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    Temperature Measurement

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    Mohit Jani

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    erature scale; 9.3. Temperature measuring instru. ional practical temp 9.1. Introduction: 9.2. The International practi u Se eg [reac i cineghas thermometer-Dimetallic thermometers: 9.5. Pressure themes 9.4, Expansion thermometers-liquid-in-gla : eter-qas-filled thermometers-static error 7 vapour pressure thermometer-liquid-filled thermometer Ras: 8 in file 0.6, Electrical resistance thermometers or resistance tempera, systems-response speed of filled systems 9.6, Hlectrical res : aaisett 2 detectors (RTD);9.7. Thermistors; 9.8. Thermocouple thermometers-thermoelectric effects-thermocc.s, and thermoelectric pyrometer-thermocouple materials-advantages and disadvantages of thermocoyg. 9.9. Radiation pyrometers-Introduction to thermal radintion-radiation pyrometers-advantages disadvantages of radiation pyrometers; 9.10. Optical pyrometers; 9.11, Sources of errors and precautix in measurement of temperature; 9.12. Fuctors influencing the response of a temperature sensing device 9.13. Calibration of temperature measuring devices-Highlights~Objective type Questions~Theoretic: Questions. ———— ain se 9.1. INTRODUCTION The temperature is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from a cold body. Te temperature of a body is proportional to the stored molecular energy i. energy of the molecules in a system (A particular molecule the gas as a system has temperature, The temperature may also be defined as : ¢ The measure of the mean K.E. of the molecules of a substance © The degree of h z ae gree of hotness and coldness of a body or an environment measured on a definite set he driving force or potential causing Row of energy as heat Instruments for measuring ordin a . nary temperature ot High temperatures are krown as prometers, Mo} asthermometers and thse form Ivhas been found that a gas will not occupy any vot is known as absolute zero temperature. The terme absolute temperatures. The point of absolute nen ee freezing temperature of water, 7ero tempera the average molecular kint: does not have a temperature, it has ene: 2 i i ata particular temperature. This temper leasured with absolute zero as basis ture is found to occur at 273.15°C belY Absolute temperature = "7 = hermometer i feuding in °C 4273.15 degree kelvin, denoted by K (S19, Us to compare temperatut lies * em mopeea oaeaake a Sttenemacnn ae contact. In practice, body “3° in the mneralure of «2° musty tries anal ‘i wit ane . oy int ithout actually bringing ‘1° and ‘2" 1" gl in the zeroth [y aw Cd the thermometer, It is brought in"? " is cail 548 eau pod eat! ten ‘The mat emy 9.2 For hel Itv or de rium with a set of standayg arr traughi aber fa body « 549 . : nic and i oalty oF CEMpErature withthe ane SSH With he theren s thus ealibrated. Later, when any other Bai ometer meter, we say th i Heat temperature of body °2° piven fog example tt Hence with hay "2 Thane toay ‘ as aalngd| ‘he height of mercury column in aay the height of mercury ealmen te tro omenn ate i 4 thermo, These are six other methads of mel materials. these are functions of te six different kinds of thermo: employed are given below ; Thermometer 1. Constant volume gas 2. Constant pressure gas 3. Alcohol or mercury-in-glass 4. Electric resistance 5. Thermocouple 6. Radiation (pyrometer) temperan ur mperntan Metsurement which wil Mure, as therm © vari Meters and the names easure ry column in thermometer ‘3". thermametrle property. other properties of therefore, becomes a metric properties, Of the corresponding thermometric properties ‘Thermometric property Pressure (p) Volume (V) Length (L) Resistance (R) Eleciromotive force (B) Intensity of radiation (I or J) 9.2, THE INTERNATIONAL PRACTICAL TEMPERATURE SCALE For the calibration of thermometric instruments the Seventh General Conference on Weight and Measures held in 1927 formulated a convenient scale known as the International Practical Temperature Scale. hiwas revised at Thirteenth General Conference in 1968. It consists of reproductble reference temperatures or primary fixed points defined by a number of pure substances with assigned values of temperatures determined with precision on ideal or perfect gas temperature seale as given in table 9.1. Table 9.1. Fixed Points of the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 Assigned value of temperature Equilibrium state TK 4 13.81 — 259.34 1. Triple point of hydrogen ‘ie o_ ii 306 KPa . 2. Boiling point of hydrogen at 33. ps ae 3. Normal boiling point of hydrogen oe oe 4. Normal boiling point of neon eae Sens 5. Triple point af oxygen jose 182.962 6. Normal boiling point of oxyge" 273.16 oot 7. Triple point of water 373.15 100.00 8. Normal boiling point of water 7 i 630.74 357.59 9. Normal pazagg pein of ation cimany Fon oon ns 10. Normal freezing point of zine (zine po 1235.08 961.93, 11. Normal freezing point of silver (silver Ph 1337.58 1068.83 12. Normal freezing point leis stated here tha — The sriple point represents 2 substance. ~ Normal boiling point is the Pressure of 760 mm HE: — Normal freezing point is the Standard atmospherie Presta" n equ of gold (gold point) jlibrium stale bet mperature ot which idification oF th ween solid, liquid and vapour phases of a the substance boils at standard atmospheric ¢ melting point temperature of the substance at Mes hanical Mes pa tite REALE HTAy ba iy, fullnwe vit thin whale hail 1 veut 4 eal vane Wessel ow hte he 4 "4h 4 fen iotape tation J Women He a Wt Hydengen 1 OE | sik deaien 9 aned and a pel yrenal ot hey A glovtinsain end temperate : Hoe Hina ba be dre He D W where We = Harcutance at the ion yovint FV re Ot GSO TAT Anti polity | sstanee thermometer hie between 109 and 02 mm 0 be whan trawl vom paninuen 0 ine my © De diameter ot the plat FP 80 TO in 1064 AE (Gald pataty | see on etanutand platinum canner platinam shadian thermocouple isun Het ween en LF anal temperature #48 employed ohh © Hulten ing 04 1 hear nj 4 Above 106d ase 5 81 be aed vn the Intensity of radiation J, at temperature T emitted by a block body o « fenigths i the seattle apres tenn aad toy compuarin g tals ta the intensity of radiation 1, at the sam men pelen gts eeniined boy a blue k Indy at he yotd point the Hom Vlaned 6 eqquation for black body a 7 on ()- uy dt # a my as aay | Sh ss (74) ' whee ©, = ONAN In Cand), = Wavelength in metres Vottowing palate are worth noting for 0 The que thermomever sure never ured fart when used fur catiiration for enabling the ileal gar temperature scale and for establishing a stone brrnase of precision veproductite renutts and thee reading being independent of the thermone™ wulatanes weed @ ha pan thetinomnters can be used only for temperatures upto which gases do not liquly Method in use before 1994) 1 scales ere the two commonly used scales far the measurement of tenner ngs on these two scales Unni 194 Hany point of water at sta sand Symbuite © and Fore texpectively used oy denote the hemnperenire eales were bauer 18 CA) tHe steam groin (tn esmenpherie pressure) wo UA) the tee paint (freezing paint af water) Tia fined points fun thave temperature sat ofa Fempermure Cetus wate Fahrenheit scale 100, 22 0 2 100 180 jun and on Parent scale 8 1" e The elation between # particular value Con cefclus se toe 2s mentioned belerw ee et 2 55! 10 TR or SCF 1 lay ot Se Fe further the relation Between x tempentune Oy De ja gcale is lure difference ay i 7 ON Fahrenheit scale and At, on celsius rr) ; FS 00 Me Fates 18 # The use of tWo fixed points was found ueen 9.5) oon Nd unsatisfactory and later abandoned because of the following quilibrium bet . only with Ewin Pure ice and air-saturated water (since when ice ater and prevents intimate contact with air-saturated melts, it surrounds itself water). (ii) There is extreme sensitiveness of th i ee ee al he steam point to the change in pressure. It was suggested by Kelvin that a single fixed poi Pence mae 1 single fixed poim only was necessary to establish a temperature. inted Point of water (the state at which ice, liquid Fe aifrinn) could berused ax thee : iquid water and water vapour coexist gsi) cold bes S the single point. The tenth CGPM, in 1954, adopted this fixed point and value was set at 0.01°C of 273.16 K in the Kelvin seale thus established. Correspondingly. the ice point of 0°C om the celsius scale becomes equal to273.15 K on the kelvin scale. Celsius and Kelvin seales are distinguished by using distinct symbols ¢ and 7, the relation between these two is then given by TUK) =1(°C) + 273.15 49.6) 93, TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The temperature measuring instruments are based on changes jn a broad range of physical properties, among which are the following : 1. Changes in physical dimensfons : (@ Liquid-in-glass thermometers. (ii) Bimetallic elements. © Liquid-in-glass thermometer “con! A A ost. primarily because of its ease of use and low ¢ _ alc elements” ae used in various Towefrequenc low cost applications. 2. Changes in gas pressure or Va ( Constant-volume gas thermometers. : ii a (ii) Pressure thermometers (S45, "4POHT 3. Change in electrical properties + (i) Resistance thermometers (RTD. PRT). (id) Thermistors. (iif) Thermocouples. (iv) Semiconduetor-junction sensors (a) Diodes ; ; “tig anes (by Integrated circuit yeed particularly uhen automatic or remote recording is desired. “Electrical sensors” af€ ¥! ation ¢ 4. Changes in emitted thermal rad (@ Thermal and photon sensors tinues to appear in both laboratory and household situations, pour pressure? d liquid filled). are Measurements 551 iC 2 10 Im £ 32 9.4) ar) # ation between a urther the re een a temperature diffe cis Uilference A1 on Fahrenheit scale and Af 0” celsius seal 180 9 die hy wd P= Toy Mic = Fale = LB ble 9.5) ise of two fixed poims w: af The ws points Was found unsatisfactory and later abandoned because af the following asons a Fee etal ake between pure ice and air-saturated water (since when ice melts, elf only with pure water and prevents intimate contact with sir-saturated water). (ii) There is extreme sensitivencss of the steam point to the change in pressure: Method in use after 1954 : Iwas suggested by Kelvin that a single fixed point only was necessary 10 establish a temperature. He pointed out that triple point of water (the state at which ice, liquid water and water vapour coexist in equilibrium) could be used as the single point. The tenth CGPM, in 1954, adopted this fixed point and value was set at 0.01°C or 273.16 K in the Kelvin scale thus established. Correspondingly. the ice point of O°C on the celsius scale becomes equal to 273.15 K on the kelvin scale. Celsius and Kelvin scales pe distinguished by using distinct symbols ¢ and 7, the relation between these two is then given by T(K) = (°C) + 273.15 (9.6) 93, TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS ments are based on changes in a broad range of physical properties. The temperature measuring instru among which are the following : 1. Changes in physical dimensions ¢ (i) Liquid-in-glass thermometers. (ii) Bimetaltic elements. # Liquid-in-glass thermometer sicontinues to appear in both | primarily because of its ease of Use and low cost. enimeratie elements” are wsed in various IW 2. Changes in gas pressure oF Vapour pressure = ud tiquid filled). sboratory and household situations, frequency, low cost applications (i) Constant-volume gas thermometers. i) Pressure shermometers (ga5, Yap0H" 6 3. Change in electrical properties = (i Resistance thermometers (RTD. PRT). (ii) Thermistors, (iid) Thermocouples. (i) Semiconduetor-jum {a) Diodes (6) Integrated circuits- ; . ndieec ee are widely used partis " 4, Changes in emitted thermal radiation ¢ (0 Thermal and photar sensors. ction sensors en automatic or remote recording is desired oN Aechanlcl Mesturement and tetrmey, on Toral-radiation pyrometers. (ii) Optical and two-cotour pyrometers. \ (iv) Infrared pyrometers, in high-temperat * “Radiant sensors" are used fornon-contaet temperature sen neseiberin High-temperature g Combustors or for infra red sensing at low temperatures. 5. Changes in chemical phase : Fusible indicators. Gi) Liquid erystats. (iti) Temperature-reference (fixed-point) cells. — The temperature measuring instruments may also be classified into two broad Categories x follows: like Pict 1, Non-electrical methods : ©) By using change in volume of a liquid when its temperature is changed, Gi) By using change in pressure of a gas when its temperature is changed. (Gi) By using changes in the vapour pressure when the ternperature is changed. 2, Electrical method : (®) By thermocouples, (Gi) By change in resistance of material with change in temperature, (iti) By comparing the colours of fil lament and the object whose tem; () By ascertaining the energy received by radiation, — The thermometers may also be classified as follows : 1. Expansion thermometers @ Liquid-in-glass thermometers erature is to be found ou. (i Bimeuallic thermometers. 2. Pressure thermometers (@ Vapour pressure thermometers (i Liquid-filled thermometers (iif) Gas-filled thermometers, 3. Resistance thermometers 4. Thermocouple thermometers 5. Radiation pyrometers 6. Optical pyrometers. Table 2.2 gives the summary of temperature range of ei 9.4. EXPANSION THERMOMETERS The expansion thermometers m lake use of the differential e: ic 7 substances 0 In “liquid-in-glass thermometers”. itis the Giff ae ae diferent s glass. “renee in expansion of liquid and the contanitt fferent instruments, # In “bimetallic thermometers", the indicati on due to the diference in expansion of two sol 9.4.1. Liquid-in-glass Thermometer This is a very familiar type of thermometer, extends into the bore of the plas stem, Mors (melting point) to about 600°C. The tees directly on the glass ster. PI Se The metcury or other Tiquid fills the glass bul? ry is the most suitable liquid and is used from ometer employed i wed 7 the laboratory has the scale ent! 553 N 86 1V wusique Era uy vo puny IN ayeos | -vurea IN| 20F 7D seouyt | 20) Jos ¥9) x09 51 |Ansnput ara | pars aus | eee se] aes | of posn | “suoununsuy Sues out | 23re] -uaduso> | apes At = yoo | Ataptay | 20) ageing “sanisuas 2a founbeut | 2 OM, | TEWNON Thal ‘sountes oda —| -vadea [rena parseP Tr paHsap = se] usm uarg se se] D.0rsi | 2.0971 | De0SE D.09L | BOIL | D-9E DeOTt | _D.0%S dway woos 2.094 mogqe 2.0 | Dor BI =] D-0ST — 36961 — |DePBT —|DePB1 — DeO¥1 = [00697 — | DL — 00S mipowy | jaumnyy | wees | weiuers fanuueig} ear] tog] “HOD ne pay | pay oon —fumunetg | -on19} 24d09. oa | -mee | extn | 394009 seg | prnbri | noden Temperature Measurements syuoumnsysuy 3u2J2) I} saayommouuayy aunssaad sa9yaMMOWIG BIBI, (q Jo Suey aanyesoduay, Jo A2eamng 276 AGEL = 34 Mechsnical Measurement and A esas! type of mercury-in-glass thermomert shown i Fig 91 An ‘Sspantion bulb 5 usually provided at the top of the stem 10 allow room for Expansion of merrury. in case the thermometer 1 subyected to temperature above M3 Fange The upper limit for mercery.im-glass thermometer is about 600°C. Ar the unper lumut us far abore the bosling peat! of mercury some inert fat Le, MHTORER Us introduced above the mercan to prevent boiling Pentane. ethyl alcohol and toleene are the other quads for liquad-in-plass thermometers Since these liguads are normully colourless dye ts acided to facilitate reading. These Lquads have a low freezing point as sbown below and are surtable for low temperature thermometer Liquid Boxing poo Freezing point Peatane 3 = 130°C Ethy! alcoho! 7 ~ 100°C Toluene noc = 92°C ‘The following are the desirable properties for c liguad ased mc glass eter (i) The liquid should be clearly vise when drawn into thread (Mercury ss mhereatly poo ia this regard, whereas alcohol is esable only if dye ts added) (a) The liquid should have es large @ corfficien: of exponnon ax possible so that expanmons are larper making it postuble to use large capillary bores, and hence promde caner reading. (iii) The temperature-dimenssonal relanoaship should be linear, thereby faciltsting the esc of 2 linear scale for the mumrumens. liv) The ligund. preferably, shoold not stick to the capillary walls. (v) The ligusd shoold accommodns a reasonsble range withoat change of temperature. © Mercury, within 1s capabilities, is endouteedly the best guid for liguid- in-plass thermometers and 1s generally sed in high grade increments. = Alcohol 1s usually satisfactory. = Other lnqunds are also used primarily for the purpose of extending the eseful ranges to lower temperatares. Advantages and limitations: the advesinpes end limiterions Hess Fig. 94. Mere Following a= of liquad-in-plass thermometers : foe A : (i) Low cont (relatively) (ii) Sumple © ese (itt) Absence of seed for muilisry power (ie) Additional imdicatieg imstrements, not requered_ (1) Fragile construction (iii) Range lesuted to aboot COC (iv) Owing 10 relatively high heat capac temperature and dirmsmies ate of the bulb, there is a time lag between change of ») Accuracy obtaii - y obiainable depends onthe instrument quality, temperature range and typeof immersion: calibration : ugh, all po allow A i i ” of a glass thermometer arc temperature-sensitive, yet emperalt ulb, where the largest volume of liquid I ined, With temperature vfetem and upper bul if presen) willaso change dimens aid sonnet vreeby altering the available liquid space and enue ihe Inservice thermometer reading, For this reason, if maximum accurae Secondaly ig an be attained, it is necessary t0 prescribe how a io. nee thermometer is 10 be subjected to a temperature, Greatest control is obtained when the complete thermometer ssentrely tumersed in a uniform tenperature medium. Often, Feeney this is not possible, especially when the medium is liguid =— Aconunon practice. therefore, is to calibrate the thermometer Joragiven pati immersion, wit te proper depth ofimmersion indicated by ascribe around the stem. Thermometer accuracy isthen preseribed for this condition only. This technique does ven ensure absohute uniformity because the upper portion of The stem is sull subject to some variation in ambient condifons, The lass stem thermometers, generally, are graduated Soe ae ee ston of bull and stem. When a stom of2 111 py 9.2, rheometer eairate for tal foc si verison partly merce tended unin and wed for parte meron remperaure is corrected forthe stem emergence effects THe ASME Power Test Codes recommend that a secondary thet ‘correction to the observe primary thermometer (Fig, 9-2) and that 2 with the emergent-stem error given by: Correction = 0.000160 (t, ~ f2)°C OD) wy = Number of seale degrees equivalent 0 emergen 4, = The reading of the primary thermometer, and t= The average temperature of ‘exposed stem as determined by secondary (attached) greatest sensitivity 10 ¢ variation, During calibration rmometer be attached to the stem of the dd temperature be made in accordance where, 1 stem lengih, °C, thermometer. ‘The accuracy obtainable with Tiqui-in-glass thermometers depends upon many factors such as : = Quality of instruments = Range of temperaturci = Type of immersion. The best type of full-im c the order of a fraction of deste ceria) : ete In partial immersion 1YPE of thea been made. corrections for air tem erature Vil i | | The calibration qu in-a5S thermometer te in y the variation in the applied Pressure, Sa ae in pressure apP! ied tothe bulb Tae ese ie elastic deformation causes displacement of the Se and beast ‘an incorrect reading. Normal kas " ai ecenere Pressure is not usually gy (he cola for une most presse ‘york. However, if thermometer is subjected to system importance, except fF te error may Be introduced. Pressures of higher valveS considerabl mersion thermometers when calibrated, give errors which are very small (of the errors may be several times higher even after Mechanicat Measurements ang id Inst rune, a atoy 556 pallic ‘Thermomet wpihianalie-sorape 9.4.2, Bimeti Ina bimetallic thet temperature. ; Inthis type of thermometer two flat strips aced side (gig. 9.2) of different metals °F pl ‘ether. Many different by side and are welded 108 by ee cante used for NS PUTPOSE Generally ve is fowe expaneting metal and the other is high expanding metal. The bimetal strip is coiled in the form of 8 spiral oF helix. Due to aoe remperauue, the curvature of the SUP Changes. The differential expansion of @ sirl ; connec tne pointer ro move on the dial ‘ihe Fig. 9.3. Blmetelite stip fixed of one end thermometer. ‘The range over which al the combination of meals used for the bimetallic stip. or Pa show te insti bimetallic thermometers. The helical strip is used f mera bee is ily be managed into a t'sall diameter cheath while patent meetin, in ambient temperature measurement iedosadaens Lir-contrel ers rmometer differential expansion of near relationship exists between deflection and temperature d lepends pon Temp. scale Bimetallic strips Bimetalie helix Bub. (0) Heticat ‘ype i Temperature scale # The bimetal Fig. 9.4, Industrie Pp Mic therm ustrial type bimetaltic ther (b) Spirat type rmomet coefficients. e S are made with metal ' ‘als which hi it is | ave widely different t ee i) expansion material. 16 wpe mounted in wells. Temperature Measurements Advantagi Simple and robust, i) Relatively less costly, (if) Can withstand, in ~ IN Benernl, (iv) Their accuracy ran soe ore fae Disadvantages: 557 nges BES from 40.59% for laboratory type to £2% for process type instruments. (i) Temperatures indicated Gi) Not suitable for use at intermittent duty, Applications: (i) The bimetallic elements fin, 4 wide applicat . - the element is made ications in simple thermometers in which deflection of a. #48 Now. to open or close electrical contacts in the electrical heat supply to control are not correct, tem Peratures above 400°C for continuous duty or above 550°C for (ii) Used as compensator for ambient temperature change in the filled system thermometes, aneroid barometers and in some watches as balance wheel compensators 9.5, PRESSURE THERMOMETERS In pressure thermometers liquids, gases and vapours can all be used, The principle on which they work is quite simple. The fuid is confined in a closed system. In this case pressure is a function of the temperature, so that when the fluid is heated, the pressure will rise. And the temperature can be indicated by Bourdon type pressure gauge. In general, the thermometer consists of a bulb which contains bulk of the fluid. The bulb is placed in the region whose temperature is required. A capillary tube connects the bulb to a Bourdon tube, which is graduated with a temperature scale. The following pressure thermometers will be discussed : 1. Vapour pressure thermomerer. 2. Liquid-filled thermometer. 3. Gas-filled shermometer. 7 © These devices are commonly known as Filled systems, Following are the advantages and limitations of filled systems: Advantages: (® Most economical. (ii) Versatile. 2 (iii) Rugged in construction. (iv) Stable in operation. (&) Accurate with +1°C- (vi) Remote indication at # distance ations : i ui (i) Compensation is rea) ene a a primarily dependent on the bulb size and the thermal properties of the (ii) The wansient response enclosed fluid. -¢ of about 60 m is quite satisfactory. 4 in case of changes in ambient temperavure and also in ease long red in Mechanleal Measurement el Instrum 558 FZ 1. Vapour Premure Thormanveter . ’ Vip. a shawa a schonnatio diagram of a vapour presse nea wnt Whew the tu sentatniny dhe tid ts inataed the FRAN ANT Cootnary tomperatmne ts required, sume of the Hukd vaporizes and tie Bowdon tubing VAP premio, This change of preasute Ie indiented an the tubo, “The relation hetween temperature nnd vapour pressure of a volatlle Naquid is af the eqponendial forn. Therefore, the acale af a vapour pressure Whermameter will not be tinea, 9.5.2, Liquid.fitled Thermometer A Uiquid titled thermometer is shown in Pig 9.6. In this (ype of thermometer, the expansion of the liquid causes the as pointer to move nthe dal, Therefore, liquids having high coefficient of Vapour expansion should be used. Ligula Mercury isthe most widely used liquid because af the wide temperature range between its freezing and boilings points. However, when higher senaitivity is required, organic liquids like rolnene, and ethyl alcohol are used as their coefficients of volumetric expansion are approximately six limes that of mercury. In stich systems the pressure inside the system must exceed the vapour pressure of fill liquids to Prevent vaporization, The minimum temperature of the system should be kept above the freezing point ‘of the fill Liquid to prevent plastic deformation of receiving clement, — The operating pressure varies from 3 to 100 bar. Pressure — The bulb size varies inversely with expansivity of the fill menewring. device liquid and inversely with span, Minimum sange spans, determined by practical bulb size ate around 15°C. The maximum span can be ax high on 120°C to 230°C with range limits near - 90°C and 10°C. # In actual design, the internal diameter of the capillary tube and Bourdon tube is, made much smaller than that of the bulb, ‘This is because the capillary tube is subjected to a temperature which is quite different from that of the bulb, Therefore, to minimise the effect of variation in temperature (© which the capitlary tube subjected, the volume of the bulb is mate as large as possible ax compared with the volume of the capillary. However, large volume af bulb tends to inerense time lag, therefore.a compensating device 1s usually built inte the recording or indicating mechanigns shich compensates the var whi enn ations in temperature of the capiliary Fig. $6, Liquttfted thermomets? # These thermometey could be used for a tempornture upto 650 as the liquid 9.5.3. Gas-filled Thermometers ; range for gas ‘ The tempctaire rarest thetmomcer i practically the same as that of liquidefiled thermomeet din the gas thermometers atc nitrogen und hetises : tues for their co-efficient of expansion and have jon panes aie = el eats, Fig. 9.5. Vapour presuure thermometer, °C in Which mercury could be used ‘The gases use have good val Lemperaiure ateasurementy The construction Of this tyne which Bourdon spring is useq Th is that bulb is made much tarpe, volume of the bulb should be mong ted These thermometers are poner OF thermomey CIs mo Cerra a tEET Is moe also compeny on Ngnid gin ‘Ost 8 times than ally Used for pressures Systems Tin filled systen re effect, OF leas the same as mereury-thermometer in ‘Med likewise, The only difference in this case led thermometers, For good performance the thar ofthe ren of the sytem. 9.84. Statle Errors in Fithed telow 43 ber, The sourves of static erro 1. The ambient temperatuy 2. The head effect, 3. The barometic effect 4. The immersion effect, Ware: 1, The ambient temperature effect: Theis caused because capillary tube and 5 the tb avariable temperature widely differen from na aan Senet ae eens ey Bs kere hat of the bulb, The ambient-t reduced or compensed by employing the following : —_we (OA large thermometer bulb. By the use ofa large thermometer bulb the ratio of the volume of the liquid in the bulb to that in the capillary and the pressure spring becomes very large (1000 : 1). However, an increase in bulb rise reduces the time response of the system which may lead to some other types of problems. (i) Case compensation. In this case, a bimetal strip or a second pressure spring attached to the indicator acts in opposition to the error. # Such a compensation is generally adequate when the capillary tubing has 3 length of less than 3 metres. Full compensation. Here a second capillary and a second pressure spring are used alongwith the main system. With the exceptions of the bulb the two systems are identical and work in opposition to each other. (iv) Self compensating capita made into an annulus by inserting a 5 Of the system is offset by a correspon & The fiend ltects of bulb at considerably higher or lower position than the The head effect is caused Oe ae eroclee a greater or lesser pressure at the receiving element receiving element. The difference in MN Te or emperatre. Thus, the readings are no" indicative thereby producing greater or smaller indi of true temperature. . — This error is negligible f ; 0 — Similarly, in gas eee effect and little or no ertor is ; Fe : er pres sure is not much and hence the sy Systems is at substantially niet “m, te se, while calibrating a vapour-pressured = In partially filled voremr vation difference necator should be considered. reeprible to error caused bY CMI ult and il "yer, the relarive elevation Ber 3. The barometric effe receiving ¢! Since the defection of the OTT ay internal and external pressure ry twbing. In this arrangement the cross-section of the capillary is pecial alloy wire along its whole length. Any change in the volume ding change in the wire volume, 4 systems uperating at high pressures (100 bar) the pressure due to the height of the bulb has little gas density (s small and further initial filling of the le for the Hiquid- fille n thermometers. ved because the sure (35 bar) syste a filled systems, is proportional to the difference in ee account of changes in barometric pressure, jement i ‘he caused a7 Mechanical Measurements and Instran, A) oO rermemeters. Ine € In gavfilled te Aarger than the baromettte fe — The hhqwid eapowe fille’ nee caver Therefore, ree ranging from 7.5 bar to 15 bay magne cause E1018 WHICH COMME be yyy J therefore the error is generat ie at press ss barometric pres y and intricate and changes 0 poth cost] and accounted fot ject . ce ee ‘ondoction of heat alone. ricer atthe ball which cate) Se govfilled thermometer will be less thas de uid seated By # Mine unexposed area of the Bulb. 1 ermometer does not depend on immersion and ar c bulb and thermal well, the Y Fedacing 5, temperature at the ball wpe temperature td semper. he errr eine proper " — The accuracy of # vapour-pressure this error may be neglected FSR et measurement systems should be fast encuzh Normally. tbe speed of respons Or The ideal system in industrial applications is. sexperaie changes ths are to be measured, The eat System OM ened or exgsee™ fhe one that gives the fastest response, but the © + the following factors need to besos imum performance: the following parncelat epplication for obtaining an 071 2 thn regard — The process — The apparatus; — The temperature span; — The process lag time; — The mate at which temperature changes occur; — The space available for mounting of bulb; — The rate at which the medium circulates at the location of the bulb: — Tee type of medium to which the bulb is exposed to: — The capillary tube length. The response of filled-systems is # The heat transfer characteristic © The char; The llliving fecens atl whlch the element sisted, ai oneal uid surrounding the bulb also affect the resP {u) Tera conductivity, (i) Mas velocay determined entirely by the following : s of bulb and well, the liqui (09 File coefficients of heat transfer, t Temperature Measurements S61 rics Tmo ig. 9.7. A comparis We e "Parison of response rate for various types of filled systems, Bulb without " t 80) well g I 60 a) é 8 3 40 3 8 4 Sub wth 3 z wel 3% Z 2 22 Bo é VL oa 6099 Wotan 5 70 Time, s—> Times —» Fig. 9.8, Effect of thermal well on Fig. 99. Dip effect in mercury thermometers. thermometer response. The response, in general, depends on the following faciors ; (@ The type of the system. (ii) The bulb size. ii) The installation which may be with or without a thermal well, The response becomes faster if greater area of the bulb is exposed to the Measurement of liquid temperature the bulb should be large enough to provide temperature changes but not so large that its mass shows the tesponse. Fig. 9,7, Tesponse rate for various filled systems. The gas-filled system has the fastest filled has the lowest Fig. 9.8, shows the effect of thermal well (or protecting shields) on temperature response: the ye eee, fi aun the metallic bulb expands before mercu - 5 o occa ee Mpactin inte tiquid volume The effec y tele Process fluid. For the adequate area to sense shows a comparison of Fesponse and the liquid- 'Y and consequently there ted in a dip in the time Mechanical Measurements and Instrument 562 igi the gas and vapou, hown in Fig. 9.9. The dip, however, is negligibly small for the g POUT Prete, response as shown in Fig. 9.9. 5 memos ial to have a periodic check on the calibration of the thermometers to take tate tis very essential to the factors which uffect the desired accuracy: R 9,6. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETER ) e ECTOR (RTD) . RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECT! very convenient due tothe following reason, Electrical methods of temperature measurement are very pecan (@ They furnish signal that is easily detected, amplified or used ae poses, (i) They are usually quite accurate when properly calibrated an Ps Electrical resistance: The change of elecirical resistance of a wite with tem es th ‘ increased molecular capacity as caused by heat, Resistance thermometers utilise this characteristic ang the temperature measurements are conveniently made by the change of resistance of suitable metals of known characteristics, The thermometers of this type are used over a range of temperature from ~ 29) to 650°C. With the increase of temperature the electrical resistance of most of the metals increases in almost direct proportion to the temperature rise. Therefore, if the electrical resistance of a wire of known and calibrated material is measured, the temperature of the wire can be determined. The resisiance element should be of a suitable metal having high temperature coefficient, reproducibility, stabjlity and ability to resist corrosion and oxidation. The variation of resistance R (R= 2! where p is the resistivity, length and a is the cross section area of the electrical conductor) with ‘temperature for most of the metals, the following quadratic relationship gives good accuracy : R=R, (1 + on + Bi?) (9.8) where, Aq =Resistance at temperature ¢ = 0, and «, =Constants, For a narrow range, the following Jine relationship may be used with sufficiently good accurary R=R (tan (93) where, = Resistance temperature coefficient, / perature changes is another effect of ty Resistance thermometer construction: The thermometer consists of the following parts : (i) A eesistance element or bulb. (id Suitable electrical leads, id An indicating-recording or resistance measuring instrument, The resistance element is usually in the form of a coil of ver non-conductively onto an insulating ceramic former, — A laboratory type of resistance thermometer js former in case of industrial type) and enclosed an inert gas to protect the metal wire. very fine platinum, nickel or copper wou! which is protected externally by a metal shet = often wound on a crossed mica former (cera™ Pyrex tube. The tube may be evacuated or filled ¥! : te is free fro been strained will suffer a change in the resistance character at a temperature higher than that at which itis to operate Leads are taken out of the thermometer for the in ord to determine the value of temperature, ‘measurement of the changes in resistance in 0 chanical stresses. & metal which be the metal is therefore usually annea! Temperature Measurements The change in essane is sya in null (balanced) condition or jy ye 26 MASUR hy ; sey se essrementy ye eS Fig. 9.10, shows the section illustrat Destrable properties Of the metal Us sensing clements: “t Rosistanee The metal to be used for fab; lament should satisty the following meet ming clements (i) Linearity of resistance, (td) Resistance to corrosion and temperature range of interes (iii) Should be available in Conditions. providin, reproducible and consistent results * (iv) Relatively change in resistance wi inode pode erences te Cretan good sensitivity, () High sensitivity so that the unit car in a compact and convenient size. Whentstone by i 07 OU OF banc stOnE bridge” which may be used either lance | 5 Slent conditions ee coMsOn. The null condition suffices for ‘aually require the use of deflection-mode. ing the construction of RTD, Vfor fabricating Oxidation, under the t, L protective shear Fig. 9.10. Section illustrating the n be fabricated construction of a simple RTD. — For precise measurements, electrical resistance characteristics. + The platinurn resistance thermometer, ownig to its accuracy, used to define International Temperature Scale from the boiling poi freezing point of antimony (630.5°C). Advantages and disadvantages of resistance thermometers: Advantages: ‘ | () The resistance thermometer resists corrosion and is physically stable. (i The measurement is very accurate. ; - (iif) The distance between the resistance element and the recording element can be made much larger 5 thermometers. Pokaan aerial to choice of measuring equipment and interchangeability of (iv) It has lot of flexibility with i ne fs oy foun i ey cian like thermocouples and as such is more effective at room ¥) It requires no ref temperature. _ (vi) The temperature sensitive (oi) Resistance elements canbe used fo Me™ (ii) High working signal level, simp! thermocouple. ce element are claimed to be £0.25 percent of the scale range. (ix) The limits of error of ee ‘can be easily checked by substituting a standard resistor suri () The accuracy of the meas It ligible with proper design. for the resistance eS ctor can be reduced rota eid resins atta on the (ri) Seif-heating effect in the cone ote oe : 3 re Git) The resistance element construction. Platinum is preferred because it is physically stable and has high Stability and sensitivity. has been int of oxygen (— 182.9°C) to the stance element can be easily installed and replaced. ged to measure differential temperature, ae sad wire and termination schemes compared with a Mechanica Disadvantages! meters esistance thet (@ The ¢ sigtance element and the Bround, ime In: i They sulfer from between the F i Gi) Possibility OF current cea erature changes oF measuring resistors. 1e 10 (iv) Resistance change 9.7. THERMISTORS my is a thermally sensitive variable A thermistor (contraction Of the ‘8, made of a ceramic like semiconduc ‘Thermistors, unlike metals, respond negat resistance decreases. ‘Thermistors are often comp resistivities of 100 to 450,000 Sem; incry' glass are used. The metallic oxides af€ milled, mixe sraired shape wath appropriate binders and finally sintered. before sintering or backed afterwards. The electrical characteristics of thermistors are contro! physical size and configuration of the thermistor. “Thermisiors may be shaped in the form of beads, disc, washer etc. (Refer to Art. 5.72) Thermistors may be used bare but are usually glass coated or positioned under a thin metal cy Tx change in resistance is measured by using circuitry similar to that of metal conductors. - Advantages = (a Fairly less cost. (ii) Availability in very small sizes. (iii) Fast thermal response. (iv) High sensitivity (v) Easy adaptability to electrical readout devices. ing material. ively to temperatures a the remperature rises, tHe teng osed of oxides of manganese: nickel, and cobalt in formulations genic applications, doped germanium and carbon imprrn.t din appropriate proportions, are preset im. |The electrical terminals are either exteye ted by varying the type of oxide wet x Cor mparison between Metal resistors and Thermistors Resistance chan} a a Positive (ie., increase in fesistance with temperat increase), sik Negative temperature rise). R= Ry exp ((e-a]} wel Temp.-resistance relationship Approximatel; ‘ately linear, fo the resistance at tempera the resistance at referenee “Pho! TK) and B is a constant whi “? on the thermistor formulst® if = 100% to 300°C (tor Practica! operating range Stabitity Less stable comparatively . Temperature Steasurements — Ordinary ohmmeters m: ay be ‘iki paste ated ont or the aioe Within the limits of accuracy of the meter itself cava defection bridge, *otms of resistance bridge is used, either in the null-balance form — Simple ballast citcuits are also usable —In some cases, special lineatizin . B circui 9 with temperature. its are used to obtain an output voltage that varies linearly Factors to be considered while sctect et ting resistan ‘The following factors need be considered wie athe 1 -The plsiiaumredtemesitheees ile making sclection of resistance thermometer se d00rGs tors lerperine ton nometer Should be sclected for measuring temperatures upto 300° Oise ora ge of O° to 180°C, copper resistance thermometer is employed. ernie ‘well Soild b 7 neat Part of resistance thermometer and also the protruded part of ete ¢ chosen, since maximum accuracy of measuring is achieved when sensitive element is in the middle of the stream. 3. The metal for preserving casing should be chosen on the bass of pressure and physical phenomena of the medium. Preserving casings of standard resistance thermometers are made of the following metals : ( Brass; (ii) Ordinary earbon steel; (iii) Stainless steel; (iv) Alloyed steel. 44, Most of the resistance thermometers cannot operate at places with high vibration or shock type toad, While choosing ratiometer, the following points should be given due considerations : % Correspondence of range between ratiometer and resistance thermometer. fe Value of permissible resistance of leads; rtiometers generally operate with lead resistances of $Mor 15.2. # Correspondence of scale of an instrument to measured temperatures tale scares to se upper limit of measuring should be chaser Necessity of a low voltage (4 V) D.C: power supply: a instrument with a standard : METERS 9.8, THERMOCOUPLE THERMO! meters are unsuitable. For higher range mo For higher range of temperatures ie» above sores a of temperatures, thermocouples and prvomele wae ora a through a pair of thermocouples with junction maintained at different i irrent passes pore ei oni five effects are observed temperatures, the fol 1, Seebeck effect. 2, Peltier effect. 3. Thomson effect. 4. Joulean effect. ‘ mmilar metals are maintained at different S.Conduction effect jyncions of enor ofgencration ofemf. is called sent Sttbeck ct rat once) is generated Seebeck effect. Mechan al Measureniens and tag 566 {ference between the two junctions of Materia, fonal to the temperature difference and i, in’ ai Refer ta Fig, 9.11, For smal temper B, the open circuit voltage developed Is re AV mot, + Ai Dissimilar motals Hot Cold Junction junction fen tr) Soedeck voltage Fig. 9.11, Seebeck effect where, AV eOpen circuit voltage developed, iy = (4, ~ 0) =Seebsck coeicient (the thermoelectric power) for materials an and,” A= Temperature difference between the junctions of materials a ‘ia — The absolute Seebeck coefficient (c,y,) of material is determined with respect to a materia ys 88 lead in which Seeback coefficient in negligible. — Whereas a.,,, in semiconductors varies from 0.0002 to 0.00025 volt/*C, it does not exceed 0.08 volt °C in metals, This effect is reversible in nature, 2, Peltler effect. If direct current is passed through a pair of dissimilar metals Fig. 9.12, thee heating at one junction, cooling at the other depending upon the material combinations, Dissimilar metals Junction, Junction A Curent I flow Battery . Fig, 9.12. Peltier effect, At the junction between the two digs ald Proportional tthe curent and is given by wee ei or abr at Q,= Ry! Q, = Heat evolved or Rap = (ty ~ My) =Peller coetficie where, absorbed in unit time, watts, er nt, and = Direct current, amy This effect ts reversible in nature, iia 3. Thomson effect, When a current (Fig. 9.13), heat transfer is giv Passe = ich en by S through a single Conductor having a temperate #™ 5Q (z 2 ay ( Nae ) de oH 567 ‘t, = aie Thomton heat transfer v t= Thomson Pa ramoe Soe, t T rs “ent through the conductor, * and, “de™ Temperature gradient along the conductor, Fle: 943: Thomson effect. Thomson effect is a reversibte thermoelectric phe }enomenon, # Zemansky obtained the follow; ‘Owing two relations eon necting these three coefficients (c, x, t) by applying the first and second laws of the rm Nyy =O. 1odynamics to a simple thermoelectric circuit : i (9.13) -yatx So (914) — From the above equations i single conductor, the Secheck and Pele eee the dhemgoriesef nied ad Bean defied 168 en Urng egh. 9.13 ime eon 94) a sens ee os junction between two mae vaivemntionit OQ, = Gy, 01.7 015 ne eat See get the high value of cooling or heating, c.,, should be high, otherwise 4, Joulean effect. When the electric current flows through a conductor, there is a dessipation of electrical energy. According to Joule it is related as : Q,=PR where, 1 and R are the current and electrical resistance respectively. ¢ The Joulean effect is trreversible in nature. 5. Conduction effect. When the ends of any clement are maintained at different temperatures, there is heat transfer from the hot end to the cold end and is related by enya, 28 Ty TO) U = Overall conduetence, TT, =Tempersture at hot end, and T. = Temperature at cold end. onductor of cross-sectional aren (9.16) where, ‘A, conductivity & and length L, the overall If there is only one co! conductance (U) is given by fe Gay (9.17) © This effect is irreversible in natures yrometer 98.2. Thermocouple and Thermoclesie peor nv einar metals or alley? which develop emf. implest form. amet res. ference juncti A thermocouple ints SP are to gorentemperaures. Te reference junction or cold ing jut when the refer. d measuri perature, suck as 0°C: ence and me ant (emp: Junction aaa maintained at some conse cepte and temperanere measuring devie. In many of a therm ‘ompensating devices for temperature Fig. 9.14, shows a simp! re equipped ih ning he eas Beene industria installations the instruments A Ting she neces Changes of the reference junctiom emperature, le circu ments 2 thus Mechanical Measurements and in 7 Mery 568 uN Mitivoltmoter or temperature recorder Measuring junction Copper loads Metal-1 Reference: Metal-2 Junction Hot body Fig. 9.14. Thermocouple. Fig. 9.15, shows the schematic diagram of a thermoelectric pyrometer. Metal sheath Compensating leads “eT Meter Cold junction Insulators Fig. 9.15. Schematic diagram of a thermoelectric pyrometer, Compensating leads. These are a pair of leads wires made of such material which when conned toa thermocouple, behave such that the effective reference junction or junctions are removed to the oh end of the leads. Its material should be such that it has the same emf. temperature characteristic 5 the thermocouple over the range of the ambient temperature and is at the same time clieap also. Tk resistance of the compensating leads should be as low as possible, Usually they are covered with st protective material suitable for the installation. Connectors or extension leads. These are generally copper conductors having a negligible east and ate used to connect the compensating leads further to the indicators, # In order to prevent the unwanted e.mf. or unwanted extension leads must be properly insulated Sround currents, the thermocouple leads 9.8.3. Thermocouple Materials The thermocouple materials should possess the following properti ties : |. The temperature-e.m.f. relationship should be reasonably trac 2. Adequate thermo e.m.f. per degree of ly Tinear and reproducible te th perature change to facilitate detection and measve™ 3. ‘The materials should be physically stron, : f wut changes and effects of corrosive nee cme 'o withstand high temperatures, rapid temPe™ 4. The thermocouple should maintain its 5. Cost should be reasonable. 6. The thermocouple should have long tite, Table 9.3 gives the composition, calibration without drift over a long period of tit Useful te ie ™Peralurerange and e.m.. produced for some thermoeo™ Temperawure measurements le 9, is Composition, Usetut 7, qTrPerature Range and exm.f, produced for Some Thermocouples ‘Thermocouple Composition ™ Remarks Thermoelectric power Platinum vs Pure Platin plarinum-rhodium |vs Pus 10 gp | 100% 1450. | 1700 lust a 13% Rh temperature measurements. 2. |Chromel vs 90% Ni+ 10% cr paca” | aa maps (Al + Sn) Mo, 3. [iron vs constantan| Pure iron vs = 45-60% Cu + 55-40% Ni Not suitable in 4 Pure copper vs a Cu-Ni constantan eoadieie it ermopile): ; emfs. — The series arrangement provides © ecm. desired to obtain a substantially lars the two junctions. / / Parallel combinatio i be used to obtain an average temperate of mnie of points, as in © This arrangement ™3) vas flowing through a large Be determining the average tempe' ne oe scion will be an average of the junction potentials. cated bY ial indi # The total potential in — 9.8.4, Advantages and Disudvamts8e® of Thercne = The following are the advantaser #0 © fo Advantages: response. a better . Thermocouples have a 2 ss ave a igher ran8° ge a 3. The sensing element © u See : istance e 4. Cheaper ian re cs ee 5. Very convel i iv is frequently used where it is siderably more sensitivity and is for measurement of mall temperature diferences berween the thermocouples: ture at one particular point in piece of apparams. int for hanical Measurements and Instryy;, 296 Mech wiewai Disadvantages: 1. Lower accuracy, and as such they an he amply protected. For preventing contam 0 2. In order to ensure long life, they nee ” in alloya are belng used ty thermocouple, when precious metals like latina si y" p tube has to be made chemically inert and wae 3, The cireuitry for thermocouple is very complex, not be used for precision work, Nation yy "Olectng 9,9. RADIATION PYROMETERS 79.9.1, Introduction to Thermal Radiation Radiation’ heat transfer is defined as “the transfer of energy across ia stem bonadiy bY means of an electromagnetic mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature a ference 67 Whereas the transfer by conduction and convection takes place only in the presence of medium, radiation heat trans, does not require a medium. Radimion exchange, in fact, occurs most effectively in vacuum, Further, the Fate of heat transfer by conduction and convection varies as the temperature difference to the first pow whereas the radiant heat exchange between two bodies depends on the difference between their tempera) to the ‘forth power". Both the amount of radiation and the quality of radiation depend upon temperature, The dissipation from the filament of a vacuum tube or the heat leakage through the evacuated wall of @ thermos flask are some familiar examples of heat transfer by radiation. The contribution of radiation to heat transfer is very significant at high absolute temperature level: such as those prevailing in furnaces, combustion chambers, nuclear explosions and in space applicatiens The solar energy incident upon the earth is also governed by the laws of radiation. ‘The energy which a radiating surface releases is not continuous but is in the form of successive and Separate (discrete) packet or quanta of energy called photons, The photons are propagated through sptce 8s rays: the movement of swarm of photons is described as electromagnetic waves. The photons travel (with speed equal to that of light) in straight paths with unchanged frequency: when they approach he receiving surface, there Occurs reconversion of wave motion into chemical energy which is parly absorbed, reflected or transmitted through the receiving surface (the magnitude of each fraction depends, Upon the nature of the surface that receives the thermal radiation). All types of electromagnetic waves are classified in terms of wavelength ropagated at the speed of light (c) ie. 3 x 108 eee THROTS Se en related by ‘etromagnetle radic rmal radiation (range 1 radiation, The emission of thermal Be lies betwey he ‘nature, temperature and state of the emitting surge ten8tA Of 10-7 m and 10-4 m) deer 7 ing su, " he ttcknets of the emiting layer and ne se 7ace: however, with gases the dependenté upon the also upon s er $7 Temperature Mearurements Thermal radiations exhibit characteristics similar to those of wlsible ith These can be reflected, refracted and are subject to scattering and absorpiion a medio They get polaried and wealened in strength with inverse aquate of radial di radiating surface. 1 and follow optical law’ shen they pass thrown tance from th Surface emission properties: The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends upon the foll (i) The temperature of the surface, (iA) The nature of the surface, and (lif) The wavelength or frequency of radiation The parameters which deal with the surface emission properties are given below : (0 Total emissive power (E). The emissive power is defined 1s the fo1al amount of radiation emi: by a body per unit area and time. It ix expressed in Wim? The emissive power of @ black body, accordin| owing factors * to Stefan-Boltzmann, is proportional to absolute temperature to the fourth power. E,=0T! Win? 9.19 E,e0ATW (9.190 where, o = Stefan-Balizmann constant = 5.67 x 10! Wim? K* (ii) Monochromatic (spectral) emissive power (E,). Wis ofien necessary to determine the spectra distribution of the energy radiated by a surface. At any given temperature the amount of radiation emilte: per unit wavelength varies at different wavelengths For this purpose the monochromatic emissive Powe E, of the surface is used. It is defined as the rate of energy radiated per unit area of the surface pe unit wavelength. The total emissive power is given by eel E, dA Wim? (9.20 (lit) Emission from reat surface-emissivity The emissive power from a real surfsce 1s given by E=caaT'W (9.21 where, ¢ = Emissivity of the material. Emistivisy (c).1tis defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. Itis also defines asthe ratio of the emissive power of any body to the emissive power of black body of equal temperatur fie, €= E/Ey). ls values varies for different substances ranging from O to 1. For a black body € = 1 for a white body surface e = 0 and for gray bodies it lies between O and 1, It may vary with temperatun or wavelength. (iv) Intensity of radiation. (0) Radiation density and pressure. (vi) Rodiosity (J). It refers to all of the radiant energy leaving a surface, (vi) Interrelationship berween surface emission and irradiation properties. Absorptivity, Reflectivity and ‘Transmissivity : When incident radiation (G) also called Irradiation (defined as the total incident radiation on surface from all directions per unit ume and per unit area of surface; expressed in Wim? and denote by G) impinges on a surface, three things happen: & partis reflected back (G,) a part a transmitted throu; iG) and the remainder is absorbed (G,), depending upon the characteristics of the body, as ihauel Fig. 9.17. Mee mm _

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