Author: Manuj Notebook: Environment and Geography

Created: 25 July 2015 at 12:47:45 PM

Updated: 22 May 2021 at 1:31:58 PM

Soil Profile, formation and Soils of India and Livestock

Manuj Jindal Soil Types

Ancient Classification of soil — (1) Urvara (fertile) (2) Usara (sterile)

Survey resulting in classification of various soils:

Soil Formation
Factors required for formation of soil

1. Rock
Parent rock leads to the formation of soil due to its erosion; soil is made up
of erosion of parent rock
It provides soil minerals, texture, structure, pH value, porosity
Soft rocks — better soil formation than hard rock (water retention is higher in
soft rock, hard rock soil is coarse and grainy)
2. Climate
Temperature and Rainfall impact the formation of soil
Dry Region — wind erosion is more active
Cold region — glacier
Wet region — water
Climate decides intensity of soil formation as well
3. Relief
Steep gradient of relief — thin, under developed soil
Plain (low relief) — thick, well-developed soil
4. Biota
 Living organisms (biota) such as Micro-organisms help in enrichment of soil
Roots of vegetation — agents of weathering
Humus content from vegetation provides nutrients to soil
Microorganisms and other insects also lead to weathering of rocks to form
soil
5. Time
Passive or indirect factor
Soil-formation is a long-term process; happens over very long periods of
time

Transportation in Soil
Movement of minerals in the soils is known as transportation in soil

1. Capillary
Upwards movement from bottom to top in soils
Happens generally in Hot and dry climate
In this climate — evaporation is fast
Salts within the soil come out to the upper layer with the water that is
evaporating
These salts are left over on the surface of the soil
These are Calcium salts
2. Leaching
Downward movement from top to bottom of soils
Happens in humid conditions
Hot Humid Climate:
Leads to formation of Latosol or Lateritic Soil
If heavy rainfall is happening, than the silica from top of soil moves
downwards — however, Iron and Aluminum remains in the upper
layers itself
Therefore, iron and aluminum is excessive in upper soil — appears
Red in color
Low fertility (however, large trees can be developed here)
Cold Humid Climate:
Leads to formation of Podzol Soil
In cold and humid climate, Iron and Aluminum move downwards and
silica remains upwards, therefore giving gray color to the soil — this is
Podzolic soil
Low fertility (however, large trees can be developed here)
3. Gleying
In swampy-peat soils
Tarai, Mangrove region
Bluish in color
Excessive potassium salts

Soil Profile

Different layers of soil have different properties — physical and chemical

Horizons of soils:
O = organic dust, leaves and nutrients
 A = topsoil with nutrients — most important for plant life
E = transition zone
B = Sub Soil (fine grains)
C = weather parent rock — large granules
R = Bed rock (not useful)
Erosion — loss of A and E
B cannot support plant life
Extreme soil erosion — lose B as well

Leaching:

A layer is leached
B layer enriched
Latosol A (Al, iron), B (Silica)
Podzol A (silica), B (Al, iron)

Capillary:

A layer is enriched
A layer will have Calcium, or Sodium salts

Soil Erosion and Conservation

 Loss of topsoil leads to soil erosion
70% of India’s land is dry land and more vulnerable to erosion and weathering

Human Induced reasons for soil erosion:

Deforestation
Sand mining
Brick Making
Overgrazing
Faulty-grazing practices
Lack of crop-rotation leading to exhaustion of soil nutrients
Ploughing along the slope with no barrier — loss of top soil
Implications of soil erosion:
Loss of top soil
Loss of ground water level
Natural vegetation is lost
Rivers and canals siltation
Frequency of floods and drought will increase
Events of landslides will increase

Soil Conservation

Structural Solutions
1. Construction of retaining walls on slopes
2. Strengthening of walls along the water banks
3. Stone-pitching
4. Wire-netting
5. Tri-pods or tetra pods along the water bodies
6. Groin or Groyne along the coastal areas (vertical banks on coastal areas)
7. Multi-purpose dams on rivers
Non-structural or sustainable solutions
1. Afforestation
2. Discourage cultivation on marginal lands (on less fertile lands)
3. Practice Agro-forestry
4. Terrace farming
5. Contour Bunding
6. Basin-listing (small canals or holes that decrease speed of water)
7. Agro-practices:
1. Soil-mulching (always covered with grass or vegetable growth)
2. Crop-rotation
3. Relay farming (multiple crops in the same field continuously one after
the other; like a relay race)
4. Strip farming (rows or layers of multiple-crops in the same field, one
next to each other)
5. Organic farming
6. Use of bio-fertilizers
8. Wind Erosion Control:
1. Transverse Farming — trees are planted in such a manner around the
farm that they block the winds
2. Shelter belts — retaining walls on border area to stop soil from flying
 away

Soil Nutrients:

1. Ideal ration of NPK = 4:2:1, but in India, ratio has become: 8:4:2

Green Manure

Prior to sowing of crops, sun hemp or guar is sown in the soil and then mulching is
done.
Then these are ploughed into the soil itself.
This helps in enriching N, P
Discourages weeds, and leaching

Vermi-composting

Earthworms, vegetables and waste of natural veggies etc. is used

Increases aeration of soil
Water holding capacity of this soil will increase
Improves root growth
Soil Salinity (from too much water that evaporates)
Reasons:

1. Arid Region — excessive evaporation leads salts to rise up on the top layer
2. Bad drainage — Terai region, Basin topography of Punjab and Haryana, and black
cotton soil (clay content is large so its water holding capacity is large, and over-
irrigation can lead to water logging in this soil)
3. Faulty agro practices — over irrigation
4. Water seepage from nearby canals
5. Sea water seepage with salts into the coastal areas

Soil salinity leads to:

1. Presence of salts such as sodium, calcium and manganese in top layer

2. Soil fertility is reduced
3. Choice of crops becomes very limited to only salt resistant crops such as cotton
and barley
4. Quality of fodder is also reduced in these soils
5. Water logging also happens as salts prohibit entry of water

Solutions:

1. Soil washing
2. Improving drainage — laying down pipes under ground and pump out excessive
water
3. Lining of canals to avoid seepage
4. Amendments: Add Gypsum or Sodium Pyrite to conserve soil
5. Discourage use of ground water
6. Agro-climatic farming
7. Dryland farming, grass farming etc.

Desertification

Extreme form of land-degradation in semi-arid or sub-humid areas.

“Expansion of desert”
Rajasthan Thar desert sand dunes evade the Rajasthan Bagar region (fertile region)
— hence desertification eastward
Desertification cannot be reversed
Soil and region can only be preserved from getting evaded
Construction of retaining walls
Cultivation of trees on the margins of the desert
Transverse farming
Cultivation of grasses on sandy land — sand dunes are stabilized and their
transportation is holder

Types of Soils in India:

1. Alluvial Soils
Cover over 42% of the country’s area.
Due to deposition of rivers
Lacks phosphorus
Vary from sandy loam to clay.
Rich in potash (therefore more basic) and poor in phosphorous.
Sand content decreases from west to east, and becomes more clayey and
loamy.
Color: light grey to ash grey.
2. Red and Yellow Soils
25% of India
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the
eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
Formed due to erosion of Granite and Gneissic rocks — having Iron
and Nickel in abundance
Rich in Lime, Phosphate, Iron, Potash and Humus (lacks Nitrogen and
Phosphorus)
Maximum crop-diversity can be supported on this soil
Very vulnerable to soil erosion
Also, along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is
occupied by red loamy soil.
Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in
the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in
crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile, whereas coarse-
grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility. They are generally
poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.
3. Black Soils
15% of India
Covers Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
Also known as “Regur Soil” or “Black Cotton Soil"
Clayey, deep and impermeable
Swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
Develop cracks in dry season
Hence, “self ploughing” occurs in these soils when they dry up as they
crack.
Rich in lime, iron, magnesia, and alumina. Also contain potash (K) but lack in
nitrogen and phosphorus.
4. Laterite Soils (Latosol)
Develop in areas of high rainfall and temperature.
Result of intense leaching in tropical rains.
Lime and silica are leached downwards, and soils are rich in iron oxide and
aluminum compound is left behind. (Iron and Alum)
Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in
high temperature.
These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and
calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not
suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures and fertilizers are
 required for making the soils fertile for cultivation. GOOD for manure and
fertilizers applications.
Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more
suitable for tree crops like cashew nut and Tapioca.
Two crops — cashew nut and Tapioca (Ok in lateritic soil)
Widely used for brick making in the south
This area is also rich in Bauxite — eastern Ghats, Telangana, KN plateau
5. Mountain Soil
Very thin layer of soil here
Under-developed soil horizon
Can support grassland and scrubs only
Podzolic soil is found here (silica in upper layers)
Chelation process — leaves of coniferous trees covered with chelating agent
(glossy component on top of the leaves) — these leaves are hard to degrade
because of the chelation process on leaves
Cold climate also leads to slow bacterial processes and hence even slower
degradation of leaves
6. Arid Soils or Desert Soils
Red to brown in color.
Generally, sandy in structure and saline in nature.
Salt is too high in some areas.
Western Rajasthan.
Little humus.
However, good in micro-nutrients and can support agro if water is present
7. Mangroves Soil
Gleying process
8. Saline Soils (or Alkaline soil)
Also known as “Usara” soils
Large quantity of sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
Farmers can add gypsum in these soils to solve the problem of salinity
Excessive irrigation causes soils to become saline as well.
Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes capillary
action, which results in the deposition of salt on the top layer of the
soil.
9. Peaty Soils
Found in areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity where there is good
growth of vegetation.
Lot of humus and organic content in the soil.
As much as 40-50% organic material.
It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal
and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
10. Forest Soils
Loamy and silty
Land Usage in India
Gross Sown Area vs. Net Sown Area
Net Area Sown: This represents the total area sown with crops and orchards. Area sown
more than once in the same year is counted only once.
Gross Cropped Area: This represents the total area sown once and/or more than once in a
particular year, i.e. the area is counted as many times as there are sowings in a year. This
total area is also known as total cropped area or total area sown.

India should increase GCA and not NAS

Cropping Intensity = GSA/NSA
India’s CI = 40%
CI should be as high as = 160%
Punjab’s CI = 187%
Seed Mission

Ministry of Agriculture
Launched in 12th FY Plan
For major 45 crops
To enhance the SRR (Seed Replacement Rate)
Increase quality of farm saved seeds
Increase the production of certified quality seeds
Seed reserves at regional levels
Upgradation of PSUs producing seeds
Seed Bill introduced in 2004
Register all seed production with govt. agency
Transgenic seeds to be registered after appropriate trials and tests
Regulate production, sale and distribution of seeds
JC Kumarappa Committee — first committee to look into land reforms in India after
independence

ICAR — National Agro-Reserach Project

4 objectives:

1. Ecological Status
2. Socio-economic status
3. Cropping-pattern
4. Bottlenecks to growth

Irrigation

Only 44% of Gross Sown Area is irrigated

Three main types in India:

1. Canal Irrigation
Ancient form of irrigation — Indus valley etc.
Easy to construct in Northern area where rock is soft; hard in peninsular area
where rock is hard
Canal irrigation today is part of multi-purpose valley projects, along with
drinking water, irrigation, hydro electricity and fishing
Water is stored in reservoir in the dams and then distributed by canals
Least efficient system in India
Efficiency of canal system depends on its reservoir and dam
Problems:
Silting
Seepage losses (leads to water logging problem)
Evaporation losses
Submergence of lands in surrounding areas
Prone to disputes as well
Under-use — not fully used even after setting up — only 70% usage
Expensive for farmers to implement canals in their fields
Command Area Development Program to enhance use of irrigation
2. Tank Irrigation
Prevalent in South India
Hard rock bed therefore canals hard to make
Ancient practice
Locally constructed and managed
Scattered population supports this
3. Tube-well Irrigation
Most convenient, cheap and affordable
False sense of surplus: Most unsustainable and very harmful to ground water
and its misuse
Causes soil salinity as water is brought up
Livestock
Largest population of livestock in India — 17% of world population
64% of this population is buffalo
Rate of milk growth is high (4.2%)
Dairy Development:
Amul Model
Kheda dist. farmers registered as cooperative of milk producers in 1946
Tribhuvan Das persuaded these Kheda farmers to do so
Amul does not only collect and distribute but also research and
development, artificial insemination, veterinary facilities, insurance cover, and
quality green fodder
Marketing — Gujarat Cooperative Marketing Association set up
1964: Lal Bahadur Shastri initiated all states to set up cooperative diaries on
Anand pattern
NDDB set up in Anand
17% of world’s milk output is in India — largest in the world
National Livestock Mission
Dept. of Animal Husbandry — Agriculture Ministry
Fodder and feed development —> to meet scarcity of animal feed resource
“Feed Security Bill” — To decide pricing of milk policy
Milk Credit card at minimum level of interest
Gobar bank — Fertilizers and biogas
Universal vaccination of cattle
Issue of shortage of veterinary doctors — university set-up
National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development
Rashtriya Gokul Mission
Fishery:
75% production from western coast
Marine: Gujarat > Kerela > Maha > TN > AP
Inland: West Bengal > Gujarat > Kerela > AP > Maha
Blue Revolution
Started in 1970 — 5th FYP
Fish-farmers agency
AP shrimp production highly boosted — Nellor in AP is shrimp capital of
India
“Brackish Water” aqua-culture
 Carp production in AP

“Yellow" Revolution — Pulses