Soil

The soil is the part of the earth’s surface which includes disintegrated rock, humus, inorganic and
other organic materials that provides the medium for plants growth. For the formation of soil, it takes
around hundreds to thousands of years. The soil is usually generated when rocks break up into their
constituent parts. When a range of different forces acts on the rocks, they break into smaller parts to
form the soil. These forces also include the impact of wind, water and the reaction from salts.
There are three stages of soil:

 Solid soil,
 Soil with air in the pores,
 Soil with water in the pores.
There are various types of soil that undergo diverse environmental pressures. The soil is mainly
classified by its texture, proportions and different forms of organic and mineral compositions.
The soil is basically classified into four types:

 Sandy soil.

 Silt Soil.

 Clay Soil.

 Loamy Soil.

 Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy
soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients
and poor in holding water, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This
type of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the
breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz.

Example of Plant in Sandy soil

Shrubs and bulbs such as Tulips, Tree mallow, Sun roses, Hibiscus. Vegetable root
crops like carrots, parsnips and potatoes favour sandy soils. Lettuce, strawberries,
peppers, corn, squash, zucchini, collard greens and tomatoes are grown commercially
in sandy soils
 Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is
made up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than
clay. It is the smooth and quite fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand.  Silt
is easily transported by moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other
water bodies. The silt soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore
it is also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility.

Example of Plant in Sandy soil

Shrubs, climbers, grasses and perennials such as Mahonia, New Zealand flax.
Moisture-loving trees such as Willow, Birch, Dogwood and Cypress do well in silty
 soils. Most vegetable and fruit crops thrive in silty soils which have adequate
adequate drainage.
 Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in this
soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This soil has
very good water storage qualities and making hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It
is very sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dried.  Clay is the densest and
heaviest type of soil which do not drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish.

Example of Plant in Sandy soil

Perennials and shrubs such as Helen’s Flower, Aster, Bergamot, Flowering quince.
Early vegetable crops and soft berry crops can be difficult to grow in clay soil
because of its cool, compact nature. Summer crop vegetables, however, can be
high yielding vigorous plants. Fruit trees, ornamental trees and shrubs thrive on
clay soils.
 Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such that the
beneficial properties from each is included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture
and nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as
an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials being
sandy, clay, and silt and it also happens to have hummus.  Apart from these, it also has
higher calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins.

Example of Plant in Sandy soil

Climbers. bamboos, perennials, shrubs and tubers such as Wisteria, Dog’s-tooth
violets, Black Bamboo, Rubus, Delphinium. Most vegetable crops and berry crops
will do well since loamy soil can be the most productive of soil types. However,
loamy soil requires careful management to prevent depletion and drying out.
Rotating crops, planting green manure crops, using mulches and adding compost
and organic nutrients is essential to retain soil vitality.
 Peaty Soil
Peaty soil is a darker soil and feels damp and spongy due to its higher levels of
peat. It is an acidic soil which slows down decomposition and leads to the soil having
fewer nutrients. The soil heats up quickly during spring and can retain a lot of water
which usually requires drainage. Drainage channels may need to be dug for soils with
high peat content. Peat soil is great for growth when blended with rich organic matter,
compost and lime to reduce the acidity. You can also use soil amendments such as glacial
rock dust to raise pH in acidic soils.

Example of Plant in Sandy soil

Shrubs such as Heather, Lantern Trees, Witch Hazel, Camellia, Rhododendron.

Vegetable crops such as Brassicas, legumes, root crops and salad crops do well in well-
drained peaty soils.
Chalky Soil
Chalky soil is larger grained and generally stonier compared to other soils. It is free
draining and usually overlays chalk or limestone bedrock. The soil is alkaline in nature
which sometimes leads to stunted growth and yellowish leaves – this can be resolved by
using appropriate fertilizers and balancing the pH. Adding humus is recommended to
improve water retention and workability.

Example of Plant in Sandy soil

Trees, bulbs and shrubs such as Lilac, Weigela, Madonna lilies, Pinks, Mock Oranges.
Vegetables such as spinach, beets, sweet corn, and cabbage do well in chalky soils.

Table showing some common pollutants, their sources & their effect on the
environment.

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO): Carbon Monoxide is a highly toxic and dangerous pollutant,

infamous for its lack of identifying color and smell. At one point, this gas was extremely
prevalent in homes for use in domestic heating before it was found to be unsuitable, and it has
since been replaced by much safer solutions such as natural gas and electricity. However, this
gas is far from extinct in human use.

Sources: Most commonly, Carbon Monoxide is produced by combustion engines running

without modern catalytic convertors. Other common sources of Carbon Monoxide are old gas
and fuel appliances, incinerators, and even cigarettes.

Effects: Carbon Monoxide can have a profound effect on the environment as it is extremely
poisonous, and can contribute to very dangerous ground-level air and ozone conditions.

2. Lead (Pb): Lead has long been known to be a dangerous substance. Once commonplace in
nearly all gas and aviation fuels, there has since been tremendous effort to reduce the amount of
lead found in these substances. Since the introduction of lead-free gasoline, the volume of lead in
the atmosphere has dropped enormously.
Sources: While efforts have been made to remove lead from fuel, it continues to be present in
some aircraft fuel. Similarly, the outpouring of lead from metal processing plants, and the release
of lead from waste processes such as incineration and battery acid production means that there is
still enough lead in the air to recognize it as a dangerous pollution.

Effects: Lead can not only poison humans, but it also has a profound effect upon natural
ecosystems. Contaminating air, soil, and water, lead can cause damage to flora and fauna alike.

3. Ozone (O3): Ozone is not inherently bad. After all, the ozone layer is one of the major
protections mankind has against harmful solar radiation. However, ground level Ozone has
become a major problem in recent years.

Sources: Ground level Ozone is formed by chemical reactions between multiple different oxides
found in the air, which – when exposed to sunlight – can form new compounds and leave Ozone
as a by-product. The majority of the emissions which make up Ozone come from the usual
suspects such as car exhausts, factory processing, electric utilities and power plants, and even
some chemical solvents.

Effects: Ozone is a dangerous substance for most living organisms, and as such an increase in
ground level Ozone has a notable effect on human health as well as the overall health of multiple
ecosystems on land and in the seas.

4. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): Nitrogen Dioxide is one of the oxides which can react to produce
Ozone, but that is far from its only negative effect. Nitrogen Dioxide is one of the gases that one
most commonly thinks to when considering air pollution: thick, brown, and choking, it is one of
the more visibly harmful pollutants.
Sources: Nitrogen Dioxide, like many other pollutants, is most often released into the
atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels in car engines, airplane engines, factories, and power
plants.

Effects: In addition to being a choking and obstructive gas in the air, Nitrogen Dioxide also has
the propensity to react with other agents to form nitric acid and organic nitrates, contributing to
the formation of acid rain.

Needless to say, Nitrogen Oxide has a huge effect on humans, increasing the likelihood of
respiratory problems, cancers, and other lung problems. Acid rains produced by Nitrogen
Dioxide are extremely harmful to plants and animals across the world, and can lead to further
problems in water systems.

5. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Sulfur Dioxide is a substance most closely associated with the steam
age and locomotives, as the biggest culprit in its production is coal combustion. However, these
days are not so far gone as you may have thought.

Sources: To this day, locomotives, ships, planes, and other equipment still produce huge
volumes of Sulfur Dioxide. Industrial processes, particularly ore extraction and purification, are
also producers of the gas.

Effects: Sulfur Dioxide, like Nitrogen Dioxide, is a compound which often mixes with
other pollutants in the air to form harmful acids, but it is also harmful on its own. Common
effects of Sulfur Dioxide poisoning are respiratory problems, eye problems, and even heart and
circulatory problems. Importantly, Sulfuric Acid, created by the mixing of sulfur with water, is a
potent acid which is not only destructive to human property but also to trees, soils, and water
systems.
Enumerate law/s related to air pollution
Basic Air Quality Policies

Section 1. Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999."

Section 2. Declaration of Principles. - The State shall protect and advance the right of the people
to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.

The State shall promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while
recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal with environmental problems.

The State recognizes that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment is primarily
area-based.

The State also recognizes the principle that "polluters must pay".

Finally, the State recognizes that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and should,
therefore, be the concern of all.

Section 3. Declaration of Policies. - The State shall pursue a policy of balancing development and
environmental protection. To achieve this end, the frame work for sustainable development shall be
pursued. It shall be the policy of the State to:

(a) Formulate a holistic national program of air pollution management that shall be
implemented by the government through proper delegation and effective coordination of
functions and activities;

(b) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries through the
application of market-based instruments;

(c) Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control and provide for a
comprehensive management program for air pollution;

(d) Promote public information and education and to encourage the participation of an
informed and active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and

(e) Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long-term adverse
environmental impact of a project, program or activity. This shall include the setting up of a
funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and environmental rehabilitation and
compensation for personal damages.

Section 4. Recognition of Rights. - Pursuant to the above-declared principles, the following rights
of citizens are hereby sought to be recognized and the State shall seek to guarantee their
enjoyment:

(a) The right to breathe clean air;

(b) The right to utilize and enjoy all natural resources according to the principles of
sustainable development;
 (c) The right to participate in the formulation, planning, implementation and monitoring of
environmental policies and programs and in the decision-making process;

(d) The right to participate in the decision-making process concerning development policies,
plans and programs projects or activities that may have adverse impact on the environment
and public health;

(e) The right to be informed of the nature and extent of the potential hazard of any activity,
undertaking or project and to be served timely notice of any significant rise in the level of
pollution and the accidental or deliberate release into the atmosphere of harmful or
hazardous substances;

(f) The right of access to public records which a citizen may need to exercise his or her rights
effectively under this Act;

(g) The right to bring action in court or quasi-judicial bodies to enjoin all activities in violation
of environmental laws and regulations, to compel the rehabilitation and cleanup of affected
area, and to seek the imposition of penal sanctions against violators of environmental laws;
and

(h) The right to bring action in court for compensation of personal damages resulting from
the adverse environmental and public health impact of a project or activity.

Section 6. Air Quality Monitoring and Information Network. - The Department shall prepare an
annual National Air Quality Status Report which shall be used as the basis in formulating the
Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework, as provided for in Sec. 7. The said report shall
include, but shall not be limited to the following:

a) Extent of pollution in the country, per type of pollutant and per type of source, based on
reports of the Department’s monitoring stations;

b) Analysis and evaluation of the current state, trends and projections of air pollution at the
various levels provided herein;

c) Identification of critical areas, activities, or projects which will need closer monitoring or
regulation;

d) Recommendations for necessary executive and legislative action; and

e) Other pertinent qualitative and quantitative information concerning the extent of air
pollution and the air quality performance rating of industries in the country.

The Department, in cooperation with the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB), shall
design and develop an information network for data storage, retrieval and exchange.

The Department shall serve as the central depository of all data and information related to air quality.

Section 7. Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework. - The Department shall within six (6)
months after the effectivity of this Act, establish, with the participation of LGUs, NGOs, POs, the
academe and other concerned entities from the private sector, formulate and implement the
Integrated Air Quality Improvement Framework for a comprehensive air pollution management
Biodiversity, advantages & its disadvantages
Advantages:
1) By having more biodiversity the environment can be conserved and
saved from disturbance of ecosystem
2) More plants means the better environment and lesser effect of green
house gases or temperature rising.
3) The biodiversity helps to maintain the food web circle , disturbing
can result in the scarcity of food.

Disadvantage:
1) More biodiversity means more of animals and plants hence the
population and living of humans can be restricted
2) Excess of wild animals can harm the humans
3) The establishment of the forest cause cost.
Make a Diagram of the Rock cycle and discuss briefly in 500 words

Parts of a Volcano
 Magma - Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.
Parasitic Cone - A small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.
Sill - A flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack in a volcano.
Vent - An opening in Earth's surface through which volcanic materials escape.
Flank - The side of a volcano.
Lava - Molten rock that erupts from a volcano that solidifies as it cools.
Crater - Mouth of a volcano - surrounds a volcanic vent.
Conduit - An underground passage magma travels through.
Summit - Highest point; apex
Throat - Entrance of a volcano. The part of the conduit that ejects lava and volcanic ash.
Ash - Fragments of lava or rock smaller than 2 mm in size that are blasted into the air by
volcanic explosions.
Ash Cloud - A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions.

Cross section of a volcano

 The magma chamber is a collection of magma inside the Earth, below the

volcano.
 The main vent is the main outlet for the magma to escape.
 Secondary vents are smaller outlets through which magma escapes.
 The crater is created after an eruption blows the top off the volcano.
An eruption occurs when pressure in the magma chamber forces magma up the main
vent, towards the crater at the top of the volcano. Some magma will also be forced out
of the secondary vent at the side of the volcano.