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EXPERIMENT REPORT ON AGRICULTURAL FIELD SOILS AND THEIR IMPACTS

ON PLANT GROWTH

By Name

Course name+code

Instructor

Institution

Date of Submission
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Introduction

This report is based on the laboratory experiments to examine the impact of various types

of soils on the growth of crop species. The experiments were run in the glasshouse for several

weeks to examine the physical, biological and chemical characteristics of different soils in the

laboratory to make conclusions on the impacts of these characteristics on the growth of plants.

The experiment involves setting up Agricultural field soils and amendments in pots .The

experimental design consists of four soil types and three replicates. There’s an additional four

pots with each of the four soils inoculated with a mycorrhizae fungi preparation. Measurements

on soil were taken over time for example bulk density, texture and pH of soil. Germination of

seeds, plant growth rate and root health condition measurements were then taken which were

used to draw conclusions on the impacts of soil characteristics on growth of plants.

Soil Physical Characteristics

The physical characteristics of soil can impact how well seeds germinate and the quantity

of fertilizer application required. Soil physical characteristics involves the various types of soil

texture, consistency and structure - which all consist a huge effect on seed germination. The soils

from Wongan Hills and the pot experiment soils composed mainly of gravel with red brown clay

loams mixed in; yellow sandy gravel mixed with sandy duplex and even red loamy gravel mixed

with red loamy duplex. Each type of soil has its own particular texture, consistency and structure

that can affect seed germination.

The texture of the soil is basically its size and grade starting from larger rocks to finer

particles: sand, silt, clay. The different percentages of various soil types sum up the proper ratio

for nutrients and water to be available for a plant's growth. For instance, sandy loam is a mixture

of 50 percent sand and 50 percent silt without any clay component. A mixture of the three soil
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components is called loam which gives room for optimal nutrient levels to be available as well as

enough water retention to prevent the plants from becoming dehydrated during hot weather

periods1.

Soil structure refers to the way in which soil particles are aggregated together: loose or

tight. Loose soil can create a lot of constraints for seeds because it makes them increasingly

vulnerable to wind, animals and even root rodents. Tight soils like red clay have a slowed seed

germination due to decreased aeration for seed germination. The texture that you have can also

determine this very well. Red loamy and red loamy duplex soil that is loose has difficulty in

holding soil particles has low water retention capacity hence will affect the rate of seed

germination. The yellow sand in Wongan Hills is associated with very gently undulating

topography well aerated for faster seed penetration and favourable amount of water retention.

The sandy duplex was associated with lower slopes and flow lines and was subject to

waterlogging and salinity which lowered seed germination of the wheat seedlings.

Soil water

Silt and clay are both good for water retention, however silt helps hold on to water better.

Soils with huge amounts of silt will adequately be more "sticky" during planting time to plant a

plant into the soil. Clay is more less able in holding on to moisture than silt even though it still

helps the soil to retain some moisture. While working with clay, you'll want to set plants against

a gentle slope that can get off some excess water of the ground (compared to planting straight up

and down). On the other hand, Sand is much more difficult to retain water compared to clay or

silt soils.

1
Pitts, Kari M., and Richard M. Clarke. "The forensic discrimination of quartz sands from the Swan Coastal Plain,
Western Australia." Forensic Science International: Reports 2 (2020): 100130.
 4

When the soil is sandy, there'll be numerous crumbs that fall away through the fingers.

This therefore means that there is more than one particle size present in the sample. Sand, silt

and clay are the three most common soil textures. Sand consists of an open structure and is made

up of large particles. It's easily compressed by high winds and equipment and it drains off

quickly. The open structure consequently makes it easy for water to penetrate through. Silt is

made up of medium sized particles, however it’s a little more tightly packed than sand so that it

will not drain off very well. Clay, on the other hand, consists of very small particles; however

since the particles are coated with microscopic layers of iron oxides, they bond closely together

enough to stop the water from draining off through freely2.

Soil Water Repellence

Water repellence involves the decomposing of water repelling or hydrophobic waxy

material emanating from plant materials which coats soil particles stopping the penetration of

water into the profile of soil. Soils with little surface area are widely prone to water repellence as

it takes less water repelling material in coating individual particles in comparison to clay and silt.

The outcome of water repellence is overly unequal water distribution in the soil profile which

causes the development of patched plant growths3. Shifting from a completely wet and dry soil

may make it hard to manage the sowing depth leading to more problems with the establishment.

Water may still be ponded on the surface of soil to evaporated or taken away as runoff.

Unavailability of plant cover and huge summer and autumn rainfall can lead to runoff and soil

erosion on sloppy sites.

2
Stuart-Street, Angela, Nicolyn Short Dr, Paul Galloway, and Noel R. Schoknecht. "A simple guide for describing
soils." (2020).
3
Hall, D. J. M., H. R. Jones, W. L. Crabtree, and T. L. Daniels. "Claying and deep ripping can increase crop yields
and profits on water repellent sands with marginal fertility in southern Western Australia." Soil Research 48, no. 2
(2010): 178-187.
 5

Causes of Water Repellence

Natural vegetation forms waxy, hydrophobic residues, therefore new shaped agricultural

land and natural landscapes are likely to show more susceptibility to non-wetting. Cereals never

form hydrophobic residues and as a result it’s worth the breakdown on the pasture state on weak

soils to stop build-up of water repelling material. Hydrophobic residues can also be produced

from fungi. As waxy residues from the plants are ineffectively broken by their movement

through the sheep, then the sheep camps will be more hydrophobic due to the organic residue

accumulation.

Managing Water Repellence

Even if the options exist to control non-wetting in hydrophobic soils, the overall cost and

processes of management may be past the expected benefits. Examples of methods include;

addition of clay to water repelling layers should raise the surface area of the spoils, hence

reducing water hydrophobic. The goal is to raise the clay matter in the soil profile surfaces to

6%. Other ways for controlling water repellence involve: Furrowing, growing species adapted to

hydrophobic soils to raise enough water infiltration into soil, agents of soil wetting, using of wax

disintegrating bacteria to break down chemical bonds and lessening the quantity of legumes in

rotation.

Soil Chemical Properties, Soil pH and Liming and Soil Salinity

The experiment from pot and Wongan Hills soils aimed at investigating the chemical

properties of soils and exploring the relationship existing in soil texture and buffering capacity

which explains why acidity in the soils is a concern in Western Australia.

Soil pH is a beneficial indicator of the level of acidity in the soil. The pH ranges within a

scale of 0 to 14, and the soil is given a value from that range to explain the level of alkalinity.
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The of pH 7 lies in the midst of the scale, pH values equating to 7 are said to be neutral while the

pH values that lie below 7 are acidic and those above 7 are alkaline. In acidic soils plant growth

is lessened, in acid to neutral pH most plants develop well while in very acidic soils the Al and

Mn is high which is toxic to plants4.

By definition, the pH of a soil is the measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions

in soil water. The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil water, the lesser the pH.

Therefore, the less the pH value, the greater the alkalinity of the soil. The hydrogen ions

concentration in the soil water is in direct proportional to and in balance with the hydrogen ions

sustained on the cation exchange of the soil. Therefore, the hydrogen ions sustained by clay

particles buffer the ions in soil solution. Soil pH is a beneficial soil property, because it impacts

the chemical, biological, and physical processes of the soil.

Lime plays a key role in farming. The addition of lime increases rhizobium survival and

nodulation of legumes, increases plant availability of nitrogen, phosphorus and molybdenum,

decreases available aluminium levels and has the adverse effect of increasing the incidence of

take-all and Rhizoctonia solani insusceptible areas and decreases plant availability of copper,

manganese and zinc.

Buffering capacity is the capability of the soil to go against change. In incidence of

alkalinity, it is the capability of the soil to stop change in pH. Thus, aluminium and hydrogen of

a certain pool will buffer the aluminium and hydrogen of other pools as these acidic cations are

pulled off. For instance, as aluminium and hydrogen are pulled off from soil water, the alkaline

cations of the CEC buffer the soil water. On the same note, minerals consisting aluminium and

hydrogen dissolve and produce the cations while they are ejected from the exchangeable pool.
4
Kalkhoran, Sanaz Shoghi, David Pannell, Tas Thamo, Maksym Polyakov, and Benedict White. "Optimal lime rates
for soil acidity mitigation: impacts of crop choice and nitrogen fertiliser in Western Australia." Crop and Pasture
Science 71, no. 1 (2020): 36-46.
 7

Salinity has two effects on plant development through osmotic potential impact on plant

water intake and certain ion toxicities. By reducing the osmotic potential of the soil water, plant

accessibility to soil water is reduced due to the decrease in sum total of soil water potentiality.

While the soil dries off the concentration of minerals in the soil water rises further reducing the

osmotic potential. Therefore, to sustain water uptake from acidic soils, plants must adjust to the

osmotic potential. This is completed through either by taking up mineral salts and aggregating

them within the plant tissues or synthetization of the organic solvents5.

Soil Carbon and Carbon Exchange Capacity

The percentage of organic matter content in the pot experiment soils was determined and

the carbon exchange capacity of the pot experiment soils estimated using the Gentian Violet Dye

test. The growth stages of the plants in all the soils were determined using Zadok’s code which

determined the effects of soil carbon and carbon exchange capacity on plant growth.

Carbon is an important nutrient for most plants. Carbon is part of the organic matrix in a

plant, which contains the carbon skeletons of sugars, phosphates, and amino acids. This organic

matrix allows plants to take up water and other nutrients from the environment. Because carbon

is so important to plants, it is considered an essential nutrient that a plant must have in order to

survive. Carbon also plays an integral role in photosynthesis, which recycles CO2 back into the

atmosphere through the process of oxygenation. Carbon also influences biodiversity because it

influences how many different species are present in a given habitat. Carbon also affects plant

productivity because it is involved in leaf development, growth, and photosynthesis6.

5
Kalkhoran, Sanaz Shoghi, David Pannell, Tas Thamo, Maksym Polyakov, and Benedict White. "Optimal lime rates
for soil acidity mitigation: impacts of crop choice and nitrogen fertiliser in Western Australia." Crop and Pasture
Science 71, no. 1 (2020): 36-46.
6
Yost, Jenifer L., and Alfred E. Hartemink. "Soil organic carbon in sandy soils: A review." Advances in agronomy
158 (2019): 217-310.
 8

Plant roots are an important factor in the carbon sequestration process. Carbon is stored

in many different components of plants such as leaves, stems, and roots. Roots can absorb or

store carbon either through a process called symbiosis, where photosynthesis takes place inside

the plant and is shared between the plant and soil microbes which live in the root system, or

through acquisition of carbon during exudates (sap) from other parts of the roots that are actually

removed from the root system for storage.

Soil Biology

A soil type, defined by its texture and the chemical properties of its components, can

have a significant impact on the nature of the soil microbiology. As with most biological

processes, microbial activity is influenced by environmental conditions including temperature

changes and pH levels. Soil properties are also critical because they control moisture infiltration

rates which play a large role in maintaining microclimate stability and influencing plant growth.

Soil types vary significantly in structure and composition. Different types of soils are

known to influence levels of microbial activity. From the pot experiment soils with higher

moisture content tend to have more microbial activity e.g. the Red clay loams. This can

negatively impact the ability of plants to absorb nutrients because they may not be fully available

within the soil profile. Soils with high organic matter content tend to be warmer and more

sheltered which leads to a slower rate of microbial decomposition.

Structure determines physical properties that impact microbial activity including

permeability, porosity and tilting potential. Soil particles differ widely in shape, size and

chemical composition. Their specific shape impacts nutrient holding capacity, moisture

infiltration and water retention capacity as well as microbial activity by affecting water flow into

and out of the soil profile. Soil particle sizes also vary widely and impact both microbial activity
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and plant growth by affecting plant root penetration into the soil surface. Different soil types

hold different amounts of water, nutrients and organic matter which affects both microbial

activity and plant growth.

Soil Nutrient Analysis: Phosphorous, Nitrogen and Potassium

The concentration of phosphorous available in the soils from the pot experiments was

determined in the laboratory. Solvita Labile Amino-Nitrogen Test (SLAN) was used to calculate

the nitrogen reserves in the pot experiment soils and the Hanna Quick Test Kit used to measure

the NPK of the pot experiment soils. The shoot and root dry weights from the pot experiments

were recorded.

These three nutrients––phosphorous, nitrogen and Potassium---are essential for plants’

health. Behind all the other nutrients like potassium, phosphorous is the most abundant nutrient

in the soil so it usually isn't a concern when applications are made without excessive amounts.

But these are some of the most important nutrients to plant nutrition:Phosphorous,like nitrogen

and Potassium, provides energy and a host of other benefits to plants.Phosphorous,in the form of

phosphate (Pi), is the most important of the 14 elements involved in

photosynthesis7.Phosphorous deficiencies often occur in acid soils that have a high pH.

From the pot experiment Phosphorus uptake was generally better on sandy loam soils

than on clay loams because of their higher cation exchange capacity (CEC). Nitrogen is the most

important element used by plants because they can’t make protein without an adequate supply of

nitrogen in the soil8.

7
Duncan, Elliott G., Cathryn A. O’Sullivan, Margaret M. Roper, Jody S. Biggs, and Mark B. Peoples. "Influence of
co-application of nitrogen with phosphorus, potassium and sulphur on the apparent efficiency of nitrogen fertiliser
use, grain yield and protein content of wheat." Field crops research 226 (2018): 56-65.
+
8
Kalkhoran, Sanaz Shoghi, David Pannell, Tas Thamo, Maksym Polyakov, and Benedict White. "Optimal lime rates
for soil acidity mitigation: impacts of crop choice and nitrogen fertiliser in Western Australia." Crop and Pasture
Science 71, no. 1 (2020): 36-46.
 10

Conclusion

There’s a variety of Agricultural field soils which have different soil constraints that

impact plant growth. This constraint can be diagnosed by first heading to the paddock and

digging up the soil and plants to make observations on the physical, chemical and biological

parameters. This pot experiment was done on different soils from the pot experiment soils and

one site at Wongan Hills paddock which involved sand (yellow, duplex and gravel), red-brown

clay loamy, red loamy (gravel and duplex) whose physical, chemical and biological

characteristics showed how they affect plant growth specifically on wheat seedlings germination.

References

Davies, Stephen, Giacomo Betti, Tom Edwards, Glenn McDonald, David Hall, Geoff Anderson,
Craig Scanlan et al. "Ten years of managing water repellent soils research in Western
Australia–a review of current progress and future opportunities." Proceedings of the 2019
GRDC Research Update (2019): 25-26.
Duncan, Elliott G., Cathryn A. O’Sullivan, Margaret M. Roper, Jody S. Biggs, and Mark B.
Peoples. "Influence of co-application of nitrogen with phosphorus, potassium and sulphur
 11

on the apparent efficiency of nitrogen fertiliser use, grain yield and protein content of
wheat." Field crops research 226 (2018): 56-65.
Hall, D. J. M., H. R. Jones, W. L. Crabtree, and T. L. Daniels. "Claying and deep ripping can
increase crop yields and profits on water repellent sands with marginal fertility in
southern Western Australia." Soil Research 48, no. 2 (2010): 178-187.
Harms, Ben. "To B and not B2–the Australian soil horizon system: history and review." Soil
Research (2023).
Kalkhoran, Sanaz Shoghi, David Pannell, Tas Thamo, Maksym Polyakov, and Benedict White.
"Optimal lime rates for soil acidity mitigation: impacts of crop choice and nitrogen
fertiliser in Western Australia." Crop and Pasture Science 71, no. 1 (2020): 36-46.
Pitts, Kari M., and Richard M. Clarke. "The forensic discrimination of quartz sands from the
Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia." Forensic Science International: Reports 2
(2020): 100130.
Stuart-Street, Angela, Nicolyn Short Dr, Paul Galloway, and Noel R. Schoknecht. "A simple
guide for describing soils." (2020). Wilkes, Thomas I., Douglas J. Warner, Veronica
Edmonds-Brown, Keith G. Davies, and Ian Denholm. "A comparison of methodologies
for the staining and quantification of intracellular components of arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi in the root cortex of two varieties of winter wheat." Access Microbiology 2, no. 2
(2020).
Teng, H. F., RA Viscarra Rossel, and R. Webster. "A multivariate method for matching soil
classification systems, with an Australian example." Soil Research 58, no. 6 (2020): 519-
527.
Unkovich, Murray, Therese McBeath, Rick Llewellyn, James Hall, Vadakattu VSR Gupta, and
Lynne M. Macdonald. "Challenges and opportunities for grain farming on sandy soils of
semi-arid south and south-eastern Australia." Soil research 58, no. 4 (2020): 323-334.
Yost, Jenifer L., and Alfred E. Hartemink. "Soil organic carbon in sandy soils: A review."
Advances in agronomy 158 (2019): 217-310.