1.

Introduction
Definition of Irrigation

“The process of providing additional amount 
of water to soil to supplement natural rainfall 
and satisfy water requirement of crops”
and satisfy water requirement of crops

Basic Purpose of Irrigation

Basic Purpose of Irrigation

•In irrigation, the water lost through consumptive use and other losses is replenished 
into the root zone

•Irrigation is for obtaining the optimum yield and quality of a desired plant constituent
Broader definition:

Irrigation is the application of water to the soil;

•To add water to soil to meet crop water requirement (moisture essential for 
plant growth)
•To provide crop insurance against short duration of droughts
•To cool the soil and atmosphere (to make favorable environment for plant 
growth)
•To prevent frost damage
•To prevent frost damage
•To washout or dilute salts from soil
pp y
•To apply chemicals/ fertilizer
•To prepare land for cultivation
•To reduce wind erosion 
Water sources for plant growth:

•Precipitation
•Atmospheric water other than precipitation
•Flood water
•Groundwater
•Irrigation

All these sources should be considered 
when estimating the irrigation water 
requirement
Scope of irrigation science
Scope of irrigation science

Irrigation science deals with all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to 
the agricultural farms

Engineering aspects

Scope of irrigation

Agricultural aspects

Based on the water availability, either 
irrigation or drainage is required
irrigation or drainage is required
 Basics of irrigation water demand

The irrigation water demand depends on:

(i) Amount
Amount of water already 
of water already (ii) Total amount of water needed 
(ii) Total amount of water needed
available by the various crops

In addition, irrigation water demand varies on climatic situations:

(i) Arid climates (i) Semi‐arid and semi‐humid  (i) Humid climates

climates
Annual Rainfall< 400 mm 1200mm>Annual Rainfall>400 mm Annual Rainfall>1200 mm
Irrigation is essential with  Dry season: with irrigation Rainfall is sufficient to 
frequent application of  Rainy season: may be possible  cover the water 
water without irrigation; but  needs. Excess water 
unreliable (yields < optimum) may cause problems 
f
for plant growth and 
l h d
thus drainage is 
required.
 Advantages and disadvantages of irrigation

Advantages  Disadvantages

• Increase in food production
Increase in food production • Breeding places for mosquitoes
Breeding places for mosquitoes
• Protection from famine (during construction people get  • Water logging (due to over 
jobs; after construction continuous water supply is  irrigation)
maintained during droughts) • Water born diseases
• Cultivation of cash crops (sugar cane, tobacoo, cotton)
• Addition to the wealth of the country
• Increase in prosperity of people

•Generation of hydropower
• Domestic and industrial water supply
• Inland navigation
 Planning of irrigation development

•Irrigation is to supply water when it is required by the crops. 

•The aim is to achieve a high standard, year‐round agriculture irrespective of 
availability of rainfall. 

•After estimating the irrigation water demand, technical solutions have to be 
implemented.  
implemented

Project cycle

•Identification and pre‐feasibility studies
•Feasibility studies (project preparation for funding)
•Implementation
•Monitoring and evaluation

Exercise: Read on implementation of Mahaweli
Exercise: Read on implementation of Mahaweli project; interesting story and 
project; interesting story and
lot to learn!
 2. Soil, Water, Plant Relationship
2.1. Soil and Water

Soil is a three phase system:

Soil is a three phase system: 

Solid (minerals and organic matter)
Liquid (water)
Gases (soil air) 
Minerals: Comprise the largest fraction of soil 
and exist in the form of particles of different 
sizes and shapes
i d h
Organic matter: Plant and animal remains
Figure 2.1: Composition of soil
 Amount and geometry of soil pores depend on the relative proportion of 
Amount and geometry of soil pores depend on the relative proportion of
different sizes and shapes of soil particles, their distribution and arrangement. 
The pore space remains filled with air water in varying proportions, which 
are mainly manipulated by the amount of water present in soil
are mainly manipulated by the amount of water present in soil. 
Living organisms also present in soil. They help aerating the soil.  
 Soil Profile
 If a pit is dug in the soil (at least 1 m deep) various layers, different in 
colour and composition, can be seen. 

 These layers are called 
These layers are called “horizons”
horizons . This succession of horizons is called
the profile of the soil.
Figure 2.2: Soil Profile
 
This succession of horizons is called
Plough Layer (20 cm‐30 cm thick) :
‐Is rich in organic matter and contain many live roots
‐This layer is subjected to land preparation
‐ Dark colour (brown to black)
Deep Plough Layer:
‐Contained
Contained much less organic matter and live roots
‐ Hardly affected by normal land preparation activities
‐ Colour is lighter, often grey
Sub Soil Layer:
‐Hardly contain any organic matter or live roots
‐ Not very important for plant growth as only a few roots will
reach it
Parent Rock Layer:
‐ Consists of rock, from the degradation of which the soil was
formed (parent material of soil)
 Soil Texture
 The amount of sand, silt and clay present in the soil determines the soil 
texture. 
The texture of a soil is permanent, the farmer is unable to modify or 
change it (i.e. land preparation cannot change the texture of soil).

Name of the  Size limits, mm Distinguishable with 

particles naked eye
Gravel larger than 1
larger than 1 obviously
Sand 1 to 0.5 easily
Silt 0.5 to 0.002 barely
Cl
Clay l
less than 0.002
th 0 002 i
impossible
ibl

Coarse textured soils sand is predominant (sandy soils)
Medium textured soils silt is predominant (loamy soils)
Fine textured soils clay is predominant (clayey soils)
Expression used by the farmer
Light (easy to work)
Light (easy to work)
Medium
Heavy (hard to work)
Figure 2.3: Triangular texture diagram
Expression used in literature
Sandy (Coarse textured)
Sandy (Coarse‐
Loamy (Medium‐ textured)
Clayey (Fine‐ textures)
Exercise: Determine the texture 
of the soil with 10 % clay, 40% 
silt and 50% sand.
 Soil Structure
•Soil structure refers to the grouping of soil particles (sand, silt, clay, organic matter 
and fertilizers) into porous compounds called aggregates. Soil structure also refers to 
the arrangement of these aggregates separated by pores and cracks. 
U lik t t il t t i t t F h th t t
•Unlike texture, soil structure is not permanent. Farmer can change the structure 
through land preparation. 
•Root penetration, infiltration rate, aeration, drainage, and water holding capacity are 
related to the soil structure
related to the soil structure.

Exercise:  Read and find the 
details of basic types of 
aggregate arrangements 
i.e.  granular, blocky, 
prismatic and massive
prismatic, and massive 
structures .  

Figure 2.4: Soil structure
 Soil Moisture Content
 Soil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil

Mass‐ Water content (θ
Water content (θm)

Volume water content (θv)

Depth of water (De)
e.g.
(i) Calculate the depth of water if θv=10%

(ii) It has found that the initial water content (by volume) and
depth of root zone are 10% and 1.5 m, respectively. How much
water is needed to increase the water content to 30% (by volume)
by means of irrigation?
 Soil Moisture Characteristics

 The amount of water stored in soil varies with time

 Saturation, Field Capacity (FC), and Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) are 
three major topics to discuss under the soil moisture content
Saturation
 If all soil pores are filled with water the soil is said to be saturated (e.g.
during a rain or irrigation application).
 At saturation, there is no air left in the soil. Since plants need air and water
in the soil at saturation, plants will suffer (rice is an exception).
 Manyy crops
p cannot withstand saturated soil conditions for a p
period of more
than 2‐5 days.
 The period of saturation of the topsoil usually does not last long. After the
rain or the irrigation
g has stopped,
pp part of the water p
p present in the larger
g p pores
will move downward or laterally. This process is called percolation or drainage.
The water drained from the pores is then replaced by air.
IIn coarse textured
t t d (sandy)
( d ) soils,
il drainage
d i i completed
is l t d within
ithi a period
i d off a few
f
hours.
In fine textured (clayey) soils, drainage may take few (2‐3) days.
Field Capacity (FC)

After the drainage has stopped, the large soil pores are filled with both air and 
water while the smaller pores are still full of water. 
p
At this stage, the soil is said to be at field capacity. 
At field capacity, the water and air contents of the soil are considered to be ideal 
f
for crop growth. 
th
In more rigorous words, field capacity denotes the water content retained by an 
initially saturated soil against the force of gravity. 
The field capacity presupposes the conditions that evaporation and transpiration 
are not active. 

The maximum amount of soil moisture the soil can retain without 
losing by gravity
 Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)

 The water stored in the soil is taken up by the plant roots or evaporated from the 
topsoil into the atmosphere
topsoil into the atmosphere. 
 If no additional water is supplied to the soil, it gradually dries out. 
 The dryer the soil becomes, the more tightly the remaining water is retained and 
y , g y g
the more difficult it is for the plant roots to extract it. 
 At a certain stage, the uptake of water is not sufficient to meet the plant's needs. 
The plant looses freshness and wilts; the leaves change colour
p ; g from green to yellow. 
g y
Finally the plant dies. 
The soil still contains some water, but it is too difficult for the roots to suck it from 
th
the soil. 
il
A plant is considered to be permanently wilted when it will not recover after being 
placed in a saturated atmosphere (temporary wilting may take place, but will recover 
b ddi
by adding moisture).
it )
Wilti !
Wilting!
Available Water (moisture) Content

Hygroscopic water: When an oven dried soil sample is kept in the

atmosphere it absorbs some amount of water from the atmosphere.
atmosphere, atmosphere
This is known as hygroscopic water and is this water cannot be moved
by the action of gravity or capillary forces.
Capillary water: Capillary water is the part in excess of hygroscopic
water which exists in the pore space of the soil by molecular
attraction.
Gravitational water: Gravitational water is the part in excess of
hygroscopic and capillary water which will move out of the soil if
favorable drainage is provided.
Readily available water: It is the portion of the available water
(moisture) that is most easily extracted by plants and it is
approximately 50‐75 % of the available moisture.

Figure
 Soil Moisture Deficiency (SMD)

SMD or field moisture deficiency is the amount of water required to bring 
the soil moisture content of the soil to its FC.

At FC: SMD= 0

e.g. After removing 50 mm of moisture by a 
crop at FC; SMD = 50 mm. Now, add 20 mm of 
effective rainfall; SMD= 30 mm.

Two major factors influencing the water 
available to plant: 
(1) Depth of root zone (D)
(2) Available water capacity of soil (Sa)

Figure
e.g. 
Compute the total available water (TAW) in the root zone if FC= 30 %, 
PWP= 18 % and depth of root zone (D) = 1.5 m. 
Limiting Soil Moisture Conditions

Figure
 Depth and Frequency of Irrigation

 When watering is done the amount of water supplied should 
bring the water content to the FC. 
 After application, water will be utilized consumptively by 
plants. 
 Fresh doses of irrigation may be done when the water 
content in the soil reaches the optimum value. 
 Such irrigation application should raise the water content 
back to FC of the soil. 

The frequency of irrigation is controlled by; 
•The amount of water available in the root zone
•The consumptive use rate by plants (crop water requirement)
•The consumptive use rate by plants (crop water requirement)

Figure
 Plant and Water

Plants need soil, water, air, and sunlight to live and grow. 
90%‐ 95% of the weight of the plant is water. 
90% 95% of the weight of the plant is water.
Water act as a solvent of nutrients and it is needed for chemical reactions 
such as photosynthesis. 
Water maintains the plant’s rigidity.
Moisture extraction from soil depends on root distribution and main 
functions of root are to provide anchorage and absorb water/minerals for plant.

Figure

E.g. 
When the percentage of moisture extraction is increased, surface layer 
will be desiccated
will be desiccated. 
To avoid desiccation of root hair in surface layer, only a percentage of 
TAW is allowed to be depleted. 

p Factor depends on sensitivity of crop, growth stage, and ETcrop. 
 3. Consumptive Use of Water

We will limit our discussion to evapotranspiration.

Evapotranspiration is the total moisture loss as water is vaporized into air

from land surface.

Evaporation
Removal of water from an open water surface as vapor to the atmosphere.
Some water from the soil in the field also evaporated during the day. But it
would be wrong to assume that the evaporation from a water surface is the
same as the
th evaporation
ti from
f th soil.
the il Evaporation
E ti from
f th soilil surface
the f i
is
usually considerably less than evaporation from an open water surface.
 Transpiration: The plant roots extracted water from the soil, but main
part off this
hi water does
d not remain i in
i theh plant,
l b escapes to the
but h
atmosphere as vapor through plant’s leaves and stem.
Main factors affecting consumptive use of water:
 Climatic factors (e.g.
(e g sunshine,
s nshine temperature,
temperat re humidity,
h midit wind
ind speed),
speed)
 Soil and topography,
 Crop type and growth stage,
 Irrigation practices.

Effect of major climatic factors on 
evapotranspiration:

Climatic 
Climatic Evapotranspiration
factor High Low
Sunshine
Temperature
Humidity
Wind speed
One crop grown in different climatic zones will have different water needs
It is therefore, useful to take a certain 
It is therefore useful to take a certain “standard
standard crop
crop” or 
or “reference
reference crop
crop” 
and determine how much water this crop need per day in the various climatic 
regions
Grass has been selected as the standard crop
Grass has been selected as the standard crop
Daily water need of the standard grass crop is called “reference crop 
evapotranspiration” (ET0)

“ET
ET0 is defined as the rate of evapotranspiration
is defined as the rate of evapotranspiration from an extensive 
from an extensive
surface of 8 to 15 cm tall green grass cover of uniform height, 
actively grown, completely shading the ground and not short of 
water”
 Potential or maximum evapotranspiration for a given crop  ETcrop

ETcrop 

Evapotranspiration off a given crop, growing in large

l f ld under
fields d non restricting soill
conditions including soil, water, and fertility and achieving full production potential
under the given growing environment

Kc  Crop coefficient  

Kc depends on:
depends on
•Type of crop
•Growth stage
•Growing season
•Prevailing weather condition
 This ETcrop is the maximum depth of water needed by a given crop to 
p y g p
meet the water loss through evapotranspiration  (ETcrop)max

Actual Evapotranspiration (ETcrop)act:

(ETcrop)act is the evapotranspiration occurring in reality for a given

crop and soil under the moisture conditions existing at that time
(when water is poorly available).

 (ETcrop)act is controlled by the meteorological conditions and by

the ability of the plant to extract under actual soil moisture
conditions.
conditions
Methods of estimating evapotranspiration:
•Theoretical methods Mass transport, Energy balance
Direct measurements Lysimeter, soil moisture studies, field
•Direct
experiments
•Empirical methods Penman method, Blaney‐Criddel method,
Radiation method,
method Pan evaporation,
evaporation humidity method
 Pan Evaporation Method

 Evaporation pan provides a measurement of the integrated effect of 
radiation, wind, temperature, and humidity on evaporation from a 
specific open water surface
specific open water surface. 

Epan=Pan evaporation in mm/day/ and represents the mean daily

value of the period considered
Kp=Pan coefficient
 Lysimeter Method

A special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in a field of growing 
plants. 
plants
The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the surrounding field.
Evapotranspiration
p p is estimated in terms of the amount of water required to 
q
maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank measured either 
volumetrically or gravimetrically through an arrangement made in the lysimeter
 Lysimeters
y should be designed to accurately reproduce the soil conditions, 
g y p ,
moisture content, type and size of the vegetation of the surrounding area. They 
should be buried so that the soil is at the same level inside and outside the 
container. 
Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive.
 4. Stages of crop development
g p p

1. Initial Stage 2. Crop development stage
• This is the period from sowing or 
Thi i th i df i • This period starts at the end of the 
Thi i d t t t th d f th
transplanting until the crop covers  initial stage and lasts until the full 
about 10% of the ground ground cover has been reached 
(ground cover 70 80%)
(ground cover 70‐80%)
• It does not necessarily mean that 
the crop is at its maximum height.
3 Mid season stage
3. Mid season stage 4 Late season stage
4. Late season stage
• This period starts at the end of the  • This period starts at the end of the 
crop development stage and lasts  mid season stage and lasts until 
until maturity
until maturity the last day of the harvest; it
the last day of the harvest; it 
• It includes flowering and grain‐ includes ripening
setting.
Crop coefficient curve

Figure
 5.  Effective rainfall
•Not all rainfall is effective to the plant
• Part may be lost by surface runoff, deep percolation, or evaporation.
•The remaining part, which is stored in the root zone and available for 
the plants to use, is known as effective rainfall (Pe)
•Pe depends on factors such as climate, soil texture, soil structure, 
d d f h l l l
depth of root zone. 
 Calculation of effective rainfall

*At the time of irrigation, water that can be stored effectively over the root 
zone is assumed equal to 75 mm and correction factors are provided for 
different depths that can be effectively stored. 
*The monthly effective rainfall cannot exceed the rate of consumptive 
use. If it does, the lower value of the two is taken. 
e.g. 
Calculate the effective average monthly rainfall
Calculate the effective average monthly rainfall, 
if the monthly mean rainfall, ETcrop and effective 
storage are 100 mm, 150 mm, and 175 mm, 
g , , ,
respectively.
 6. Irrigation Scheduling

Irrigation scheduling is to answer the questions; 
(a) When to irrigate? 
(b) How much?
When to irrigate?
g

•Find the soil indication (measure soil moisture tension (e.g. using 
tensiometer or by feel and appearance of the soil (by farmers))
•Plant indication (Plant can directly indicate moisture status by 
growth of leaves, appearance…etc)
growth of leaves, appearance…etc)
•Water budget or water balance (by water balance studies, we can 
find net irrigation requirement, In)

Figure
 Gross depth of irrigation application has to be more 
p g pp
due to losses in irrigation application

Inet= Net depth of irrigation or allowable depletion, mm

Gross depth of irrigation

Gross depth of irrigation

where Ea= application efficiency

In= Daily requirement, mm/day
 Water application efficiency (Ea) 

Ea is a measure of efficiency of water application in the field
 It is the ratio of volume of water that is stored in the root zone of crops 
and ultimately consumed by evaporation or transpiration or both and the 
volume of water actually delivered at the field. 

Ws=water stored in the soil root zone by 
irrigation

Wd= Water delivered to the area being 
irrigated
 e.g.1
Growing period= 80 days (May – July), D= 1m, Ea=60%, FC=29.5%, WP= 14.5%

Period May (31 days)

May (31 days) June (30 days)
June (30 days) July (19 days)
July (19 days)

ETo, mm/day 5.0 5.5 6

Kc 07
0.7 10
1.0 08
0.8
Pe, mm/day 1.7 2.5 3.0
Soil water depletion  0.6 0.6 0.6
factor (p)

Determine:
•Gross seasonal irrigation requirement and the area that can be cultivated meeting the 
full requirement of the crop with an available water supply of 3000 m3 for the whole 
growing period
growing period
•The gross depth of irrigation application and irrigation interval in June
e.g.2

Growing period= 96 days (May to August)

August), Depth of root zone= 0
0.8
8mm, FC= 29
29.5%
5%
(by volume), WP= 14.5% (by volume), Ea= 65%, Planting date= 15th May

Initial stage Development  Mid season  Late season 

stage stage stage
Number of days 17 30 31 18
Kc 0.7
0 7 1.0
1 0 1.2
1 2 0.8
0 8
p‐factor 0.55 0.6 0.6 0.6

May June July August

ET0, mm/day 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5

Pe, mm/day 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.5

Determine:
(i) Gross seasonal irrigation water requirement and area that can be cultivated 
i h f ll i f h ih il bl l f 8000 3 for 
meeting the full requirement of the crop with an available water supply of 8000 m f
the whole growing period
(ii) The gross depth of irrigation application and irrigation interval in June and July
 e.g. 3

Compute the depth and frequency of irrigation required for a certain crop 
with the data given below
with the data given below. 

Root zone depth= 100 cm, FC= 22% by weight, PWP= 12% by weight, 
1.5 g/cm3, Irrigation efficiency
Specific gravity of soil= 1.5 g/cm
Specific gravity of soil , Irrigation efficiency= 60%, ET
60%, ET0= 10 
10
mm/day, Kc=1.2, Pe= 0 mm/day

Assume 50% depletion of moisture before application of irrigation water at 
p f f pp f g
FC.
 e.g. 4

Irrigate an area of 12 ha. Irrigation water is supplied at a 
uniform rate for 10 h daily
uniform rate for 10 h daily. 

Depth of root zone= 75 cm, ET0=4.5 mm/day, Kc= 1.1, FC= 23% 
b
by volume, PWP= 18% by volume, p=0.6, E
l PWP 18% b l 0 6 Ea= 66%
66%

Determine the irrigation interval (days), gross depth of 
irrigation application (mm) and the rate of water issue (l/s) for 
the given crop. 
 Maximum and actual evapotranspiration

Maximum evapotranspiration represents the maximum rate of 
transpiration of a healthy crop grown in a large field under ideal 
agronomic conditions (specially with sufficient water).  
Thus, (ETcrop)max is the maximum depth of water needed by a given crop 
to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration. 

(ETcrop)act is the evapotranspiration occurring in reality for a given 

crop and soil under the moisture conditions existing at that time. 
 Actual yield and yield response factor

When water supply does not meet the crop water requirement, (ET
pp y p q , ( crop)act
will fall below the (ETcrop)max. 

Under this condition, water stress will develop in the plant and as a 
result crop growth and crop yield will be affected
result, crop growth and crop yield will be affected. 

Yield response factor is the measure which links relative yield decrease 
to relative evapotranspiration deficit. 
 Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation efficiencies are defined in order to consider the water 
losses during conveyance and application

Conveyance efficiency (EC)

Field canal efficiency (Eb)
Field application efficiency (Ea)

Project efficiency (Ep)
Distribution efficiency (Ed)
(Conveyance and field canal efficiencies together)

Farm efficiency (Ef)
(Field canal and application efficiencies together) 
 Factors affecting Ec

 Total length of conveyance canal and size of irrigation scheme

 Lined canal Type of liner, maintenance conditions

 Earthen canal Soil texture, maintenance conditions

 Control structures/ maintenance conditions

 Operation conditions/ supply system (e.g. rotational supply)

 Technical and managerial facilities of water control
 Factors affecting E
g b

 Length of field canals, size of blocks and canals
L th f fi ld l i f bl k d l

 Type of canals/ type of soil

 Availability of farm outlets…etc

 Method and control of operation

 Water management
 Factors affecting E
g a

 Climatic and meteorological conditions during irrigation
Cli ti d t l i l diti d i i i ti

 Moisture content in the root zone at the time of irrigation

 Irrigation method

 Soil texture/ soil properties

 Irrigation skill of the farmer

 Operation (continuous or rotational supply/ flow size/ day or night 
irrigation…etc)
g )

 Field layout (size of field, slope, length of furrow or border…etc)

 Irrigation regime
Irrigation regime‐ depth of application, frequency of irrigation
depth of application, frequency of irrigation
Ed Sensitive to quality of technical as well as organizational operation 
procedures

Ef Dictated by the operation of the supply system in meeting the 
actual field supply requirements as well as by the irrigation skill of the 
farmers