how a ypicl ultrasonic system operates, ts necessary o vow one cle oF events, oe pole The squence it alow 1. Thectoct signals the puerto provide shor, high-voltage ple othe ranucer| ‘wil simtteotsysopplying voltage tothe tncfasegger mole, 2: The inebase ger stars the "spot in he CRT on is jourey across the sren 5. The voltage pul teaches the wansducer and sx converted info mesial bee tions (ee “pizbeletci", which eter the test pec. These Witetions (energy) 10% trvel long thet "sound path hough the test pice All his ie, the spas moving hoizomalyaros the CRT. “4 The eneray inthe 5! pece now weet of the intertce (back wall back toward the tanner, where its recovered into a volage. (The ecenverted volae i fac tion of tonal value) “This voltage is now recived and amplified by the receiverlamplifer 6. The amplified volage is sent tothe "vertical (Pans) pltes" (ap and bottom) in ‘he CRT. AC tis tin, the upper ai plate atacte the spot upward. Tis motion pro ces the “signa” on the sree tht sgns the tne tha the energy ha ten one ‘he ound tp trough he test pee, fom the moment the energy Teves the nade ‘ut seceived by the tansdver The spot eset os tip tthe tne the eer fy enters the test piece. This is mamally juste by sing the delay or sero coil “his step is paiclarly ncessary When using a Petiglas delay line Gee Gessry of Tem) 7 The sams “packet” of tuning enrsy has by this me rected down of the test picc’s top interac and now makes a second tip dow trough the tex pss (The spot ‘Ens horizontal joumey sero the scroen) The eeray ffs once re olf the ‘ack wal iterthee and reture again tobe eseived and amplified. The amplifier nce ‘again seas the volge othe Yai plate The spt sain dawn up toward the oper sip, histime at ae” positon on theme base. This “epet sigs”UereasontcresmNG 7a ~ ir Q.. | . iste ; “es i ' t . oo Neale’ Bue Raptor FIGURE 725 Block diagram ana le) thats ower ampli because of fctor such as stetion and otber loses. The Spt ten released coi it owns aero the eran, andthe above sequence pete agtin and again ul the engy tn the lst ise hasbeen aterted, The dsplay ‘ill iow muliple repeat signals as many as are avaiable tected time base ond ‘cording tothe amount of amplification (gi) selected. Fr example he cen seal ‘ynted for 3 inches of sel andthe est pees neh thick, ere wil be ive signals oo the seen representing five “ound wpa” of | inc thick. (The energy bi et, traveled io inches each ip, one forward andone back, butts delayed aa series inch ips on the sre) The clock nw ses off the pulser a second tie andthe neat pues rode. The complete scenario repested over again number af tines per stand Then mune of Pulses er secon is refered asthe pote repertion fequene (PRF] athe pulse Pepe ‘on rte (PRR). In prispl, th above sso spies otal aw detection instrament (ee Fgue 7-26) The Controls ond Their Functions Instrumentation varies by manufacture; however, thre ae thee conzls ht ar com non 16 most lratonc flaw detection eoupment. These conrels are sweep (range) de> Tay and gansutp-unsep eg sec aMaO =| tt — ae Ll pe‘Sweep (Range—Coorse and Fin). These contsls usualy exist on analog instruments. ‘On digital units, the controls are usally combined into be, designated at “range” The Function of this conc ito aj the speedo the sreen sot inorder o accommodate splays of varying sound pats. The spt wll move slower when the sc i op Senta Tong sound path eg. spaying atime tse for a ong shalt of ste slow te bs). Conversely, the spot wil move very fst across the srecn when displaying ew nilees of tel aero the fl sre ste bas). Delay (Zero). This ont delays the spo from beginning it journey across he srcen, Forexample, when using a dal vansdaer os ansdicer wih Plexiglas wedge (and of ord ie), testa ime ofthe spat ast he delayed for ania allow the Sound to wave though the Plexiglas wedge before eters the test piece. The dp eed only show te ae fen the fp ofthe test pose and onward. Displaying the ede ‘onthe sren is unecessary and also confusing” When abating the yen, tet pis ‘ati zero should appear at scfen zo. The delay (2) contol wl be tied 1 compli is Gain (emutor. Because everyting is reaive to something cle, ad to fciitate the abity ro make decisions abou theatre af the signals that are observed onthe CRT ‘when condctng an ultasnicexainaion, cesta comparisons need wo be made. The ‘Deunng o signal onthe seen rater ited lee elt to srmethng t= be soc as bother signal rm a know elector ithe signal froma reflector in eet pace is compared with signal fom a known reference velo, thera (al thing Deng equa, the sis ofthe refetrs ean bo ompared (Not: sgalamplitade nef doesnt neces nda reletor (son tna) sie), TE accept ore decisions are mide based on signal amplitude, consideration of & goal th strates the sereen may be impossible Tati because i exceeds 100% fll Screen height (FSH). Sine the signal is above the viewable scree, ii spose ‘ake any comparisons unless the signal eight rated so tht he top ean be ee. If ‘he instrument gain were 1 be adjusted so so lower ths sigalimbl Becomes te ‘aie height as bur ference signal te actual reference sigaal eight maybe reed 0 ‘ch that it eannot be quate, wort eae, tay be 0 Tow napa a not 1 ‘evs all so signal amplitaes can mabe compared ‘he solton to this problem isto employ a"volume” coal, much he sme as hose ‘oud in seen systems. This device i own ether a“aibrated guin sone” oi fore cases, an “attenuate.” The dference tween the two device i thet nena. ‘hiss diseased below. fa numeric valu could be atvibtd othe amount tht he nal amplitude (gun adjusted, mere gal hight comparisons could be conde ‘Gam conols and atenutor conls operate using smo erry. The diferece to these stat when using an etenatr, teasing the attention ruin dminiahed ‘Signal eight When using the eairated ein contr, ieressing the aia evel irae {he signal eight The dfeences in signal eight and varintione nga need tobe own Inondertoabsin scout data. ‘ther my vary between instruments by respective manufactures; however, the fa Towing etre ate generally common o moet Single and Duel Transducer Selection. This witch issates the transmit side ofthe i= ‘ut fromthe amplifier. Ialows the reception of lage peered soe by the receiver Side ofa dal tansier or fom a transducer ued as 4 Yecever i 8 “pich etch” oF Through uansmisson mode. Inthe eave of a single trinsic, the fist valle to teach ‘heamplifi i fom the paler anéwansducer (in eombinaton). This produces the signal onthe Fet-hnd sie ofthe seen tha soften flered 03 the “ial ple” "mintng” Is obvious dat te inal pulse “ings the dpa fran aren under he rans ce (fot surface nthe tes pice elector lot the tt rfce il ot Be = Solved becuse they occir wih the tne ofthe iil pulse Using the “dsl” sting ‘ith ada! tansducer esontly chimes te iil pulse siglo the le ard Side ofthe sec, thus increasing the valable test ime close tthe ont inete (0p) ofthe test piece. Frequency Selection, Tansee operate ata predetermined nominal fequeney bsed on {hei thickness. Thetransuce oscil at fs esonane fequeae, bt also produces oh frequencies, ome higher nd some lower tan the nominal center fequeney ts some times necesay fo ier cut undesirable frequencies they can produce level noe ‘Thisean adversely fet (rece) he “signa to-nese ra. es importi thal he ia ‘fom arefector be visible above the bekround noise cased bys ga nd other factors soc asinstument reut nise.T hit end ome leone insertion i > signed ota ndvidal frequencies ar uberseletable Other nstuertation desig fas to ascep a ange of frequencies tht ee not wser-selectale These ae casifed a ving eter narrow band receivers or brad band recsvers, The row bab eset usualy wserslectabl. Ins case heuer selects the frequency nearest of ofthe tranadicer being used, The effets thatthe recever processes only the roquncy sles, Within a certain “handwidhs eg, a 8 Mie elector maybe receptive to entsy fom 4 Miz 06 He, depending on the design speifctons. This city wil iron f= ‘quencies ouside this badridh. Another name fr thi type sy called a “ban as filter” There ar other type of iter, Those that allow fequeeics highs than ger {ain ale fo be procesed ae called “high-pass ies.” Convery filers ta lak ut ffequencies shove a ceva value aeclled“ow-pas filter.” When conducting atest on ‘very grin mater lowequency energy steed tobe overcome te pain aoe ns ‘se tisadvantageos to use alow pass ier to rejet th seatered higher equency ‘ay. This sully bels to ioreas he signal o-oise rat and provide superior it Gates letone gates ae sed to produce some ation based on signal being preset in he ‘ga. A gate a device thts nsered int the tine base t@useslesed location, Shown in Figure 7-27. I sully sen aan eta cleric ine onthe time bce. A postive gate wil enable any sigal nterruptiog ss gate o ease a voltage to best 0 atscleced apparatus for example an able ot vsbe alm, Conversely if wad in negative direction he absence of signal nie gat cn ee asl detion fo ake lice. For insane, the bec-eco signal canbe gate, there some diversion causing {he baceecho to disippear, this ocemrence could signal ay alam of some Kind. The tlarm may also bein the form of paint gun ated to mara dscontnaty re on he tem bing exine, ona pen record used to secrd the event on sip cht or an CY. recordar Depending onthe circuitry, the saal can enue the gate to deliver voltage that iS proporionl tthe slenal ample The gate ean be sed wo produce «numero splay ‘ofthe signals rion sion o parentage smpitade on the screen. The pate thes ‘old can be selected so that it fanetions ata predstarnined ial ample. The wer de ‘pendent won the application, sao determines the ete poston and width, Mode ni ‘entation uses the ated slnal to provide snforaton tht is used to calls sn ‘meray display Naw depth rin the case fam angle bers wanaducer, the location Aistance of refetor in rot of the wansdeer by programed wigonomary. Gale ig. Ils ae also used to produce a"C sean” image (Se Fgue 7-31). Generally, during & ‘manual laste examination, isnot necessary to we lw at although it ean ls teed io leevonclly marks potion or anplitade onthe tn bseFIGURE727 Gat, Rejet. This contol is wed wo dimiss low-level noise” onthe sen. The effect of jects vsul. The principle of rect ean Be described hy the exercise of holding 8 fuer horizontally along the Botom of he seen ad raising it nti the noe level ae been masked bythe yler (It ean be imagine tat hie pace would he ns mom's vertical inary: however, modem srry overomes thi problem). Reet ean fare oecasions be ssl tool When conducting thikers mensrements, (Note The tffet ortejectis electronically suppres the low-level signal oa the tne ase, Asa ‘lt ofthis, lw amplitude signals rom dconinstes ay ot be ober Storage Memory Digit instrumentation uusly provides the fst to store clibstons or wavefonns, This isa very useful Function, A mule of elation can be stored for recat anytime, Waveforms (sven dum) are also sored and ca wally be posted Yo omputr fr inclusion i subsequent printed reports, Displays ‘Toate few diferent ways tat the ultrasonic information canbe displayed. Typical, “7A Sean” presentations ae viewed wi convetiona las nw detection eget. ‘Theeare ther displays to discus Figure 7.28 shows tet pce coming two eflcors swith an"A scan presentition. (Noe tha th presentation as bee ested nthe gre Show the vefetot on he scren relative thet acl Positions ithe et es), "A scan displays canbe “veto” or "unetifed” a iksatod belo Figure 729. ‘The ure tac has both osive and napaive deletions Oe ipiy option on besoenin Figures 7-30 and 7-31onrpesseres 0 |“B san” displays show a “slice” through a section ofthe est pee. In ter words 2 ross-sectional view. The signals show as bright spats o lines on te sree. In the ds Play shown in Figure 730, the pote synchronize withthe seach unt a it moved sas the te pec a the ame specie the search nt) Noe ow the ek wall ial ‘tops cut asthe stra electors “shadow” the sound ener for the Back wall he transticer pases oer them. Figue 70a lsat an trees test B-scan display of pla specmen with vais back sre variations 'A"C sean isa "map" ype of display 1 2 "plan view ofthe tet piece ee Figure 731), The st C scan recordings were pried wth exer feordets that were ‘ated by a signal entering ah elactonie ate set op onthe ime base, generally bres the top and botom surfaces ofthe tes lee wher eestor were expected to ccc. A pen doviee “wre” onthe recording paper nthe tes tat were activated bythe sigan the ante. Technology today allows the resorting ofthese images digitally and dpa "hm in eiferent colors ona monitor The tansducer is moved back snd frth an dexe so ao sea the enite et piece as ean be nied in Figure 731, (This pater is Known ae "1st" scan) The B scan ad C scab techniques are wel sted o applications where a pemanent cord required I common to digallystre A, B, and Cssan dat Toansiucers ‘The tansdier isthe actual “font end” ofthe syste. ti analogs to the microphone ina publi ares ester If the public adress system i ofthe best quality and» poor Imirophones usd, the sound wil be only a god asthe mitophone The tne pce pecan be aptiedo an ultrasonic sytem. The we ofan inferior quality transder oho Best system cua rer in deficient data, ‘Other tems wed to describe the ander are “probe,” “sear ni.” and “se head” The word "tansduce” is fem the Latin “ransdere,” whch means to Led Unrectied "A" San igplay Rectified "A* Scan Display FIGURE 7.29,738 cure seven o FIGURE 7-30 (2) scan strane () Ban cross or tans. The fission of he tanscer is to transfe lel energy to me sanical energy and vie versa ‘AS fa ck asthe ear 1880, the Curie betes, Pie and Icques. Pa, discovered that when seemed is Specific panes ceran cesta materials woul generate «voage when dstred. Tiss ealled“piezoletnciy”™elecry de to presse, The oppo Se eet is also vali; Le, if volage is aplied wo the ey mate, wilde.— “c—Sean mage ct bloce sn i. FIGURETAL Caste, Lipp documented this about a year Inter. Qua ryt ea prime example of hi ‘ype oferta Other naturally occuring piezoletre materia ext, sich stoarmaline ‘sd Rosle alt. These cysts were wed inthe early days ofukiagonic testing atl polyerysaine ceramic matenale-materiale that donot exhibit pezolects properties In their orignal state—were developed to perfor this faetion. Some ofthe more com ron polycrystalline materials nein transducers ae ead zona ante (P21) ad Toad teaniobte (PMN). The mater is mined inte for ofa shy, poured into 8 ‘mold the died under pressure Ii then sea to the require hikes. Tt te thickness wich the clement il resonates st ks designed fequeney. (Merial ee ‘nate according other ormolton and hickness. Fr example Ml andes le- ‘ent fom PZT may be adifferent thickes than counterpart mae fom PMN). The Slices ae then placed 0 a lapping ible and pecson lapped tothe final thikaes. The ‘ext pit coat he element witha very thin ayer of conductive materi, usualy i ‘ver. This is sometinseleeuosataly appli. Athi stage, the element not yl 3. lve. Itcomprises many microscope pieocecie elements tha are randomly oseted ‘These ta tobe alge or plied n order for he element obese fr fe parposs of genetng and esiving iron energy. Ths is refered to asthe "poling process Elecrodes re tacod tothe aces andthe elements nueaed abhi Theil i Ieated to temperate thats round the “Cure” tempers of the specific material sls refed to ste “erieal” temperature) high pouring voltage i applied to the ‘lement. The cementite allowed to coal wil th eld itv. Once oo, the vol ‘pei elimiated andthe clement is now polarized. This means ht the element wl hve postive) and (oepative polarity. Fo longi wave generation, the elements ae polarized so tha the element defertation in shown in Figure 72a, Sher waves cn ‘be generated when the elements ae polarized to deer a shawn in Figure 7-325. ‘Nae I: Transducers aed for angle beam sear wave applications ar stall Tong ina'Te sear ave companea is generated upon the energy traversing diferent ‘material veloces at predecenind args (sce Relation and Mose Conversion On age m3) ‘Note 2. Heating transducer above ts Curie mera wil allow the micoscopic ements to deplaie. This will remove he piezoulectrie properties When conditing