Soils, Soil Carbon &

Soil Health
Dr. Rebecca Tonkin
This workshop has been provided by the Fleurieu Environment
Centre and the Hills and Fleurieu Landscape Board, with funding
from the Australian Government’s National Landcare Program.
 Overview

1 Basic soil properties and issues

2 Soil chemistry and pH

3 Soil carbon and soil health

Page  3
 Basic Soil Attributes
• The basic attributes of soil (colour, texture, structure, water holding
capacity, chemistry,etc) impact on the capacity of the soil to grow
crops or pastures.
• Knowing your soils and their characteristics helps you select the
right farming practices.
• A healthy soil leads to healthy crops and pastures.

Page  4
 A dark well Very pale or white Bright soil colours Pale sub-soil (yellow/grey) =
structured surface waterlogging
colours indicate (red/oranges) indicate
soil which has high leaching and low good aeration and mottling = seasonal
fertility organic matter drainage waterlogging

Page  5
 Soil Texture
 Proportion of sand, silt and clay in a
soil
 Texture influences water holding
capacity, movement of water and
air, nutrient supply, root growth,
workability and resistance to erosion.

Page  6
 Soil Texture - Sand
 Particles from 2.0 mm to 0.05 mm in
diameter (larger than this is gravel).
 Large pore size between particles –
free draining with low water holding
capacity.
 Low surface area – cannot hold
nutrients or water, do not stick together
easily.
 Gritty to touch.

Page  7
 Soil Texture - Clay
 Particles smaller than 0.002 mm.
 Very large surface area – 1 spoon can
cover a footy oval.
 Very high water and nutrient holding
capacity.
 Clay particles usually stick together to
form crumbs/clods.
 Different mineral types give different
properties.

Page  8
 Clay and Cation Exchange
Capacity
 The large surface area of clays means that
nutrients, chemicals and organic matter can
stick to those surfaces. These surfaces have a
slight negative charge, like a magnet.
 The ability of the clay to attract positively
charged particles (cations) is called the
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). Organic
matter also has CEC.
 CEC determines the nutrient holding
capacity of the soil, ie its fertility.

Page  9
 Soil Structure
 Soil structure refers to the
arrangement of the soil into larger
aggregates or peds (crumbs).
 The texture affects the kind of
structure possible, but management
has a strong impact.
 Soil structure affects drainage,
aeration, germination, root growth
and other land management issues.

Page  10
 Soil and Water Holding Capacity
 Sands have low WHC but give up water
easily to plants, which is important in dry
environments where rainfall is light.
 Loams have a mixture of particle sizes
and a range of pore sizes in the soil,
allowing them to take up large amounts
of water and release it to plants.
 Clays take up most water, but hold it
more strongly, meaning that plants find it
more difficult to extract water from clays.

Page  11
 Soil Organic Matter and Water Holding
Capacity
 Organic matter (OM) in soils also affects WHC as it absorbs water
and gives it up to plants.
 Increasing OM in the soil can increase water infiltration and
storage, improving crop yields. Generally a 1% increase in OM
leads to a 2.3% increase in PAW (can range between 0.8 and 8 %).
 Very dry OM can be water repellent, but wets up slowly over time.

Page  12
Issues - Dispersive Soil - Sodicity
• Slaking or dispersive soils occur in
clayey soils, where the sodium content
on the clay is high.
• They are prone to hard-setting
surfaces, and are easily eroded on
slopes.
• Treat with gypsum and/or organic
matter, keep covered and stable.
Water repellence
• Occurs on sandy soils (when clay
content is > 5%, does not occur)
• Waxes and oils from plants coat the
sand surface and repel water
• Reduces water infiltration and plant
growth
• Often infertile with low biological
activity.
• Risk of wind erosion
• More likely in lower rainfall areas.
Water repellence
• Management options:

• Clay spreading or delving

• - Increases water holding and water infiltration

• - Increases soil fertility

• - Increases yield and promotes soil organic matter and aggregate formation

• Perennial pasture establishment.

• Soil conditioners (limited value).

Water erosion
Causes
• Slope, erodible soils (sands over clays/dispersive soils)
• Removal of deep rooted perennial riparian vegetation and general land
clearance
• As soil cover decreases (< 70%)
• Stock access and grazing
• Rainfall volume and intensity
Types
• Watercourse erosion
• Gully and tunnel erosion
• Sheet and rill erosion
 70% Cover

50% Cover
 Water Erosion
Issues
• Loss of soil (can be 1000’ s of tonnes) and arable areas
• Reduced water quality and retention
• Rapid drainage and increased flooding incidence
• Silting downstream
• Reduced water quality (rivers, dams, lakes, and sea)
• Aquatic biodiversity decline (river and sea)
• Restricted access around the property
Watercourse Erosion
Management options
• Exclude stock from watercourse areas
• Revegetate watercourses
– Use perennial native species
- Reeds and rushes in stream
- Trees and shrubs on adjacent land
• Allow space for the watercourse to change flow path with time
• Do not straighten or alter flow paths of watercourses
• Landowners must seek appropriate permissions and professional
advice if undertaking earthworks or crossing construction on or
near watercourses
 Rill Erosion
Gully Erosion

Tunnel Erosion
Sheet Erosion
Management of Gully, Tunnel, Sheet and Rill erosion

• Maintain 70% groundcover at all times with perennial pastures / plant species.

• Separate higher risk land from lower risk land (land class)

• Exclude stock and traffic from higher risk land during times when it is susceptible.

• Control annual weeds

• Establish alternatives in high erosion risk areas (Revegetation, Farm Forestry, fodder shrubs)

• Surface high traffic areas and use yards and/or stables

• Use structures eg: contour banks and grade furrows to control water velocity.

• Minimise cultivation and work along contours if soil disturbance is required.

• Fences: short down slope and long across slope.

 Waterlogging
Causes
• Low lying areas
• High rainfall environment
• Poor soil drainage

Issues
• Restricted plant growth (oxygen deficiency in
the root zone)
• Pugging
• Limited access
• Compaction (loss of soil structure)
• Erosion due to poor plant cover
 Waterlogging
Management options
• Manage wet areas accordingly (property planning)
• Fence area, keep stock off when wet
• Restrict grazing to dry seasons
• Establish waterlogging-tolerant perennial pastures
• Drains (surface / subsurface)
• Gypsum (dispersive soils only)
• Farm forestry
• Revegetate with local native plants
 Wind Erosion
Causes
• Strong wind
• Sandy/powdered soils – bare, loose, dry

Issues
• Loss of the most fertile soil.
• Reduced air quality - asthma.
• Crops blown out and buried.
• Damage to infrastructure
• Burying (roads) and sand blasting (buildings)
• Dusting of power lines.
• Damage to water bodies through soil deposition /
dust
 Wind Erosion
Management options
• Maintain 70% vegetation cover
• Remove stock when needed.
• Fence off sand hills and establish perennial pastures or native vegetation.
• Minimise tillage and soil disturbance, retain stubble.
• Plant cover crops.
• Establish windbreaks and shelterbelts.
• Locate water troughs and feeding points on hard ground.
• Surface high animal traffic areas with rubble.
Salinity Causes
• Land clearance of deep rooted
perennial vegetation
• Elevated water tables
• Inherent salt content of soils
• Irrigation induced rising watertable
or saline water
• Naturally occurring areas (coastal
swamps and flats)
 Salinity
Issues
• Reduced ground cover and increased potential for erosion
• Increased waterlogging in discharge areas
• Loss of arable land for production
• Reduced production
• Reduced water quality in streams and dams
• Indicators are:
• Moderate salinity - reduced production and ground cover, and the presence of Sea Barley
Grass and Strawberry Clover
• Severe salinity – Salt crusts, minimal ground cover, presence of samphire species
 Salinity
Management options
Can be local, intermediate or regional distance between recharge and discharge
locations – this will determine management options.
Recharge Areas
• Plant with perennial vegetation – high water use perennial pastures, native
vegetation, fodder shrubs, farm forestry.
Discharge Areas
• Exclude stock
• Plant salt tolerant species – pastures, fodder shrubs, forestry, native vegetation
• Establish drains.
• Salt interception programs.
• Groundwater pumps.
 Questions?

Page  29
 Soil Chemistry
• Soil chemistry deals with the balances of elements in the soil.
• It includes pH, nutrients and toxic chemicals.
• Understanding the soil chemical balance helps you to know what
nutrients to apply when.

Page  30
Soil Nutrients and Testing
 Major nutrients – N, P, K, S, Ca
 Trace elements – Mg, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn, B

 Nutrients may be contained in the soil, but unavailable to plants. Eg,

waterlogging, drought, toxicities, strong acidity or alkalinity.
 High levels of some nutrients can be toxic to plants.
 Different plant species have different requirements for various
nutrients. For example, legumes require the right amounts of trace
elements and P to enable the rhizobia to fix N properly.

Page  31
Soil Nutrients and Testing
 When soil testing, use a representative sample from the paddock,
avoiding areas such as feeding areas or tracks.
 When testing pH, it is useful to test the 0-10 and 10-20 cm to check
for sub-soil acidity.
 Observation of plant symptoms and Plant Tissue testing may be
useful to check if the nutrients in the soil are able to be accessed by
the plants.

Page  32
Testing your Soils
When choosing a soil test, ask yourself:
 What do you want to find out?
 Why?
 How will the test help you make
management decisions?
This will help you determine the best test
for your purposes. Do you need the basic
test, or top of the line? Do you need any
specific tests not in a standard package?

Page  33
Soil Nutrient Sources
- Nutrition for soils can be supplied from a variety of sources.
- Soils with high inherent fertility may be able to support a low removal
enterprise for some time with low or no inputs, whereas lower fertility soil will
need more rapid replacement of nutrients removed.
- Includes synthetic fertilisers (DAP etc), rock minerals (lime, dolomite),
plant/animal wastes (compost, manures) and specific compounds (usually
for trace elements eg CuO, CuSO4).
- Nitrogen is unique in that it can be supplied from the air to the soil via various
forms of biology (bacteria, legume symbionts, etc). Management can
influence this.
- Budget usually determines the best source.
- Note that carbon is not usually thought of as a nutrient, but is a major source
of food for soil biology which helps to keep the soil healthy.
Page  34
Using Fertilisers Efficiently
- Fertiliser use is most efficient when matched to crop demand.
- Eg, high demand for N during spring. Lower demand during winter.
- Applying fertiliser at the right time can be tricky though.
- Slow release forms / staggered or strategic applications / organic fertilisers
which are released to plants by soil biology are ways to manage
efficiency.
- Healthy soil will take in nutrition and supply it to plants more easily than
poor soil. (eg acidity, compaction)
- Deep root growth enables plants to take up nutrients (and water) deeper
in the profile at the end of the season when the upper soil is dry.
- Also ensure that the uptake of major nutrients (such as N) is not being
stopped by a deficiency of a different nutrient (eg S, Cu, Zn).

Page  35
Soil acidity and soil health
• What is acidity?
• What causes acidity?
• Treating acidity
• Are there alternatives to lime?
• Summary
Soil pH
 Increasing
acidity
Optimum pH Increasing
alkalinity

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

• pH is a measure of the amount of hydrogen ions (H+, protons) in the

soil, which determines whether the soil is acid or alkaline.
• 7 is neutral, 3-6 are acid, 8-10 are alkaline.
• It is a logarithmic scale, so 6 is 10 times more acid than 7, and 5 is 10
times more acid than 6 and 100 times more acid than 7.
• Trigger points: pH 5.5 CaCl – watch
pH 5 CaCl – time to lime
Page  37
Soil pH
 pH is measured in water or using CaCl2 (calcium chloride solution).
The advantage of CaCl2 is that it measures all the H+ ions present,
and so is more accurate for acid soils. It is also less affected by soil
moisture. A pH (water) measurement is often about 0.8 points higher
than the pH (CaCl2) measurement if the soil is acid. Lower pH = more
acid.
 pH can be measured in the field using a kit available from most
hardware or garden stores. This will give a pH (water) result.
 Lab results often give both measurements.
 Note – many US publications and some other countries use pHw as
standard. As pHw and pHCaCl are different, when ideal pH ranges or
trigger points for treatment are given, make sure you know whether
it is pHw or pHCaCl that is being used!
Page  38
 Soil pH
 Soil nutrient availability
is affected by pH. Most
good nutrients are
available in the neutral-
slightly acid range.
 Soil fungi differ in
response to pH – some
mycorrhizal fungi are
decreased.
 Bacteria, earthworms
and some other biota
are reduced in acidic
conditions.
Page  39
 Example: Plant
available P in the
soil is strongly
affected by pH!
A healthy soil for
pasture or crop
growth needs a pH
in the neutral to
slightly acid range
– right where P is
most available.

(Soil pH as measured in water – take off 0.8 units for equivalent in CaCl.)
https://www.pioneer.com/home/site/us/agronomy/phosphorus-behavior-in-soil/
What causes acidity?
Farming practices that acidify pH include:
• Inefficient use of N fertiliser or N-fixing plants - when N is leached
from the system, acidity remains.
• Removal of produce (grain, hay, meat, milk etc)

Reversing acidity:
• Lime application (neutralises acidity)
• Some fertilisers (Calcium nitrate) will neutralise acidity
• Other alkaline amendments (clay, water, biochar)
 Fertiliser effects on acidity - average

N Fertilisers used efficiently by plants have lower acidification rates than those
that are leached or de-nitrified (converted back to N2 by some soil bacteria).
However some N fertilisers, even when used very efficiently, will have an
acidifying effect due to the chemistry involved.
 Soil health and acidity
• As we have seen, nutrient availability is affected by soil pH. This has flow-on
effects as nutrient availability regulates both plant and soil biological activity.
• Reduced growth of plants means less organic matter going back into the soil,
which reduces biological activity due to lack of food.
• The acid soil inhibits root growth due to
release of toxic aluminium. This reduces
both root growth and the growth of some
symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi.
• Acid soils also change the bacterial
composition of the microbial community.
• Generally, microbial activity is reduced in
acid soils. This leads to reduced breakdown
and cycling of organic matter.
Can I improve soil health without treating acidity?
• This is a question often asked in areas where liming is expensive.
• Liming (or alternative pH altering treatments such as alkaline clay) is
an extremely effective strategy, and improving soil health without it
will be difficult.
• Short-term options include:
o Adding organic matter to the soil in order to increase buffering capacity, feed
soil biology and to absorb toxic aluminium on the organic carbon complex
o Using acid-tolerant plant species to maintain ground cover and provide a
food source for soil biology
o Providing the nutrients which are often lacking in acid soils to the plants so
that growth can be maintained as long as possible. However, this will not
cancel out the toxic effects of the soil acidity.
 Can I improve soil health without treating acidity?
• Note that large surface applications of organic matter,
or slashing of plants, will add organic matter to the
upper soil. This can have a slight neutralising effect on
the upper topsoil. This effect is easily seen in no-till
cropping or in permanent pasture systems by digging a
small hole and using a field pH test kit to measure pH
down the soil profile.
• Unless there is considerable biological activity, or
incorporation of this surface organic matter, the acidic
layer just under the surface (about 5-10 cm) will not be
affected, and this is the key layer where plant roots are
affected.
• In the long term, treating acidity must be part of a
healthy soils program.
 Are there alternatives to lime?
• Lime alternatives exist and include:
 Alkaline clay
 Alkaline irrigation water
 Some industrial by-products (slag, ash)
 Lime-treated biosolids
 Alkaline biochars
 Using organic matter to improve soil buffering capacity
• The economics of each depends on how effective and how close
they are.
• They are all products which have the ability to chemically react to
reduce acidity in the soil, acting in the same way as lime.
 Lime and soil health
• Lime as a treatment for acidity has many benefits for soil health.
• Raising the pH improves the environment for soil microbes, particularly the beneficial ones.
• A neutral pH also benefits larger soil biota such as earthworms.
• Improved root growth benefits both plants and soil
• Lime supplies calcium to the soil, which is an essential nutrient for plants and soil biology.
Some limes also supply magnesium, another essential nutrient.
Calculating lime rates
General rule of thumb
To move soil pH by one pH unit,
• Sandy soils: 2 - 2.5 t/ha (1 ton/acre) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed
under CC BY-SA

• Loams: 3 - 3.25 t/ha

• Clays: 4 - 5 t/ha
Sandy soils are easier to change pH, but re-acidify faster. Clay soils
need more lime to change pH, but take longer to change back.
Organic matter in the soil also affects how quickly pH will change.
 Lime effectiveness
• The effectiveness of the lime is determined by the chemical properties
and the surface area and fineness. Lime sellers must provide an
analysis of their lime to the buyer if asked. This shows the
Neutralising Value (chemical effectiveness) and Effective Neutralising
Value (chemical + fineness of the product) of the lime.
• To change pH deeper in the soil profile requires deep mixing or
longer periods of time with higher lime rates.
• The rate at which lime moves deeper into the soil depends on the
rainfall, soil texture, and the pH that is maintained in the topsoil.
Managing soil health and acidity
• Practices that improve soil health are also likely to slow the rate of
acidification in soil. These include:
• Liming to replace nutrients and alkalinity removed as produce
• Efficient use of nitrogen, either as fertiliser or as composts or
manures.
• Increasing soil carbon levels – soil organic matter helps to buffer
soil against changes in pH
Take home messages
• Soil pH is an important piece of the soil health picture.
• An acid soil (pH CaCl < 5) will have reduced soil biofunction and
problems for plant growth.
• Improving the health of an acid soil is most easily achieved by liming
to raise the soil pH above 5.5 CaCl.
• Organic matter has some use in buffering soil pH, absorbing toxic
aluminium and providing food to maintain soil biology. However it is
not as effective as a treatment for an already acidic soil.
• Managing to improve soil health is likely to also be good
management for maintaining soil pH at a good level.
 Soil Health and Organic Matter (Carbon)

Page  53
 Soil Biology and the Carbon Cycle

• Carbon is cycled through the

atmosphere, plants, animals, human
activities and the soil.
• About 1,500 Gt of "biological" carbon
is stored in the soil worldwide,
compared to 750 Gt of C in the
atmosphere or 610 Gt in biomass.
Additional carbon is stored in rocks as
carbonates.

Page  54
 Soil Biology and the Carbon Cycle
• Within the soil, carbon is
contained in biomass (the
living plants and animals in
the soil) and as substrate
(broken down dead organic
matter, cellulose, other
compounds).
• Some soil organic carbon is
broken down rapidly (active),
while other types of carbon
remain in the soil for many
years (humus, stable carbon).

Page  55
 Soil Carbon on My Farm
(or, why should I increase soil C?)
• Soil carbon improves the physical condition of the soil, allowing
better water infiltration and storage, and improved root growth.
• It is a supply of nutrients for crops/pastures, and increases the
nutrient holding capacity of the soil.
• It is a food supply for soil biology, which release nutrients to plants
and help to improve soil condition.
• Building soil carbon over the long term *may* offer financial
benefits through carbon sequestration payments, or the ability to
certify as carbon neutral…???

Page  56
 Building Your Soil Carbon
• Growing your own carbon is what most farmers
already do.
• The trick is keeping it in the soil once you have it
there.
• Soil biology uses carbon as food, and recycles it
back into the atmosphere.
• The rate of carbon going into the ground needs
to be faster than the use rate for it to
accumulate.

Page  57
 Increasing Carbon in Agricultural Soils
• The basic capacity of the soil to hold carbon is determined by the
clay content, and the climate (rainfall, temperature, etc). Soils with
higher clay content can store more carbon as it is protected from
microbial breakdown.
• However, management practices can greatly affect the amount
actually stored. Many agricultural soils are currently below
maximum storage capacity.

Page  58
 Increasing Carbon in Agricultural Soils
Carbon can be added to the soil by a number of methods. Effectiveness varies,
as does the price. The principal methods are:
1. Grow plants, which fix carbon out of the air and leave it in the ground. 
This is straightforward, but the amount remaining over time varies
depending on the system. The more healthy plants, and the longer they
are living and photosynthesizing, the more C they will fix.
Some of the CO2 fixed through photosynthesis is used by the plant to
grow roots and leaves, which eventually are returned to the soil. However,
a good proportion can be traded to soil biology (bacteria, fungi) in
exchange for nutrients that the plants cannot reach with roots only. This
produces carbon compounds in the soil which help in structure, nutrient
cycling, and making of humus.
This is also known as the Liquid Carbon Pathway (Dr. Christine Jones).

Page  59
 Increasing Carbon in Agricultural Soils
2. Add carbon from other sources, such as bringing in plant
material, animal wastes, biosolids, composts, or soil additives like
biochar, coal waste or humus. This tends to be expensive unless
there is a good/cheap source close by.

Carbon from organic sources such as manures or composts tends to

have nutrients in it, with the amount varying depending on the
source. This can help to replace nutrients removed from the system
by production of hay, grain, milk or meat.

Page  60
 Building Your Soil Carbon
Practices that increase carbon are:
• Have photosynthesizing plants covering the ground for as long as possible.
• Retain as much organic matter as possible (stubbles, controlled grazing)
• Use tillage as little as possible – reduce soil disturbance
• Add organic matter (compost, animal litter, etc)
• Use permanent pastures and manage them well
• Increase production – the more biomass, the more carbon
• Use green manures/cover crops where possible (and economic)

Page  61
 Basic Soil Biology
• The soil is an ecosystem like a forest or the barrier reef. It contains
many different plants, animals, fungi and bacteria, large and small.
These feed on organic matter from a variety of sources.
• There is a wide variety of organisms adapted to different soil
conditions.
• Soil organisms are affected by what happens to the soil, and also
affect the soil themselves.
• They use plant and animal materials, create soil humus, recycle
carbon, nitrogen and other nutrients, and support plant growth.

Page  62
 Bacteria
 Bacteria are very important to the
soil.
 There may be as many as 5 billion
per teaspoon of soil.
 There are thousands of species
with many functions – mainly
nutrient mobilisation and plant
associations (eg rhizobia).

Page  63
 Fungi
 Fungi are extemely important to
the soil.
 There may be as much as 20,000
km of fungi networks in a cubic
metre of soil.
 Fungi bind soil together,
decompose organic material,
and may have symbiotic
relationships with plants.

Page  64
 Amoeba
 Up to 5 million per teaspoon of
soil.
 Recycle nutrients by feeding on
bacteria.

Page  65
 Nematodes
 There are many different species,
some attack crops/pastures,
others are beneficial.
 As many as 5000 per teaspoon of
soil.
 Recycle nutrients by feeding on
fungi, bacteria, plant roots,
amoeba, and other nematodes.

Page  66
 Earthworms
 Decompose smaller organisms
when eating soil.
 Excretions bind the soil.
 Indicator species for soil health.

Page  67
 Other Macrofauna: spiders, molluscs,
beetles, ants, termites, etc

 Burrowing turns over soil, mobilises

nutrients, and loosens soil whilst
excretions help to bind the soil.
 Break down organic matter and
move it into the soil.
 Larger species (mice, rabbits, etc)
also loosen soil for other organisms
and turn over soil.
 Some termites help to add N to
the soil from bacteria in their gut.
Page  68
 Soil Biology
• Most soil biology is found in the topsoil, 0 -10 cm, as that is where the
most carbon (main food supply) is found.
• Soil biological activity also requires moisture, appropriate temperatures,
and oxygen.
• When conditions are unfavourable, many soil organisms will die or shut
down activity until conditions are right again (eg less activity in the cold
winter and more in warm spring). However long-term changes to the soil
environment can upset the balance of the soil ecology.

Page  69
 Soil Biology
• The cycling of soil organic matter by bacteria, fungi and other
organisms allows nutrients (N, P, K, S etc) to be made available to
be taken up by plants.
• Storage and release of nutrients from organic matter through the
soil is an important part of crop/pasture nutrition.
• Some soil organisms provide benefits through N fixation
(rhizobium, free-living N fixing organisms), suppressing hostile
organisms (nematodes), or living symbiotically with crops/pastures
(mycorrhizal fungi).

Page  70
 Soil Biology and Farming Systems
• Farming systems have their own characteristics which can favour
various types of soil organisms and be unfavourable to others.
• The type of farming system will determine the mix of species
present. (Rotations, +/- stock, chemicals, etc.)
• A system which promotes a good balance of beneficial soil
organisms is likely to have fertile and productive soil, well
structured and resilient to adverse conditions such as drought,
resulting in healthy crops and pastures.

Page  71
 Soil Biology and Farming Systems
• Excessive tillage breaks up soil structure and fungal hyphae networks,
leading to reduced fungal activity and lower populations of organisms such
as earthworms.
• Tillage also alters oxygen availability – leads to a flush of bacterial activity
initially, making nutrients quickly available, but this reduces nutrition in the
long term.
• Soil pH affects soil biology, eg bacteria and earthworms do not thrive in
acidic soils.
• Pesticide and herbicide application usually only have short-term (20-40 days)
effects on soil biology, unless they are used repeatedly over a long time.
However, effects vary depending on the chemical and soil type. Soil
fumigants kill all organisms.

Page  72
 Soil Biology and Farming Systems
• The amount of biological activity in the soil depends on the inputs
available. Soil biota need food, water and air to grow. Food consists
mainly of organic matter to supply C, N and other nutrients. A soil
low in organic matter will have low biological activity.
• Many Australian soils have had the original organic matter levels
reduced through farming activities such as burning, bare fallows
and cultivation.
• Farming practices can affect the inputs that allow soil biology to
increase and benefit crops and pastures.

Page  73
 Soil Biology and Farming Systems
Increase the food supply to soil biota by:
• Keeping green plants growing as much as possible
• reducing tillage,
• retaining stubbles,
• increasing ground cover,
• mulching (eg under vines, trees, horticultural crops)
• other inputs with carbon content such as manures or compost can
also be beneficial when used correctly

Page  74
Testing for Soil Carbon
There are 2 main soil carbon tests:
1. Total Soil Carbon (Leco)
2. Walkley-Black Soil Carbon
Total Soil Carbon measures all the carbon in
the soil from any source. *This will include
from rocks or minerals such as lime. It is
suitable for soil with no carbonates.
Walkley-Black soil organic carbon measures
only carbon from the soil, and carbon from
rocks or minerals is not included. This is the
best test for any soil with carbonates
present, but may underestimate C levels.

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 Testing for Soil Biological Activity
• Soil Biology is a recent science and new information is being
discovered all the time. There are a large number of tests for soil
biology available, and several different labs.
• Tests are broadly divided into 3 types:
- Population analysis
- Biological activity
- Indirect indicators

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 Testing for Soil Biological Activity
 Population analysis tests count the numbers of chosen organisms
present, eg bacteria, fungi, nematodes, earthworms etc. They take a
snapshot of what is present under specific conditions at a specific
time. As soil biology profiles can change very rapidly, this needs to
be taken into account when interpreting results. Farming practices
can quickly affect biological populations.
 Calculating ratios of various populations can also be done, which
can give an indicator of such things as ratios of beneficial
organisms to pests.
 Some tests are specific to a certain organism, eg rhizoctonia or
rhizobia testing.

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 Microbial Biomass
• Total population of microbes (bacteria, fungi & others) in the soil at
the time of sampling.
• Influenced by soil properties, environment and management. (Clay
soils hold more soil biology than sands, higher rainfall supports
more biology than low rainfall.)
• Can respond very quickly to changes in soil management (fertiliser,
C sources) or environmental conditions (rain, temperature).
• Makes up between 1 – 5 % of the total soil C.
• Can contribute a significant source of N (20-60 kg/ha, WA).

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 Microbial Biomass Measurements
• Results can be expressed as mg/kg (ppm), μg(micrograms)/g (same
ratio as mg/kg), or in kg or t/ha.
• General guidelines for total microbial biomass measurements are
given on the soilquality.org.au website. However they are only
general and will vary from site to site. Different labs also have
different recommended values, depending on their own
procedures. It is best to use the recommended levels from your
own lab and watch your own records over time.

From www.soilquality.org.au
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 Population testing - Fungi and Bacteria
• The amounts of fungi and bacteria can also be useful.
• Fungi thrive in undisturbed soils, eg no-till or pasture. They have
high carbon requirements.
• Most bacteria thrive in oxygenated (tilled) soil, and have higher N
requirements. Bacteria cannot live in very acidic soils.
• The ratios of fungi to bacteria can indicate soil conditions.

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 Other Soil Biology
• Other measurements such as nematode counts (pests and
beneficials), protozoa, etc can also be measured.

Total Anaerobic Gram +ve Gram -ve

microorganisms Total bacteria Total fungi Pseudomonas Actinomycetes bacteria bacteria bacteria

Total : Microbial
Mycorrhizal Anaerobic Diversity
Protozoa fungi (VAM) bacteria Fungi:Bacteria Indicator Flagellates Ciliates Nematodes

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 Testing for Soil Biological Activity
 Biological activity tests measure what the soil population is doing.
They are sensitive to environmental or management conditions, similar
to population counts.
 Examples are
• CO2 respiration measurements (more CO2, more activity)
• the ‘‘cotton strip‘‘ or ‘‘underpants“ test – breakdown of cellulose in the
soil
• Nitrification rates

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 Testing for Soil Biological Activity
 Indirect indicators are measurements that generally indicate soil
health, such as organic carbon content or ground cover.
 Generally where organic carbon levels are very low, or ground cover
is missing, there is a problem present that will affect soil biology.

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 Testing for Soil Carbon or Biological
Activity
When choosing a soil test, ask yourself:
 What do you want to find out?
 Why?
 How will the test help you make
management decisions?
This will help you determine the best test for
your purposes.

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 How to Sample
Find out the requirements of the lab that you are sending to.
• How much do they need?
• Does it need special treatment, eg refrigeration or drying?
• Do they have any sampling requirements (in row, out of row,
random, time of year, soil moisture, plants growing, etc)?
If samples are not collected and treated correctly, the information will
be no use.

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 Testing for Soil Biology
Since soil biology is sensitive to many environmental conditions, monitoring soil
biology over time gives a more complete picture than just a one-off test.
Comparing soil biological tests should be done using samples that are as similar
as possible. For example, samples from a sandy soil will be different to a clayey
soil even from within the same paddock.
Samples from the same soil will vary throughout the year depending on
management, moisture, temperature and food availability.
Try to avoid sampling just after operations like seeding or spraying.
Use a reputable laboratory.

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 Testing for Soil Biology
Remember that soil biology is affected by soil
chemistry and physical properties. If the chemistry
and structure of the soil isn‘t right, or if they have no
food (carbon) then the soil organisms cannot live
there. Adding new soil organisms will achieve nothing
if they cannot survive in the soil.

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 More Information on Soil Carbon and Soil
Biology
 CFOC and the Wheatbelt NRM have useful factsheets.
www.soilquality.org.au
 The Victorian DPI maintains a website with many helpful links.
http://vro.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/soilhealth_related
_links
 DAFF has a healthy soils website.
http://soilhealthknowledge.com.au/

Page  88
 Questions?

Page  89
This workshop has been provided by the Fleurieu Environment
Centre and the Hills and Fleurieu Landscape Board, with funding
from the Australian Government’s National Landcare Program.