Earth Science
SOIL AND MAN
Vermicomposting
The enhancement of organics in soil is one
component of soil conservation. Soil
conservation could be done through
vermicomposting, a process that uses
earthworms such as African night crawlers
(Eudrilus eugeniae) to turn organic wastes into
very high-quality composts which can then be
mixed with soil to enrich its organic content.
The Components of Soil
-Soil is made of Geosphere , atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is generally
composed of 45% mineral (gravel, sand, silt, and
clay) 25% air, 25% water, and 5% organic matter
roots, (humus and dead and decaying
organisms).
-Soil forms when rock weathers. Weathering, or
the breakdown of rocks, may result from a
physical or chemical change. Soil formation
may be a slow or a rapid process, depending on
the factors at play.
There are five factors that affect soil formation:
Composition of the Parent Material
Climate
Topography
Biological factors
Time.
1. The parent material - is crucial in making soil
because it decides what kind of soil will be
created and how other factors will affect it.
Some soils form right where the rocks break
down, and these are called residual soils. But
usually, soil gets moved from one place to
another by things like water, wind, and ice.
2. Climate - Temperature, rainfall, and moisture
affects the pattern and intensity of soil-forming
processes such as weathering, leaching,
transportation, and distribution. Climate also
affects the type of organisms, biological activity,
and rates of chemical reactions. Thus, soil types
vary depending on climate.
3. Topography - or the shape of the land, plays a
big role in soil formation. Steep slopes make
soil thinner because erosion happens faster.
The direction the slope faces (slope aspect)
affects how warm and wet it gets. This makes
different soils in different places.
4. Biological factors - Living things, like plants,
animals, tiny creatures, and people, affect how
soil forms. They dig, mix, and change it. People
can help or harm the soil when they farm or
build in cities.
5. Time - Making soil takes a really long time,
like hundreds to thousands of years. In mild
places, it takes 200 to 400 years to make just 1
cm of soil. It's quicker in warm, tropical areas
and much slower in dry and cold ones.
Soil profile
➢Soil formation happens slowly, and it creates
different layers called soil horizons, each with
its unique traits.
➢Scientists have a system to categorize soils, which
helps them study and use them better. At the highest
level, there are 12 types, known as soil orders
1.Gelisols - Frozen soils found in the coldest
regions on Earth
2.Histosols - high organic content and wet
3. Spondosols - sandy and acidic soils found in
moist climate that often support dense forest
4.Andisol - composed of volcanic ash
5. Oxisols - very weathered and common in
tropical climates
6. Vertisols - claylike soils that shrink and swell
7.Aridisols - very dry soils in arid regions
8.Ultisols - weathered soil
9.Mollisols - deep and fertile soil
10. Alfisols - moderately weathered productive
soils found in temperate and humid regions
11. Inceptisols - slightly developed, young soil
found on steep slopes and mountain
12. Entisols - newly-formed soils found in
steep rocky lands
Soil and soil Quality
Soil is not dirt-it is a resource. It is a main
component of land resources, agriculture, and
ecological sustainability. It also provides food
and a foundation for shelter. Soil is important in
sustaining man's existence and provides
humans with the following services:
1. Arable land for agriculture - arable lands are
plowable lands which could be used to grow
crops. An important component of arable lands
is soil that can sustain plant and animal life.
2. Regulating water and filtering potential
pollutants - In the water cycle, soil plays an
important part in absorbing water and storing it
as groundwater, Water and dissolved solutes
also flew over the land or into and through the
soil.
3. Nutrient cycling - Soil is like a recycling
center for important nutrients like carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorus. These nutrients are
stored, changed, and reused in the soil. For
example, nitrogen from the air needs bacteria to
convert it into a form that plants can use, and
this happens in the soil. Soil plays a key role in
these nutrient processes.
4. Foundation and support - Soil structure
provides a base for plant roots. Soils along the
bedrock also provide foundation support for
human shelter and structures such as houses
and roads.
5. Mineral deposits - Some soils, known as
laterites, are rich in minerals like iron, nickel, and
aluminum. They form in hot and wet tropical
regions through long-term chemical changes in
the rocks beneath them. These soils often have
a reddish color due to their high iron content.
They can be mined for these valuable minerals.
How Human Activities Degrade Soil Qualities
➢Soil is a crucial yet finite resource that can't be
quickly replaced. It's often underappreciated.
Our growing population is pressuring soil
through intensive farming, urbanization, and
more.
➢The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (UN FAO) defines soil degradation
as when soil health declines, reducing its ability to
provide what the ecosystem needs. Degraded soil
can't properly support its environment.
1. Soil erosion refers to absolute soil losses in
terms of topsoil and nutrients. It is indeed the
most visible effect of soil degradation. Soil
erosion is a natural process but is often made
much worse by poor management practices.
2. Soil compaction reduces the amount of air,
water, and space available to roots and soil
organisms. An example of compaction is
caused by repeated traffic or traveling on wet
soil.
3. Desertification is when land becomes so
damaged that it can't go back to its original
state. It happens due to human actions and
overuse, leading to droughts and dry conditions.
This is a big problem for soils worldwide and
impacts a significant part of the global
population and land, about one-sixth and a
quarter respectively.
4. Intensive Farming. Since the 1960s, farming
has become more intense to feed more people.
But it has problems like using heavy machines,
cutting down forests, and damaging the land.
This hurts the soil, making it lose quality and
harming the creatures that keep soil healthy.
5. Urbanization, the growth of cities and a rising
population has led to land being turned into
urban areas filled with concrete buildings, roads,
and pavement. This is a problem for soil
because once it's covered in concrete, it's tough
to undo. This stops the soil from doing its job,
like cycling nutrients and supporting the
environment.
5 Practical Ways to Conserve Soil
1. Plant trees and ground cover. They protect
against erosion by wind and soften the impact
of rain. Roots also stabilize and enrich the soil.
2. Use "no-dig" gardening. Digging can harm
soil structure, making it prone to erosion by
wind and water.
3. Don't compact soil. Avoid walking on wet soil.
Make designated paths in gardens and natural
areas.
4. Hiking tip: Don't take shortcuts that harm
plants and cause erosion.
5. Manage rainwater runoff. Create channels
and drains to stop soil erosion.
Conservation Of Soil Resources
We can reduce the impact of human activities
on soil by practicing sustainable soil
management. This means adding more organic
matter, keeping the soil covered with plants, not
tilling too much, using nutrients carefully, using - evaporation of water from the leaves and
crop rotations, preventing erosion, and avoiding stems of plants.
soil compaction. CONDENSATION
- the change from vapor into liquid.
1.Boost soil health by adding more organic PRECIPITATION
matter, which enhances structure and helps with - water droplets or ice crystals in the clouds
water and nutrient retention. become large and heavy.
2.Protect soil by keeping it covered with plants, SUBLIMATION
creating homes for soil organisms, and - a process where ice directly transforms water
improving water access. This can be done by to water vapor.
leaving crop leftovers or planting cover crops. INFILTRATION
3. Minimize excessive tillage to keep soil - rain that falls into the land surface penetrates
structure intact and prevent erosion. the soil.
4. Efficiently manage pests and nutrients by HYDROGEOLOGY
regularly checking soil conditions and pests, and - study of the distribution, availability and the
using chemicals only when needed, in the right flow of groundwater
amounts, and at the right time.
5.Improve soil by rotating crops over time, EARTH’S WATER
which allows the soil to recover and diversifies
plant and organism life. EARTH’S WATER BUDGET
6. Prevent erosion by covering and vegetating - Total amount of water in the planet that
the ground and managing excess water. To stop generally remains constant through time.
soil compaction, limit human activity to
designated areas and paths. THE UNITED NATIONS WATER DEVELOPMENT
characterized the amount of water in different
WATER RESOURCES reservoir’s
Hydrosphere
-part of Earth’s subsystem containing the ocean, 97.5% ocean (largest reservoir)
lakes, streams, underground water, snow and 2.5% freshwater
ice. 68.7% glaciers
-makes up about 71% of Earth’s surface 30.1% ground water
0.8% permafrost
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
•Earth is the only planet where water in its liquid RESIDENCE TIME
exists. In the form of ice and vapor. - Average length of time spent by water
•Water cycle molecules in a reservoir.
•Movements of water around Earth's surface
and its subsystems. SALTWATER RESERVOIR

TYPES OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLES SALINITY

1.Evaporation - saltiness if salt water
2.Transpiration
3.Condensation 3 MAJOR ZONE IN THE OCEAN
4.Precipitation
1. surface layer
EVAPORATION 2. thermocline
- A process in which liquid water changes into 3. deep zone
vapor.
- occurs in the ocean, surface water bodies and SURFACE LAYER
soil. - Consists of relatively warm, low density water.
TRANSPIRATION THERMOCLINE
- temperature of water decreases rapidly •LAKES
DEEP ZONE - large inland bodies of fresh or saline water.
- Temperature is uniformly low •PONDS
GLACIERS AND ICE SHEETS - small shallow lakes.
GLACIER •DAMS
- permanent body of ice, which consists largely - barriers
of recrystallized snow.
ICE SHEET GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES FROM NATURAL
- mass of glacial land ice LAKES
PERMAFROST - water will accumulate behind the barrier and
- soil, rock, or sediments are frozen for more will form a lake
than 2 consecutive years. - provides freshwater for irrigation, industrial,
municipal, residential and recreational purposes.

WETLANDS
SURFACE WATER RESERVOIRS - land areas where water covers the surface for
significant periods.
SURFACE WATER - biologically diverse environment filled with
- includes the stream, lakes and wetlands. species that rely on both land and water for
Where water from rainfall, melting snow, and ice survival.
and groundwater flaws
TYPES OF WETLANDS
TYPES OF RESOURCES 1. MARSH- shallow wetland
1. irrigation 4. fishing 2. SWAMP- wetland with lush trees
2. recreation 5. drinking 3. ESTUARY- partly enclosed coastal waters.
3. transport 6. hydropower
FLOODS
•STREAM - natural event wherein an area that is usually
- moving body of surface water. dry is submerged under water.

FLUVIAL/RIVERINE FLOOD
•CHANNELS - when a stream discharge is greater than the
- passageway where particles and dissolved capacity of the channel.
substances are transported.
•RIVER TYPES OF FLOODS
-stream with a considerable volume and a well 1. FLASH FLOODS- high velocity of torrent of
defined channel. water.
•TRIBUTARIES 2. COASTAL FLOODING- low-lying areas along a
- smaller stream. flood.
•DRAINAGE BASIN OR WATERSHED 3. PLUVIAL- heavy rainfall creates a flood.
- land area in which the water flows into a
particular stream. GROUND WATER
•DRAINAGE DIVIDE - fresh water found in the rock and soil layers
- line that separates individual drainage basins. beneath the surface
•INTERFLUVE - largest reservoir of liquid freshwater on Earth.
- elongated land form separating individual AQUIFERS
streams. - water bearing rock layers.
•OVERLAND FLOW POROSITY
- water moves downhill - total amount of empty pore spaces in the rock.
•STREAM FLOW PERMEABILITY
- water enters the channel.
- ability of the rock or sediments to allow water - water flows underground and contributes to
to pass through. the groundwater.
GROUNDWATER PROFILE
- when a well is excavated in the ground, the first GAINING OR EFFLUENT STREAM
layer encountered is the moist layer on the - streams that are fed by underground water.
surface.
ZONE OF AERATION WATER AS A RESOURCE
- spaces between the particles are filled mainly Most of the early human civilization developed
with air. along the world’s greatest river’s- the Tigris and
ZONE OF SATURATION Euphrates of Mesopotamia, the Nile River, and
- layer beneath the zone of aeration. the Yellow river of the Huang-He civilization.
WATER TABLE Their vast floodplains supported agriculture and
- boundary between the zone of aeration and the large channels allowed commerce to flourish.
zone of saturation. Today, billions of people are still dependent on
CAPILLARY FRINGE water channels for food, water, transportation,
- directly above the water table recreation, and religious activities.
TOPOGRAPHY
- shape of the water table. ACTIVITIES AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF
WET SEASON WATER
- The water table is found at shallow depths. Throughout the world, there is an increasing
DRY SEASON pressure on Earth’s water resources, mainly
- migrates deeper below the ground. because of human activities that sped up and
caused climate change and variations in natural
AQUIFERS, ARTESIAN WELLS AND SPRINGS conditions. the human activities affecting water
UNCONFINED AQUIFER resources include the following:
- groundwater is free to rise to its natural level.
1. Population growth, particularly in water-short
regions.
CONFINED AQUIFER 2. Movements of large numbers of people from
- water is trapped and held down by pressure the countryside to towns and cities.
between impermeable rocks called aquiclude. 3. demands for greater food security and higher
ARTESIAN WELL living standards.
- water could rise on this well without pumping if 4. increased competition between different
the well is located at an elevation uses of water resources.
RECHARGE ZONE 5. pollution from factories, cities, and
- land area where water enters the ground and farmlands.
replenish the groundwater
DISCHARGE ZONE •The degradation of ecosystems occurs due to
- groundwater flows out of the aquifer and onto changes in landscapes that lead to too much
land surface or even in a submarine soil and sediments delivered to streams in a
environment. process of sedimentation.

SPRING •Mining in certain metals have also caused

- ground water emerges to the ground surface.
GROUNDWATER-STREAM RELATIONSHIP
- interaction between groundwater flow and
streamflow.
LOSING OR INFLUENT STREAM
surface water to become acidic, producing a
discharge called acid mine drainage.
•Improper waste disposal also contributes to
the degradation of streams and lakes in urban
areas.
•The consequence of excessive groundwater
withdrawal includes spring yields, diminished
river flow, poorer water quality, damage to
natural habitat and the gradual sinking of land
known as subsidence.

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND

CONVERSION
involves planning, developing, distributing, and
managing the optimum use of water resources

Examples:
1. RAINWATER HARVESTING
- for direct consumption and for replenishment
of groundwater
2. Diversion of surface water into basins in
recharge zones to increase infiltration, reduce
evaporation, and improve water quality.
3. building of dams and reservoirs to provide
additional storage.

•(current technological advances make the

wastewater reusable after extensive treatment
to remove biodegradable materials, nutrients,
and pathogens)
•In the middle east, countries in coastal areas
practice desalination
•DESALINATION- reduction of mineral content
by taking salt out of seawater and brackish
water to produce freshwater.