Soil Analysis in Raichur District

ANALYSIS OF SOIL SAMPLES OF SURROUNDING AREAS OF RAICHUR DISTRICT
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 1

1. Introduction
Soil is the part of the earth’s surface comprised of disintegrated rock and
humus that provides the medium for plant growth. The development of soil takes
time, between hundreds and thousands of years, and consists of diverse materials
which are both inorganic and organic. The inorganic materials are the non-living
aspects of the soil such as minerals and rocks while the organic materials are the
living aspects of the soil such as the soil microorganisms.
The process of soil formation is through the rock cycle together with the
integration of soil microbial and chemical activities originating from living
organisms. For instance, during the decomposition of dead plants and animals,
nutrients are mixed up with the weathered and disintegrated rocks to form soil are
considered as a natural resource because of its agricultural productivity benefits.
Various soils have different mineral and organic compositions that establish their
specific characteristics.[1]
Fig-1.1 (Example of soil)

1.1Types of soil:
Fig 1.2 different types of soils

Soils are mainly classified on the basis of their nature and composition.
There are many different types of soils like — black soil, red soil, laterite soil,
alluvial soil, mountain soil, etc. Colours of soils mainly depend upon their
composition.
Soil is the layer which is found loosely covering the surface of the Earth. It is a
complex mixture of sand and organic material. It is usually formed by the fine rock
material which is derived from breaking of the rocks by various geographical
processes. Another important constituent of soil is the organic remains of
decomposed vegetation. Soil is solid but liquid and air is also present between the
minute particles of soil.
There are different types of soils:
a) Loamy soil:

Loamy soil is one of the richest soil types because of its composition.
Loamy soil is composed of a mixture of clay, sand, silt, and decaying organic
materials (humus). The soil has a pH level of 6 with high calcium content and the
potential of retaining water and nutrients for relatively longer periods.
This is what makes it one of the riches soils for crop production. The
distinguishable composition of loamy soil may vary, but it can be made perfect
with the right balance of additives.
For instance, compost manure is usually added to loamy soil to improve the
desired qualities which may be lacking. Loamy soil is dark in colour and has a dry,
soft, and crumby feel on the hands. It has good nutrient and water holding
capacity.
It also drains well and has pore spaces which enable air to freely move in between
the soil particles down to the plant roots. Essentially, this is the characteristic me
loamy soil the most ideal for plant growth and for that reason, the most preferred
so by gardeners.
b) Clay soil:
Clay is one of the many unique soil types due to its composition of a very
fine-grained and plasticity when moist but hard when fired. The clay soil particles
of tightly compressed together with no or very little air space. Because of this
feature, clay persists as the heaviest and densest type of soil. Also, it is this
characteristic that makes it to hold and retain large quantities of nutrients and
water, and still making it very difficult for air and moisture to penetrate through it.
So, to achieve successful gardening, one has to know the correct state and
conditions of the soil.
Wet clay is ordinarily difficult to garden with since it’s heavy but dry clay is
smooth and soft and as such, easier to manage. Knowing these characteristics can
surely help for gardeners especially in spring and autumn seasons when clay soil is
dry. Compost or much can be added to the top soil every autumn season to avoid
the freezing of the soil in winters. Compost or mulch makes the soil more ideal for
planting by ensuring it has better drainage and air flow.
c) Silt soil
Silt soil is composed of clay, mud, or small rocks deposited by a lake or

river. it is made up of much smaller particles compared to sandy soil and when
moistened it forms a soapy slick. For this reason, silt soil is extremely smooth and
since it retains a lot of water, it is fairly fertile. Regardless of its good
characteristics, silt soil is deficient of nutrients in comparison to other soil types.
Because of the characteristic of silt soil, it can be easily compacted by the weight
of heavy overlying materials. For this reason, if it is in your garden you should
avoid walking on it which can lead to its compaction, which may require aeration.
Silt soil is perfect for crop farming as the particles in silt soil are miniscule.
c) Peaty soil:
Peaty soil is under normal circumstances dark brown but it can as well be
black in colour. Peaty soil has large quantities of organic material and is rich in
water, makes it one of the best soil types for plant growth. However, the soil needs
to be drained first due to its high nutrient and water content.
Because of its characteristic of high nutrient and water content, peaty soil is able to
keep plants healthy even in dry weather and shields the plants from harm during
rainy periods. The water content in peaty soil is to a small degree acidic but is ideal
for controlling plant diseases and can be utilized to balance the pH level of other
soil types.
d) Sandy soil:
Sandy soils are pale yellowish to yellowish brown in colour and are one of
the Poorest types of soil. Sandy soil is composed of loose coral or rock grain

material sand has a dry and gritty touch. Sandy soil is also grouped as one of the
soils composed of the largest particles which prevent it from retaining water.
As such sandy soils loose water content very fast which makes it very fast
which makes it very difficult to establish. Thus, plants do not get the opportunity
of using and water in sandy soil more efficiently as they are speedily carried away
This is what makes sandy soil the poorest for supporting any kind of plant growth.
e) Chalky soil:
These are the types of soils found in limestone beds with deeply rooted
chalk deposits. Chalky soils are extremely dry and are known to impede the
germination of plants. They are composed of or containing or resembling calcium
carbonate or calcite and characteristically have the colour of chalk. Accordingly,
chalky soil is entirely imperfect for crop farming or plant growth as it presents a lot
of difficulties to work with. It has high lime content but low water content, which
gives at a pH level of 7.5. This means the chalky soil is basic and it normally leads
to yellow and stunted plants.
f) Black soil:
These soils are also known as black cotton soils. This soil will be usually
found in the volcanic regions as it is formed by lava rocks after they undergo a
decomposition process. These are black in colour and therefore are named as black
soil. This black colour is due to the presence of iron in it. This soil is rich in iron,
magnesia and alumina, but does not have phosphorous, nitrogen and organic
matter. They are deep and impermeable, clayey in nature. Wide cracks are seen
especially during the dry seasons. Its main component is clay.

g)Red soil:
Red soils are found in regions with warm, moderate and moist climates. This
soil is mainly formed due to crumbling and weathering. These soils contain good
amount of iron, whereas mostly they lack phosphoric acid, organic matter and
nitrogenous material. It is not good at all in retaining moisture and is little nature.
It is sandy and not clayey like black soil.
h) Laterite soil:
The word laterite is derived from the Latin word meaning brick. This soil
contains high amount of iron and Aluminium oxide. It is a highly weathered red
soil which is found in areas with tropical to moderate climate. They are
generally found beneath surface of wide grasslands or forest clearings in areas
getting good amount of rainfall. The colour ranges from red to black, depending
upon the quantity of iron oxide in it. It gets harder when exposed to air. These are
used in the construction of the buildings. It can be referred to as porous clay.
i)Alluvial soil:

These soils get deposited by running water and usually develop in a flood
plain or delta. It consists of clay, silt, sand, gravel and other materials
which get accumulated by running water. Colour of these soils differs from light
grey to ash grey. They are sandy to silt loam in context to texture. These soils are
good for irrigation and therefore cultivation of many crops can take place in these
soils.
j) Desert soil:
This soil belongs to the region with arid climate. These soils usually lacks
organic matter and if it is present then only in a little amount. They are sandy or
rocky in texture. Due to the arid climates and extremely low rainfall, these soils are
only able to support little vegetation. This soil contains soluble salts. They are
developed by mechanical disintegration and deposition by the wind. These are
coarse and contain very low moisture.
k)Mountain soil:
These soils belong to hill slopes and valleys. These are usually formed when
organic matter of the forest settles down. It is quiet rich in humus but lacks Potash
and lime. This soil is composed of clay, sand and silt and tends to be rich in
moisture. However, the texture may vary from rocky to sandy. These are
susceptible to soil erosion as top soil is removed when rains occur heavily in the
steep slopes. They are not fertile in nature. They are coarse in texture.
l) Saline and Alkaline soil:
Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient

management. While soil minerals and organic matter hold and store nutrients. soul
water is what readily provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil air. too. plays an
integral role since many of the microorganisms that live in the soil need air to
undergo the biological processes that release additional nutrients into the soil.
The basic components of soil are minerals. organic matter. water and air. The
typical soil consists of approximately 45% mineral. 3° organic matter. 30% water.
and 20-30% air. These percentages are only generalizations at best. In reality. the
soil is very complex and dynamic. The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a
daily basis. depending on numerous factors such as water supply. cultivation
and/or soil type
The solid phase of soil. Which includes minerals and organic matter. Are generally
stable in nature. Yet. if organic matter is not properly managed, it may be depleted
from the soil. The liquid and gas phases of the soil. which are water and air
respectively. Are the most dynamic properties of the soil. The relative amounts of
water and air in the soil are constantly changing as the soil wets or dries (1.3)
Fig -1.3 Composition of soil

Soil is a complex body composed of five major components;

1. Mineral matter obtained by the disintegration and decomposition of rocks;

2. Organic matter, obtained by the decay of plant residues, animal remains and
microbial tissues;
3. Water, obtained from the atmosphere and the reactions in soil (chemical,
physical and microbial);
4. Air or gases, from atmosphere, reactions of roots, microbes and chemicals in the
soil
5. Organisms, both big (worms, insects) and small (microbes)
1.2 Properties of soil
The properties of the soil were originally determined by the material that
went into its original manufacture — the rocks which in the past were weathered
down into soil particles. However, agricultural and permaculture practices can also
have an impact. Here are the major properties of soil.
a) Texture:
The texture of the soil refers to the proportions of three major materials
within it: sand, clay and silt. Particles of these materials are of differing sizes, and
their presence in the soil will affect the soil’s ability to retain nutrients and
moisture. Sand particles are the largest of the three, so a soil with a higher
proportion of sand in it has more space through which water moves, meaning it
dries out quickly. Clay has the smallest particle size of the three, and so a soil
heavy in clay will retain water well, but have a slower rate of infiltration. Silt
particles are somewhere in between. As well as affecting moisture retention, the
soil texture directly influences the soil’s fertility, because they provide surface area
to which nutrients can adsorb (the process by which molecules adhere to a
surface). Clay particles provide more surface area for this to occur than sand
particles. Soil that has a good proportion of each of the three materials is an ideal
growing medium, and is called loam.
To get a basic idea of the texture of the soil on your plot, simply pick some up and
feel it. A sandy soil will not adhere into a ball and have a gritty feel. A clay soil, by
contrast, feels smooth and almost plastic to the touch. Loam will have a springy
feel.
b) Structure:
Linked to the texture is the structure of the soil. This refers to the way the
particles of sand, clay and silt aggregate together (form clumps) and the spaces that
form between and within them (called pore spaces). The spaces between

aggregates are larger than those within, and as such are the key to the soil’s
drainage ability and aeration. The spaces within aggregates, being smaller and
more tightly packed hold water. As with many things concerning soil, a good
balance is required to create a decent soil. Stable aggregates combined with plenty
of pore spaces are best. Adding organic matter will help do so.
c) Biology:
The biological property of the soil refers to the amount of microorganisms
that are active within it. These include everything from earthworms and insects to
fungi and bacteria. In a healthy soil, the number of organisms living in the soil will
be high, which in turn helps to keep the soil healthy, by processing nutrients and
improving soil structure, which helps plants to grow. Healthy soil biology also
means that populations of species are kept in balance, with some organisms
predating on others so they do not get too high. The amount of organic matter
available, adequate soil moisture, as well as good drainage and aeration of the soil
affects the biological property of the soil.
d) Cations:
Here’s the science bit. Cations are positively charged ions of nutrients that
are in solution, Basically, for plants to access nutrients in the soil (such as nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium, those nutrients need to be in a soluble form, mixed
with water.
When the atoms of the element are in water they become electrically charged,
either negatively (called an anion) or positively, the cations. The positive charge
allows the cations to adhere to soil particles (the process of adsorption) from where
plant roots can access them.
e) pH:
A bit more science. The pH level of the soil refers to the concentration of
positively charged hydrogen ions in the soil moisture. With more of these ions, the
soil becomes acidic, while fewer indicate an alkaline soil. The pH of a soil is
Measured on a scale of 0 to 14 (the lower the number, the more acidic the soil),
and the position on the scale is likely to affect levels of essential nutrients in the
soil. For instance, a soil with a pH level lower than 6 is likely to be deficient in
potassium, calcium and phosphorous, while a soil with a pH of higher than 7 will
probably lack Sufficient iron, zinc and copper for healthy plant growth. The best
way to ensure a healthy pH in your soil is the addition of organic matter. This will
provide nutrients that the soil may lack, as well as protect plants from the effects of
excess acidity or alkalinity. If you have a very acidic soil on your site, the addition
of agricultural lime can help lift the pH level. However, you can also plant species

that require certain pH conditions to thrive. Blueberries, for example, grow well in
acidic soils, while the brassica family of vegetables (such as cabbage) prefers
alkaline soils.
f) Salinity:
The water within a soil, combined with the nutrients in solution within it,
affects the salinity of the soil. If moisture levels in the soil are, low particles of
sodium, calcium, magnesium, and potassium increase, meaning the soil becomes
more saline. This can be exacerbated if, due to lack of moisture at the surface,
plants draw up moisture from the groundwater that, in turn, evaporates, leaving the
salts behind. If the salinity of the soil increases too much at the surface, it will
negatively affect the growth of plants within it. Ensuring soil receives and retains
sufficient moisture (through diverting runoff to dry areas, mulching to prevent
excess evaporation, etc.) ensures salinity does not become a problem.
Impacted by changes in the others, and all are in an ever-evolving relationship with
the plants that are growing in the soil. By understanding the properties of the soil
on your site, you can make sure that you are planting species that suit the soil
conditions, and that you are aware of how making changes impacts upon the soil
system.

1.3 Soil Profile:

A vertical section of the matured soil shows several layers, with distinct
characteristic physical and chemical properties, which are known as horizons or
soil horizons. These layers or horizons from top to bottom together constitute soil
profile. Each horizon has a specific thickness, structure, colour, texture, porosity,
etc.
The soil profile can be broadly divided into five horizons. From the surface
downwards, these may be named as O-horizon, A-horizon, B-horizon, C-horizon
and R- horizon. The A and B zones together form the true soil or solum.
A) O-Horizon:
It is the surface layer of the soil and also known as top soil. This layer
contains fertile soil mixed with organic materials in decomposed and semi-
decomposed state, produced due to disintegration of different parts of plants. The
O-horizon can be further sub-divided to O1 and O2 zones
a) O1 horizon:
This is the uppermost surface layer rich in freshly fallen leaves (litter) and
twigs in which decomposition is yet to start.
b) O2 horizon:
This layer is just below Horizon. The upper portion of O2 contains partially
decomposed or-genic matter, known as detritus and this layer is also known as
Duff layer. The lower portion of O2 contains completely decomposed organic
matter called Humus.
B) A-Horizon:
It is the zone of elevation in which the materials are brought to aqueous
suspension for downward movement inside the soil. This is further sub-divided

into three subzones like A1, A2 and A3, depending upon their physical, chemical
and biological characteristics.
a) A1 Layer:
It is a dark coloured layer, containing relatively higher quantity of
completely decomposed organic matter (humus) mixed with minerals. This layer
also contains soil bacteria and fungi.
b) A2 Layer:
Coloured layer, containing lesser amount of humus and represents the zone
of maximum. It is a comparatively light leaching.
c) A3 layer:
It is a transitional layer, merging with horizon B. This layer may be absent in
some soils.
C) B-Horizon:
This is the zone of eluviation in which most of the materials leached out of
A-zone are precipitated. Besides, in this zone, the organic compounds are
converted into inorganic compounds by decomposers like bacteria. This zone may
be further subdivided into three subzones like B1, B2 and B3 depending upon their
characteristics.
a) B1 Layer:
It is a transitional layer, merging the horizon B and A3 but B-zone is more
likely than A.
b) B2 Layer:
It is a deep coloured layer, representing the zone of maximum receipt of
transported colloids.
c) B3 layer:
It is a transitional layer to the C horizon lying below:
The A1, A2 and A3 layers of horizon A and B1, B2 and B3 layers of horizon
constitute the true soil or solum. Earthworm and many insects are found in true soil
which helps to make the soil rich.
d) C-Horizon:
It is a light coloured layer, composed of partially weather parent rock and it
is devoid of organic material.

e) R-Horizon:
This is the zone of unweather bed rock from which the soil is formed in
course of time.
1.4 Uses of soil:

Soil covers the surface of the Earth and is a valuable ecosystem. Soil is
made up of minerals, nutrients, water, air, organic matter and microorganisms.
Because of its makeup, soil has a variety of uses in a variety of industries
a) Agriculture:
Soil has vital nutrients for plants. As a result, it is used in agriculture to
nourish plants. The roots of a plant receive nutrients from the soil to help it grow.
The North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services notes that
13 essential plant nutrients come from the soil.
b) Building:
Soil is an important part of the building process. Soil compaction, which
increases the density of the soil, is done as part of the building process. The
purpose of the compaction is to improve the load support. If not done, structural
failure can result. Soil can also be used as building materials such as adobe and red
bricks.
c) Pottery:
Clay soil is used in making ceramics, or pottery. When water is added to
clay soil, it can be used to create the ceramics. Once formed, you can leave it to
dry and it will retain its shape. Any type of ceramic can be created with the clay
soil, such as a vase, bowl, cup or sculpture.
d) Medicine:
Soil is commonly used in antibiotics. Microbes created in the soil are
harmful to bacteria, which is why soil is used in medicine. Medicines created by
soil include skin ointments, tuberculosis drugs and antitumor drugs.

e) Beauty Products:
Some beauty products are made with soil. Commonly used beauty
products Where used soil is used in the production include blush and foundation.
Soil rich in clay can also be used in facial masks and toothpastes.
f) Soil microbiology:
It provides support for survival of many bacteria, algae, fungi etc.. These
bacteria and microbes present in soil help in environmental balance like retaining
of moisture, decay of dead bodies of animals, plants etc.. scavenging of waste and
other toxic chemicals including plastic.
g) Soil organic matter:

Contains essential minerals and elements like phosphates, sulphates,
calcium, zinc, Magnesium and many more. These elements are provided to plant
during growth and from there to all the living forms. Hence they act as source of
essential minerals and elements needed for various enzyme and cell reactions.
h) Soil keeps atmosphere cool:
Soil absorbs water when there is rain and so, when is there is heavy sun heat,
this water from soil evaporates making the air cooler. Further you might have
noticed wind blowing from sea surface to land surface. This is because soil gets
heated fast and cools fast unlike water. Hence during heavy summer, soil gets
heated fast and so the air above it raises causing low pressure for the air from sea
surface to flow on to land. This is why the atmosphere remains cool.
i) Waste Decay:
Soil layers promote decay of waste and pollutants by microbes. The decay of
organic matter converts to petroleum and other essential resources. Without soil
there would have been no waste decay and world would have been a place full of
corpses (dead bodies) and other waste.

1.5 Soil analysis:

Soil analysis is a set of various chemical processes that determine the
amount of also the chemical, physical and biological soil available plant nutrients
in the soil, but Chemical soil analysis properties important for plant nutrition, or
soil health. Chemical soil analysis determines the content of basic plant nutrients,
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, pH, humus content.Total CaCO3, available
lime, organic matter, total sulphur, trace elements, and other physical characteristic
(capacity, permeability. density, pH, - values).
Soil analysis implies:

● Taking soil samples
● Laboratory analysis of samples
● The interpretation of the results by the issuance of fertilizer
recommendation.
1.6 Objectives of soil testing:

a. To study the genesis of soil and to classify them.
b. To study the suitability of soil for agricultural crops, horticulture, gardening
etc.
c. To study the nutrient (fertility) status of soil for fertilizer recommendation
d. To study the effect of irrigation on soil.

e. To study the various physic-chemical properties of soil.

f. To characterize the problematic soils such as salt affected soils, acid lime
and to estimate the soil amendments like gypsum, lime etc. reclaim them and to
follow suitable management practices.
1.7 Plant nutrients in the soil:

Soil is a major source of nutrients needed by plants for growth. The three
main nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Together they
make up the trio known as NPK. Other important nutrients are calcium,
magnesium and sulphur. Plants also need small quantities of iron, manganese, zinc,
copper, boron and molybdenum, known as trace elements because only traces are
needed by the plant. The role these nutrients play in plant growth is complex, and
this document provides only a brief outline.
1.8 Major elements:
a) Nitrogen (N):
Nitrogen is a key element in plant growth. It is found in all plant cells
proteins and hormones, and in chlorophyll. Atmospheric nitrogen is a source of
soil nitrogen. Some plants such as legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen in their roots;
otherwise fertilizer factories use nitrogen from the air to make ammonium
sulphate, ammonium nitrate and urea. When applied to soil nitrogen Is converted
to mineral form, nitrate, so that plants can take it up.
Soils high in organic matter such as chocolate soils are generally higher in nitrogen
than podzolic soils. Nitrate is easily leached out of soil by heavy rain, resulting in
soil acidification. You need to apply nitrogen in small amounts often so that plants
use all of it, or in organic form such as composted manure, so that leaching is
reduced
b) Phosphorus (P):

Phosphorus helps transfer energy from sunlight to plants, stimulates early

root and plant growth, and hastens maturity.Very few Australian soils have enough
phosphorus for sustained crop and pasture production and the North Coast is no
exception. The most common phosphorus source on the North Coast is
superphosphate, made from rock phosphate and sulfuric acid. All manures contain
phosphorus; manure from grain-fed animals is a particularly rich source.
c) Potassium (K):
Potassium increases vigor and disease resistance of plants, helps form and
move starches, sugars and oils in plants, and can improve fruit quality.Potassium is
low or deficient on many of the sandier soils of the North Coast. Also, heavy
potassium removal can occur on soils used for intensive grazing and intensive
horticultural crops (such as bananas and custard apples). Muriatic of potash and
sulphate of potash are the most common sources of potassium.
d) Calcium (Ca):
Calcium is essential for root health, growth of new roots and root hairs, and
the development of leaves. It is generally in short supply in the North Coast's acid
soils. Lime, gypsum, dolomite and superphosphate (a mixture of calcium
phosphate and calcium sulphate) all supply calcium. Lime is the cheapest and most
suitable option for the North Coast: dolomite is useful for magnesium and calcium
deficiencies, but if used over a long period will unbalance the calcium/magnesium
ratio. Super phosphates useful where calcium and phosphorus are needed.
e) Magnesium (Mg):
Magnesium is a key component of chlorophyll, the green colouring material
of plants, and is vital for photosynthesis (the conversion of the sun's energy to food
for the plant). Deficiencies occur mainly on sandy acid soils in high rainfall areas,
especially if used for intensive horticulture or dairying.
Heavy applications of potassium in fertilizers can also produce magnesium
deficiency, so banana growers need to watch magnesium levels because bananas
are big potassium users.Magnesium deficiency can be overcome with dolomite (a
mixed magnesium-calcium carbonate), magnesite (magnesium oxide) or Epsom
salts (magnesium sulphate).
f)Sulphur (S):
Sulphur is a constituent of amino acids in plant proteins and is involved in
energy- producing processes in plants. It is responsible for many flavour and odour
compounds in plants such as the aroma of onions and cabbage.

Sulphur deficiency is not a problem in soils high in organic matter, but it leaches
easily. On the North Coast Sea spray is a major source of atmospheric sulphur.
Superphosphate, gypsum, elemental sulphur and sulphate of ammonia are the main
fertilizer sources.
1.8 A) Trace elements:

a) Iron (Fe): Iron is a constituent of many compounds that regulate and promote
growth and is readily available in the North Coast's acid soils.
b) Manganese (Mn): Manganese helps with photosynthesis. It is freely available
in the North Coast's acid soils, often in toxic amounts in very acid soils, but can be
deficient in sandy soils. Toxicity is remedied with lime.
c) Copper (Cu): Copper is an essential constituent of enzymes in plants and is
readily available in North Coast soils, although it can be deficient in red soils.
Overuse of another trace element, molybdenum, can cause copper deficiency in
animals. Toxicity can be a problem for horticulturists who regularly use Bordeaux
mixture or copper oxychloride Sprays to control diseases on horticultural crops.
d) Zinc (Zn): Zinc helps in the production of a plant hormone responsible for
stem elongation and leaf expansion. It is readily available in acid soils, but
combines easily with iron in the North Coast's red soils. This is easily cured with
the addition of zinc sulphate or crushed zine minerals.Fruit trees can be sprayed
with ¸Àzinc.
e)Boron (B): Boron helps with the formation of cell walls in rapidly growing
tissue. Deficiency reduces the uptake of calcium and inhibits the plant's ability to
use it. It is chronically deficient in North Coast soils used for horticulture but this
is easily remedied with borax applied to the soil.
f) Molybdenum (Mo): Molybdenum helps bacteria and soil organisms convert
nitrogen in the air to soluble nitrogen compounds in the soil, so is particularly

needed by legumes. It is also essential in the formation of proteins from soluble

nitrogen compounds.
Molybdenum deficiency is prevalent in the North Coast's acid soils, but can be
remedied easily with applications of Mo super, molybdenum trioxide (applied
during inoculation and lime pelleting of legume seed), or sodium molybdate
(sprayed on young emerging plants). [8]
1.9 Study area:

The most of the samples are collected from different villages of Raichur
district

The soil samples are collected for testing the elements present in soil, from
Kambalanetti, Gorkal, Jukur, walkamdinni and rajalabanda villages of Manvi
taluk and Raichur district from the field.
Soil sample Sampling Surve Name of the Crop
Spot (village) ynumber farmer cultivated
Sample-1 Gorkal 125 Mukkanna Cotton
Sample-2 Kambalanetti 544 Sarojamma Cotton
Sample-3 Jukur 97 Yesuraj Cotton
Sample-4 Walkamdinni 68 Tayamma Chilli
Sample-5 Rajalabanda 70 Narasappa Rice
Sample-6 kurdi 150 Hanumantha Cotton
Sample-7 Gorkal 530 Ramesh Cotton
Sample-8 Tammapuru 35 Huligeppa Rice
Sample-9 jukur 110 Anand Chilli
Sample-10 Rajalabanda 95 Laxmana Rice
Fig – 4 Raichur district map
1.10 Procedure for sampling

 Go round the field in which soil samplings to be done and try to know the
general features of the land.

 Traverse the field to be sampled. Note the variation in slope, soil colour,
texture, past management practices and cropping pattern, fertilizer or
manure applied, Salinity/alkalinity, acidity etc.
 Demarcate the field/entire land approximately into several uniform subplots
or portions each of which must be sampled separately.
 In each uniform subplot proceed in zigzag path and mark about 15-25 spots
and collect the samples randomly.
 Where crops have been planted in rows, collect the samples between the
rows.
 At each spot scrape away the surface litter and then take a sample from the
surface to plough layer depth (0-20 cm) using proper sampling tools like
augers. Collect the samples from 15-25 spots depending upon the area and
place the samples in bucket.
 If augers are not available, using spade, pickaxe, trowel, shovel, khurpi,
spatula etc., dig a “V” shaped furrow of 20cm depth at each spot, then cut
out a uniformly thick 2cm slice of soil from bottom to top of the exposed
soil face, collect the sample on the blade or in your hand and place it in
clean bucket. Collect samples from all the spots into this bucket.
 At the end mix thoroughly all the samples of the subplot (uniform area)
collected in a bucket and get a composite soil sample.
 In order to reduce the sample size and to get a desired quantity of a sample,
follow the procedure of quartering method. Pour the soil from the bucket in
to a piece of clean polythene sheet or cloth, mix thoroughly and remove
pebbles, roots and other course materials. Spread the sample and divide it
into four equal parts (quarters). Reject the opposite quarters. Mix the
remaining two portions and repeat the procedure as many times as necessary
to arrive at the desired sample size of approximately 1/2 to | kg soil.
 Transfer the sample to clean polythene or cloth bag and put one label inside
bag and tie the label outside. Fill in the information sheet and place it inside
the sample bag.
 Transfer the soil sample bags to soil testing laboratory. Dry the samples in
shade for 4-5 days if the samples are moist or wet, before putting into clean
sample containers.
 Keep a record of the area sampled and a simple sketch map for reference
when you receive the recommendation back from the laboratory.

Fig-1.4 Procedure for sampling
Fig-1.5 Collection of different types of soils

CHAPTER-2
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
2.1 Determination of soil pH
Principle:
The electrode potential developed due to H ions is measured by due to H
ions is measured by pH meter using two half cells namely reference electrode and
glass electrode. The electrode potential is indirectly related to the H ion activity of
the medium. The ratio of Soil: Water has to be specified while, expressing the pH
value of the suspension. The commonly employed ratio is 1: 2 or 1:2.5 (Soil:
Water). Addition of more amount of water to soil i.e., dilution causes a slight
increase in the pH value observed. Addition of neutral salts such as KCl, CaCl2
etc. to soil suspension decreases the pH values. Dissolution of CO, decreases the
pH of alkaline soils.
Material required:
1. 100ml beaker with glass rods.
2. pH meter
3. Measuring cylinder (100ml capacity)
4. Standard buffer solution of pH 4,
5. Weight box
Procedure: fig 2.1 pH meter
 Weigh 20g of soil into a clean 100 ml beaker.
 Add 50 ml of distilled water.
 Stir the suspension intermittently for 30 minutes or continuously for 10
minutes.
 Record the pH using pH meter.
Standardization of the pH meter:
 Switch on the instrument 15-20 minutes prior to estimation to warm up.
 Adjust the temperature control knob to room temperature.
 Dip the electrode in standard buffer solution of pH 4.0 and set the buffer
control knob.
 Remove the electrode with a jet of distilled water and dip the electrode in pH
7.0/ pH standard buffer solutions and calibrate the instrument.
 When the calibration is Satisfactory, takeout electrode and rinse with
distilled water and insert the electrode into soil suspension and record the
PH

2.2 Determination of the organic carbon in soil:

(Walkley and Black Rapid Titration Method, 1934)
Principle:
The organic carbon in soil is oxidized to CO2 by K2Cr2O7 making use of
heat of dilution of H2SO4. The excess of K2Cr2O7 unused in oxidation is titrated
back against standard ferrous ammonium sulphate reagent using diphenyl amine
indicator. The interference of iron (Fe3+) and CI- ions during titration are
eliminated by the use of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and Ag2S04, respectively. At
the end point the colour of the suspension changes from violet, through blue to
bright green.
Reaction:
2 K2Cr2O7+ 8H2SO4 ——————> 2K2SO4 + 2Cr2(SO4)3+ 8H20 + 6(O)
3C + 6(O) ——— > 3C02
Apparatus:
 500ml conical flasks
 Pipettes (10ml)
 Burettes Measuring cylinder
 Analytical balance
 Asbestos Sheet
Observations:
Preparations:
a) 1N potassium di Chromate (K2Cr2O7)
294.18 potassium di Chromate (K2Cr2O7) is dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled
water —1N
12.25 potassium di Chromate (K2Cr207) is dissolved in 250 ml of distilled water
—1N.
b) 0.5N Ferrous Ammonium sulphate (FAS)
392.14 Ferrous Ammonium sulphate (FAS) is dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled
water —1N 32.67 Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate (FAS) is dissolved in 250.
Distilled water —0.5 N

c) Diphenyl amine indicator

1 gm of Diphenyl amine indicator is dissolved in 100 ml Conc.H2SO4
d) Orthophosphoric acid 85 % of Orthophosphoric acid
Procedure:
 Weigh 0.5g of soil (0.2 mm sieved) in 500 ml conical flask.
 Add 10 ml of IN K2Cr2O7, solution and mix the contents of the flask
thoroughly by swirling.
 Add 20 ml of con. H2S04 (ContainingAg2SO4) from sides of the flask and
mix thoroughly.
 Allow the reaction to proceed for 30 min. on asbestos sheet.
 Add 200 ml of DW and 10 ml of H3P04 or one tea spoonful of NaF (3g) to
flask and shake vigorously.
 Add 10 drops of diphenylamine indicator which give violet colour to the
suspension.
 Titrate the contents of the flask against 0.5 N ferrous ammonium sulphate
solution till the colour changes from violet through blue to bright
green and note titre value (STV).
 Run blank without sample adopting above procedure. Note titre value
(BTV).
Calculations:
Weight of sample = 0.5g
Vol. of 0.5 N Ferrous ammonium sulphate consumed for blank titration
(BTV)= ml
Vol. of 0.5 N Ferrous ammonium sulphate solution consumed for sample titration
(STV) = ml
Normality of Ferrous ammonium sulphate solution = 0.5 N
% of organic carbon = (V1–V2)N×0.003×100
2w
1 meq of K2Cr2O7 = 1 meq O.C
1 meq C = mol.weight = 12 = 0.003
4
valance

2.3 Determination of calcium magnesium

Principle:
Calcium and magnesium get complexed by EDTA. Calcium is estimated by
using murexide indicator and then calcium + magnesium is estimated using
EBT
Extraction:
Reagents:
1N Neutral Ammonium Acetate: Dissolve 77.0g of ammonium acetate (NH4OAC)
in water and adjust the pH to 7.0 with the help of dilute acetic acid or NaOH and
make up the volume to 1 litre with distilled water.
Procedure:
 Transfer 10g of air dried soil in to 250 ml conical flask.
 Add 50ml of 1 N neutral ammonium acetate.
 Shake the flask for 30 minutes.
 Filter the soil suspension through Whatmann No.40 filter paper.
 The soil is leached with an additional 50 ml of ammonium acetate, a later at
a time and make up the volume to 100ml with ammonium acetate.
 Determine the individual cations in the leachate separately and express the
results in mill equivalents per 100g of soil (meq /100g or cent mole of
positive charges per kg of soil (C.mol (p+) / kg)
A) Estimation of Ca & Mg:
Reagent:
 NH4Cl + NH4OH buffer: Dissolve 67.5 g of NH4CI in 570ml of cone,
NH4OH and make up the volume to | litre with distilled water.
 0.01N EDTA: Dissolve 2g of Ethylenediamine Tetra Acetic Acid in distilled
water and make up the volume to 100ml with distilled water.
 Erichrome Black T (EBT) indicator: Dissolve 0.5g EBT indicator and 4.5g
of hydroxylamine hydrochloride (NH4OH.HCI) in 100ml of 95% ethanol.
Procedure:
 Pipette out 5ml of NH4OAC extract (leachate) into porcelain dish and add
about 20ml of distilled water.
 Add about 10-15 drops (0.5ml) of NH4Cl -NH4OH buffer solution.
 Add 3-5 drops of EBT indicator.
 Titrate against 0.01N EDTA till the colour changes from wine red to blue (or
bluish green) and note down the burette reading.
Calculation
meq of Ca+Mg/100g soil = BR×N.of EDTA × 1000
Wt.of soil aliquot taken
B) Estimation of Ca:
Reagents:
1. 0.01NEDTA
2. 4N NaOH: Dissolve 160g of NaOH in a
litre of distilled water.
3. Murexide (Ammonium purpurate)
indicator: Mix 0.5 g of ammonium purpurate
with 100g powdered potassium sulphate,
thoroughly.
Procedure: fig 2.2 showing end point of
calcium magnesium
 Pipette out 5ml of leachate into porcelain dish.
 Add approximately 20ml of distilled water.
 Add 5 to 10 drops of 4N NaOH which maintains pH 12 and only at this pH
value the calcium complexes with EDTA and colour of the indicator
changes.
 Add a pinch of Murexide (50mg) indicator.
 Titrate the contents against 0.01N EDTA till the colour changes from orange
to purple (or lavender) and note down the burette reading.
Calculations:
meq of Ca/100g soil = BR×N.of EDTA × 1000
wt.of soil aliquiot taken
C) Estimation of Mg:
Meq of Ca/ 100g soil= { (meq of Ca+Mg ) - ( meq of Ca ) }

2.4 Electrical conductivity (EC)

Electrical conductivity is commonly used for measuring the electrical
resistance in the solution which indicates the total concentration of ionized
constituents in solutions. It is closely related to the sum of the cations and anions in
the suspension. Accordingly, it can be used for indicating the salinity in soil
extracts. Electric conductivity can be expressed as millimhos/cm in 1:2.5 soil/water
extract.
Apparatus:
 Conductivity meter, immersion type with platinized platinum electrodes
(direct indicating bridge).
 Beakers 100 ml
 Thermometer.
 Glass rods.
 Funnels & filter paper.
Reagents:
 Potassium chloride solution 0.01 N: Dissolve 0.7456 g of dry potassium
chloride in distilled water and make to 1 L at 25°C. This is a standard
reference solution, which at 25°C has an E.C. of 1411.8 x 10° (0.0014118)
mhos/cm or 1.4118 m mhos/cm.
 Calcium sulphate dihydrate saturated solution. At 25°C it has an E.C. of 2.2
mmhos/cm.
Procedures:
a) Extraction:
 Put 10g air-dry soil in 100 ml beaker, add 25 ml distilled water.
 Stir for 10 minutes, repeat stirring 4 times on 30 minutes intervals.
 Measure the suspension temperature by thermometer.
b) Operation:
 Before measuring, rise and fill the cell with reagent.
 Set the temperature compensation dial.
 Open the contact switch, wait for 5 minutes.
 Balance the bridge with the main dial.
c) Calibration
 Measure the accuracy of the conductivity meter by using reagent 2, it should
give an E.C. 2.2mmhos/cm.
d) Measurement:
 Rinse the electrode with the suspension solution.
 Read the conductivity of the soil suspension.
Fig-2.3 Conductivity cell

2.5 Determination of moisture content in the soil

Principle:
In most all soil test natural moisture content of all soil is to be determined
the moisture content is used to determining the bearing capacity settlement. The
natural moisture content also gives an idea of state of the soil in the field. The
natural water content called as the natural moisture contain of the soil.
Procedure:
● Take an empty crucible and is dried until weight becomes constant.
● The empty crucible is allowed to cool in the desiccators then the empty crucible
is weighed.
● About 2gm of soil sample is placed in the crucible and then crucible is weighed.
● The moist soil in the crucible is dried at J05°C in oven for 1-2 hour.
● The sample content crucible is to be cooled in the desiccators after removing
from oven.
● The crucible is weighed again record the weight of the dry soil and crucible.
Soil moisture contain is calculated by using the formula;
% of moisture = W2 – W1
W3
where,
W1 = Weight of empty crucible.
W2 = Weight of crucible + sample before drying.
W3 = Weight of crucible + sample after drying.
Fig 2.4 Oven

2.6 Water holding capacity

Principle:
Water holding capacity of the soil is the amount of water retained in the
capillary spaces of the soil after the percolation of gravitational water into the
deeper layers. Water holding capacity depends upon the capillary pore spaces in
the soil.
Requirements:
a) Soil samples
b) Measuring cylinder
c) Funnel
d) Beaker
e) Oven & etc
Procedure:
 Weighing the soil Sample should be done accurately(10gm of soil ),
 Add 20 ml of distilled water to the sample
 Pour the water slowly aid gently on the soil in the funnel.
 Record the volume collected water in the measuring cylinder
 Carefully Collected the drops up to 30 min.
Fig-2.5 showing water holding capacity

2.7 Particle density Principal:

Particle density of soils refers to the density of the solid particles
collectively. It is expressed as the ratio of the total mass of the solid particles to
their total volume, excluding pore spaces between particles. Units used are nearly
always grams per cubic centimetre (g. cm).
Apparatus:
 Specific gravity bottle
 Weigh mission
 Beakers
 Funnel
Procedure:
 Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the weight of an equal volume of
distilled water at that temperature both weight taken in air.
 Density bottle of 50 ml with stopper having capillary hole.
 Clean and dry the density bottle.
 Weigh of the empty bottle with stopper (W1)
 Weigh Of the empty specific gravity bottle and soil sample (W2)
 Weigh Of the empty bottle, soil sample and water (W3)
 Weigh Of the Empty Specific gravity bottle and Water (W4)
Calculation:
Particle density = Wt of the soil
Vol of the soil
(W2-W1)
(W4-W1) – (W3 –W2)
Fig-2.6 showing particle density in soils

2.8 Determination of chloride content

Principle:
Soluble chloride is obtained in the saturation extract (as prepared for soluble
Ca, Mg and anions), and its concentration in the extract is determined by silver
nitrate titration (Richards, 1954).
Reagents:
A. Potassium Chromate Solution (K2CrO4), 5% in water
• Dissolve 5 g potassium chromate in 50 mL DI water.
• Add dropwise 1N silver nitrate (AgNO3) until a slight permanent red
precipitate is formed.
• Filter, and bring to 100-mL volume with DI water.
B. Silver Nitrate Solution (AgNO3), 0.01 N
• Dry about 3 g silver nitrate in an oven at 105°C for 2 hours, cool in a
desiccator, and store in a tightly stoppered bottle.
• Dissolve 1.696 g dried silver nitrate in DI water, and bring to 1-L volume
with DI water’
C. Sodium Chloride Solution (NaCl), 0.01 N
• Dissolve 0.585 g dried sodium chloride in DI water, and bring to 1-L
volume with DI water.
Procedure:
 Pipette 5 - 10 mL soil saturation extract into a wide-mouth porcelain
crucible or a 150- mL Erlenmeyer flask.
 Add 4 drops potassium chromate solution.
 Titrate against silver nitrate solution until a permanent reddish-brown colour
appears.
 Always run two blanks containing all reagents but no soil, and treat them in
exactly the same way as for the samples. Subtract the blank titration reading
from the readings for all samples.
Calculations:
C 1(meq/L) = (V–B)×N×R×1000
Wt

For Chloride in soil:

Where: V = Volume of 0.01 N AgNO3 titrated for the sample (mL).
B = Blank titration volume (mL)
R = Ratio between total volume of the extract and extract volume used for titration.
N = Normality of AgNO3 solution.
Wt = Weight of air-dry soil (g)
Standardization of AgNO3
• Titrate 10 mL 0.01N of sodium chloride solution against 0.01 N silver
nitrate solution after adding 4 drops potassium chromate solution until a
permanent reddish-brown colour appears.
NAgNO3 = 10 x NNacl
VAgno3
• Take the reading, and calculate AgNO3 normality:

Where: NAgNO3 = Normality of AgNO3 solution.
VAgNO3= Amount of AgNO3 solution used (mL).
NNaCl = Normality of NaCl solution.
Fig-2.7 Showing chloride content

2.9 Determination of Iron content in soil

Apparatus:
 Beaker.
 Pipette.
 Volumetric flask.
 Crucible.
Reagents:
A. Stannous chloride (Sncl2),
• Dissolved 5g of the sample in 5ml of hydrochloric acid. Dilute to 50ml with
water filter it not clear and heat the filtrate or clear solution to boiling.
• Add 5ml of Barium chloride. Digest in a covered beaker on a steam bath and
allow to stand overnight. No precipitate forms.
B. 0.1N K2Cr2O7 solution.
• 49.031gm of K2Cr2O7 dissolved in 1000ml of distilled water – 1N
• 1.226gm of K2Cr2O7 dissolved in 250ml of distilled water – 0.1N
C. 0.1FAS solution.
• 392.13gm of FAS in 1000ml of distilled water- 1N
• 3.9213gm of FAS in 250ml of distilled water - 0.1N
D. Diphenylamine indicator.
• 1gm of indicator in 100ml of conc.H2SO4
E. 2N H2SO4
• 11.2ml conc.H2SO4 in 250ml of distilled water given -2N

Procedure:
Estimation of Iron (Fe) volumetrically:
 The above obtained filtrate is diluted to 250ml this solution is used for the
estimation of iron volumetrically and estimation is carried out making use of
iron.
 Pipette out 25ml of Fe solution into a 250ml conical flask. Heat the solution
to boiling to this hot solution add Sncl2 solution dropwise until the yellow
colour of Fe solution disappears.
 Allow the solution to cool. Add 10ml of Hgcl2 solution at once a white ppt
is obtained. (if black ppt reject it),
 To this solution add 5ml H3po4 and 20ml of 2N H2SO4 and 8 – 10 drops of
diphenylamine indicator. The whole solution is titrated against 0.1N
K2Cr2O7 solution until a violet colour is obtained.
Calculation of Iron volumetrically:
In burette : 0.1N K2Cr2O7 solution.
In conical flask : 25ml of reaction mixture.
Indicator : Diphenylamine indicator.
End point : Violet colour
B.R×C.F×10×10
Percentage of Fe =
Wt. of soil
Percentage of Fe2O3 = % of Fe x160

112

Fig-2.8 showing
iron(Fe) content in soils
2.10 Determination of available
phosphorus in soil
Apparatus:
1) Spectrophotometer
2) Pipette, beakers.
Reagents:
• Molybdate reagent.
• Stannous chloride (Stock solution) Fig 2.9 Spectrophotometer
• Stannous chloride (working solution)
• Activated carbon.
• Bicarbonate extractant
Principle
The soluble phosphates form complexes with molybdate forming
ammonium phosphomolybdate which gives blue color. The intensity of blue color
in the solution is proportional to the concentration of the phosphates.
Procedure
Extraction: (Olsen’s method)
Add 50ml of the bicarbonate extractant to 100ml conical flask containing 2.5gm of
soil sample add 1gm activated carbon. Shake 30mins and filter Development of
color take 5ml of filtered soil extract deliver 5ml of the molybdate reagent dilute to
about 20ml with distilled water shake and add 1ml of stannous chloride solution
fill to the 25ml mark and shake thoroughly read the blue color after 10mins on
spectrophotometer at 660nm wavelength
Formula:
P of (kg/ha) S= (A/1000000) x (50/2) x (2000000/5) = 4A
Where A= amount of phosphorous observed in the sample on the std. curve Weight
of soil taken =5g

Volume of extract=50ml
Volume of the extract taken for estimation =5ml
Volume made for estimation= 25 ml
Amount of phosphorous observed in the sample on the standard curve= A mg
Chapter-3
RESULTS AND DISSUCIONS

3. RESULT AND DISSUCIONS pH NATURE
3.1 pH of Soil (Raichur areas) 1-6 Acidic
7 neutral
Result:
8-14 basic
Soil samples pH Level
Sample – 1 7.08 Neutral Table3.1(b):standard
Sample – 2 5.62 Acidic values
Sample – 3 7.48 neutral
Sample – 6 6.35 Acidic
Table 3.1(a)
pH
8
7
6
5 pH
4
3
2
1
0
Sample – Sample – Sample – Sample – Sample – Sample – Sample – Sample – Sample – Sample –
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig: 3.1 Showing pH of soils
Discussion:
The pH factor of soil reflects its acidity level, which is important to consider
because all plants require different levels for the proper growth. The soil acidity
level also affects the dispersal of other important nutrients in the soil, and an
imbalance can block a plants ability to absorb them. The optimal pH range for
most plant is between 5.5-7.0.if the soil is acidic (2-5) it becoming to plant growth.
The acid of the soil reduces biological nitrogen fixation, and acid soils are
susceptible to erosion and computation. The alkalinity impairs plant growth by
restricting water Supply to the roots, thus obstructing root development. The
alkalinity results to phosphorous and zinc deficiency and boron toxicity.
3.2 Organic matter of soil (Raichur areas)

Result:
Soil samples % of Organic Standard Rating Organic matter

carbon range
Sample – 1 1.05 >0.75 High Range Level
Sample – 2 0.68 0.5-0.75 Medium
<2.5 low
Sample – 3 0.58 0.5-0.75 Medium
Sample – 4 1.18 >0.75 High 2.5 to 5 medium
Sample – 5 0.61 0.5-0.75 Medium
Sample – 6 1.2 >0.75 High >5.0 high
Sample – 7 0.58 0.5-0.75 Medium
Sample – 8 0.59 0.5-0.75 Medium Table3.2(b):standard
Sample – 9 1.29 >0.75 High values
Sample – 10 0.44 0.4-0.75 Medium
Table 3.1(a)
1.4 1.29
1.18 1.2
1.2 1.05
1
0.61000000
0.8 0.68 0000001
0.58 0.58 0.59
0.6 0.44
0.4
0.2
0
Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
–1 –2 –3 –4 –5 –6 –7 –8 –9 – 10
% of organic carbon
Fig:3.2 Showing % of organic carbon
Discussion: Soil organic carbon is one of the most important constituents of the
soil due to its capacity to affect plant growth as both a source of energy and a
trigger for nutrient availability through mineralization. It is main source of energy
and nutrients for soil microorganisms. A direct effect of poor soil organic carbon is

reduced microbial biomass, activity, and nutrient mineralization due to shortage of

energy sources. In non-calcareous soils, aggregate stability, infiltration, drainage,
and airflow are reduced. Higher levels of soil organic carbon reduce the buik
density. Certain plants produce materials that are harmful that are harmful to other
plants. Alternatively, some organic material is released as a plant decomposes that
suppresses the growth of other plants.
3.3 Calcium and magnesium in soil (Raichur areas)

Result:
Soil Experimental Ca Experimental

samples Mg
Sample – 1 5.1 1.12
Sample – 2 5.7 1.7
Sample – 3 4.1 1.43
Sample – 4 3.9 1.93 Range calciu magnesium
Sample – 5 2.4 2.74 m
Sample – 6 3.9 2.21
Sample – 7 2.85 1.64 low <2meq <1meq
Sample – 8 3.54 1.18
Sample – 9 3.8 2.74 high >2meq >1meq
Sample – 10 2.9 2.3 table 3.3(b) standard values
Table 3.3 (a)
6 5.7
5.1
5
4.1
4 3.9 3.9 3.8
3.54
2.74 2.85 2.74 2.9

3
2.4 2.3
2.21
1.93
2 1.7 1.64
1.43
1.12 1.18
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Experimental Ca Experimental Mg
Fig 3.3 showing Ca and Mg
Discussion:

Ca: The calcium help to correct soil acidity help to improve soil structure,
provide proper condition for microbiological growth. And it also helps to regulate
the nutrient absorption into the plants. If ca deficiency in soil it leading to stunted
plant growth and curling of the leaves. Excess of calcium is unlikely to toxicity in
and of itself. It can reduce the uptake of other nutrients.
Mg:
Mg has important role in photosynthesis because it forms the central atom of

chlorophyll. It is also active in the metabolism of phosphorous. If excess of
magnesium there is stunted plant growth and black patches on leaf. If magnesium
deficiency in soil, plants begin to degrade the chlorophyll in the old leaves. This
causes the main symptom of chlorosis.

3.4 Electrical Conductivity (Raichur areas)

Result:
Standard values (room temperature 250c)
Soil samples Electrical conductivity (ms/m)

Sample – 1 212.6
Sample – 2 134.03 Soil Electrical
Sample – 3 158.66
conductivity
Sample – 4 223.3
Sample – 5 296.6 Normal soil <400
Sample – 6 197
Sample – 7 224 Saline soil >400
Sample – 8 180
Sodic soil <400
Sample – 9 201
Sample – 10 127 Saline-Sodic soil >400
Table 3.4(a)
Table3.4(b)
Electrical conductivity (ms/m)

Electrical conductivity (ms/m)
296.6
212.6 223.3 224

197 201
180
158.66
134.03 127
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig 3.4 Showing electrical conductivity
Discussion:

Electrical conductivity is an indication of the availability of nutrients in the soil.

Sample number 5, contains high electrical conductivity indicates high available of
nutrients. Higher electrical conductivity hinders nutrients uptake by increasing the
osmotic pressure of nutrient solution. Sample number 10, contains low electrical
conductivity it indicates an exchange of nutrients. Lower electrical may sanity
effect plant health and yield.
3.5 Moisture content in soil (Raichur areas)

Result:
Soil samples % % of moisture

of
Sample – 1 moisture7.5
Sample – 2 5.7
Sample – 3 7.7
Sample – 4 5.9
Sample – 5 6.4
Sample – 6 7.8
Sample – 7 5.2
Sample – 8 7.2
Sample – 9 4.5
Sample – 10 5.5
category
slightly wet 5-15
moderately wet 15-30
extremely wet 30-50
Table 3.5(b) standard values
Table3.5(a)

9
8 7.7 7.8
7.5
7.2
7 6.4
5.7 5.9
6 5.5
5.2
5 4.5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
% of moisture
Fig 3.5 showing % of Moisture
Discussion:
Soil moisture is a measure of how wet or dry the soil is. Each plant species need a
different range of soil moisture in order to absorb water and nutrients efficiently
and stabilize the plant.Some need very wet roots while others need very dry roots
with minimal moisture. Too much of moisture can lead to a number of problems. It
can leching of nutrients, root rot, fungal problems and lack of growth. High soil
moisture increases soil compaction caused by field traffic and machinery. The
lower limit of moisture n longer contains sufficient water to maintain normal
growth and vigoro of plants.
3.6 Water holding capacity (Raichur areas)

Result:
Calculation
Water holding capacity = Y-Z/X *100
Where = Y = Volume of H2O added to soil

Soil samples %of water holding
Z = Volume of H2O collect in ml
capacity
X = Sample – 1soil in gm
Weight of 55
Sample – 2 46
Sample – 3 Water holding59 capacity
Sample – 4 61
Sample – 5 50
Sample – 6 49
Sample – 7OF CHEMISTRY64
DEPARTMENT RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 48
Sample – 8 56
Sample – 9 52
Sample – 10 48
soil type
Clay 80%-100%
loamy 85%-90%
loamy sand 30%-50%
silt loam 60%-75%
silty clay loam 80%-90%
Table 3.6(a) table 3.6(b)
70 61 64
59 56
55 52
60 50 49
46 48
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
%of water holding capacity
Fig 3.6 showing % of water holding capacity
Discussion:
From water holding capacity we came to know that which type of soil holds high
amount of water. Sample 7 which is from gorkal is having more water holding
capacity, due to lake is present near to that field. Already we know that clay type
of soil hold a high amount of water due to the space between the clay particle.

3.7 Particle density (Raichur areas)

Result: Standard values
Textural classes Particlede

nsity
Soil samples Particle density in in
g/cc g/cc
Sample – 1 2.188 Couse sand 2.655
Sample – 2 2.285 Fine sand 2.654
Sample – 3 2.221 Silt sand 2.798
Clay sand 2.837
Sample – 4 2.417
Sample – 5 2.235
Sample – 6 2.421
Sample – 7OF CHEMISTRY
DEPARTMENT 1.962
RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 50
Sample – 8 2.334
Sample – 9 1.455
Sample – 10 2.642
3
2.64
2.5 2.417 2.42 2.33
2.188 2.285 2.221 2.235
1.96
2
1.45
1.5
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Particle density in g/cc
Fig 3.7 showing particle density
Discussion:
a. From particle density we come to known that which type of soil is
b. present. Sample number 3 which is from jukur is having clay type of soil.
c. Clay type of is a heavy soil type, that benefits from high nutrients. Clay is
remain wet and cold in winter and dry out in summer.
3.8 Chloride (Raichur areas)

Result:
Soil samples Chloride content in Range In Level

soil(ppm)
ppm
Sample – 1 5.3
Sample – 2 7.9 0-7 Very low
Sample – 3 8.1
Sample – 4 6.3 8-15 low
Sample – 5 5.6
Sample – 6 5.8 16-22 medium
Sample – 7 6.1 22-30 high
Sample – 8 7.3
Sample – 9 4.5
Sample – 10 5.6
table 3.8(a) table3.8(b)standard values

9
7.9 8.1
8 7.3
7 6.3 6.1
6 5.6 5.8 5.6
5.3
5 4.5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chloride content in soil(ppm)
Fig 3.8 showing chloride content in soils
Discussion:
All samples have low chloride content in soil i.e., in between 2-8ppm.low chloride
is not harmful to plane but is undesirable in excess.
3.9 iron (Fe) (Raichur areas)

Result:
Standard value
High Low Medium
iron Excess >4.5 Difficult <2.5 Sufficient 2.5-4.5
Table 3.9b standard values
Soil samples % of Iron (fe)

Sample – 1 4.1
Sample – 2 5.1
Sample – 3 3.4
Sample – 4 5.6
Sample – 5 6.2

Sample – 6 3.1
Sample – 7 3.6
Sample – 8 2.2
Sample – 9 3.9
Sample – 10 4.2
7 6.2
5.6
6 5.1
5 4.1 4.2
3.9
3.4 3.6
4 3.1
3 2.2
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
% of Iron (fe)
Fig 3.9 showing % of iron(Fe) in soils
Discussion: Sample number 8 and sample number 6 have less iron content in the
soil. Due to lack of nutrients in the soil.
3.10 Phosphorus (Raichur areas)

Result: Standard values
Available phosphorus
(Kg/ha)
Soil samples available phosphorus
Range level
Sample – 1 29.31
<31 Low
Sample – 2 35.01
31-55 Medium
Sample – 3 36.08
<55 high
Sample – 4 27.31
Sample – 5 23.91 Table 3.10(a)
Sample – 6 25.42
Sample – 7 23.75
Sample – 8 34.48
Sample – 9 35.87
Sample – 10 24.65
Table 3.10(b)
40 35.01 36.08 34.48 35.87

35 29.31
27.31
30 23.91 25.42 23.75 24.65
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
available phosphorus
Fig 3.10 showing available phosphorus
Discussion: Highest phosphorous is in sample 3 (jukur) and lowest is in sample

7(gorkal). Higher concentration can cause the growth of algae and large aquatic
plants. Lower concentrations reduce the yield, restrict the energy utilization by
plants.
Function: store and transfer energy produced by photosynthesis. Promote root

growth and it is essential for cell diffusion. By adding manner and composite we
can maintain the phosphorous concentration in the soil.
CONCLUSION
In soil analysis, there are ten processes which is soil sampling technique,
determination of water content, determination of organic matter, determination of
PH, determination of Particle density, determination of Water holding capacity,
determination of calcium and magnesium, determination of conductivity of soil,
determination of Chloride, Estimation of soil. Raichur different areas of soil
samples are used in soil analysis, the soil is extracted successfully.
The pH of soil indicates more then it Alkalinity or Acidity strength it affects the
relative availability of nutrients the soil life and the type of plants the relative
availability of nutrients the soil life and the type of plants that will thrive (pH
varies from 4.0-8.0) In the determination of pH level of soil sample, soil samples
of Raichur areas are slightly alkaline that is pH- 7.45.
In the determination of organic matter, Raichur (jukur,walkamdinni,gorkal) area
soil has the medium percentage of organic matter (0.5-0.75%), where as in the
Raichur area has medium as well as high in OC (>0.75%) Soil organic carbon
significantly improves the soil capacity to store and supply essential nutrients

(such as N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) and retain toxic elements. It allows the soil to cops
with changes in soil acidity and helps minerals to decompose faster.
In the determination of calcium and magnesium content in soil samples of Raichur
area has medium content in phosphorous. Ca: If Ca deficiency in soil it leading to
stunted plant growth and curling of the leaves. Excess of calcium is unlikely to
toxicity in and of itself. It can reduce the uptake of other nutrients.
Mg: If excess of magnesium there is stunted plant growth and black patches on
leaf. If magnesium deficiency in soil, plants begin to degrade the chlorophyll in the
old leaves. This causes the main symptom of chlorosis. It is a measure of the
amount of salts in soil, it is an excellent indicator of nutrient availability and loss.
In the determination of moisture content, soil samples of Raichur areas are medium
moisture content in soil. The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water
present in the soil it is commonly expressed as amount of water (in mm) water
depth.
The result of moisture content in percentage of mass basic range between 5.7 and
7.7 present. Moisture content is very low, the soil is dry condition. A low particle
density (<1.0g/cm3) indicates high organic matter content. It also provides
information about the potential release of carbon from the soil into the atmosphere
as the organic matter decomposes over time.
It has been concluded that chloride content in the soil of the study area range from
0.01 to 0.99% and with an average of 0.5. The maximum value found in at depth 4-
6 m while the minimum value found in location at depth 4.6. (8-10 and 14-16m) in
aerated soils. Iron is readily oxidized to its ferric state and forms a group of highly
insoluble ferric oxides and hydroxide minerals. Therefore, after some physic-
chemical analysis, it is felt that slightly increase in the nutrients and this soil is
suitable for plantation.

REFERENCES
1. http://en.mWikipedia.org. Wiki > Soil
2. http:// WWW.clearias.con. >soils of India (2015)
3. http:// courses. Soil. Ncsu.edu/resource/composition/compo3b.png
4. http.com soil profile, Article by Sonia madaan(2016)
5. http.com.soil horizon, article by Priyadarshir(2017)
6. http://www.hunker.com. soil uses (2011)
7. http:com importance of soil analysis, article by Tanja Folnovic. (2014)
8. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au <soils>
9. Physical and chemical methods of soil and water analysis. FAO soil bulletin 1
10. Vlab. Amrita.edu,.( 2013). Soil analysis.
11. Olsen, S. R., Cole, C. V, Watanabe, F. S. and Dean, L. A.
12. (1954).https:googleweblight.com. Analysis of Ca and Mg- Article by B.B.

Tucker and L. T. Kurtz2,3
13. https:// serc. Carleton. edu (TDS)
14. Subbiah, B.V. and Asija, G. L. (1956). A rapid procedure for the estimation of
nitrogen in soils. Curr. Sci., 25: 259-260.
15. Belchev, D.J. (1952). The measurement of soil moisture and density by neutron
and gamma ray scattering. Highway Res. Board Spl. Rpt. 2:98-110.
16. Black, C. A. (1965) Methods of soil analysis part I Am. Soc. Agron. Inc. Publi.
Madison Wisconsin USA.
17.Soil Survey Staff (1961). Soil Survey Manual, Soil Conservation Service, U.S.
Dept. Agri. Washington, D.C.
18.Soil Survey Staff (1999). Soil Taxonomy: A basic system of Soil Classification
for making and interpreting soil surveys, Agri. Hb 436. USDA Washington, D.C
19. Brady Weil: “The nature and soils properties”. 14th Edition.
20. Shubhrata R. Mishra “Hand Book of soil Science” Discovery Publications
New Delhi, First Edition; 201.
21. Environmental conservation and sustainable Development, Chawla P. S., Pearl
books, New Delhi, First Edition., 2011.
22. Fundamentals of soil and water conservation Engineering ,Sawant B.P, Awari
H.W, Kamble A.M, Tekale D.D, Current Publications, Agra- I, Edition., 2010.
23. Text Book of Environmental Science and Technology, Rajaram Choyal, RBSA
Publications, Jaipur, 2012.
23. Environmental and Agriculture pollution, Phul Kumar Gaur, RBSA
Publications, Jaipur, 2011.
24. Vogal A.I. A Text Book of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis, Green: London;
1961.
25. Laboratory Manual for Environmental Chemistry, Dr. Sunits Hooda, Dr.
Sumanjeet Kaur. S. Chand and Company ltd. Ramnagar, New Delhi, 2001. Jamie
Bartram and Richard Balance, UNEP / WHO, 1996. S. Rangaraj, T.
Elamapooraam, KP. Elango and V. Ramalingam, India Poll. Res., 1996, 15: 325.

Soil Analysis in Raichur District

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Analysis in Raichur District

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ANALYSIS OF SOIL SAMPLES OF SURROUNDING AREAS OF RAICHUR DISTRICT

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 1

Fig-1.1 (Example of soil)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 2

Fig 1.2 different types of soils

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 3

Silt soil is composed of clay, mud, or small rocks deposited by a lake or

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 5

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 6

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 7

l) Saline and Alkaline soil:

Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient

Fig -1.3 Composition of soil

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 9

1. Mineral matter obtained by the disintegration and decomposition of rocks;

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 10

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 11

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 12

1.3 Soil Profile:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 13

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 14

1.4 Uses of soil:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 15

g) Soil organic matter:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 16

1.5 Soil analysis:

Soil analysis implies:

1.6 Objectives of soil testing:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 17

e. To study the various physic-chemical properties of soil.

1.7 Plant nutrients in the soil:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 18

Phosphorus helps transfer energy from sunlight to plants, stimulates early

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 19

1.8 A) Trace elements:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 20

needed by legumes. It is also essential in the formation of proteins from soluble

1.9 Study area:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 21

Fig – 4 Raichur district map

1.10 Procedure for sampling

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 22

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 23

Fig-1.4 Procedure for sampling

Fig-1.5 Collection of different types of soils

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 24

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 25

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 26

2.2 Determination of the organic carbon in soil:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 27

c) Diphenyl amine indicator

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 28

2.3 Determination of calcium magnesium

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 30

2.4 Electrical conductivity (EC)

Fig-2.3 Conductivity cell

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 32

2.5 Determination of moisture content in the soil

Fig 2.4 Oven

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 33

2.6 Water holding capacity

Fig-2.5 showing water holding capacity

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY RAICHUR UNIVERSITY RAICHUR Page 34