Environment The Science Behind the

Stories Second Canadian Edition with

MyEnvironmentPlace Canadian 2nd
Edition Withgott Solutions Manual
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7
Soils Resources

Chapter Objectives
This chapter will help students

Delineate the fundamentals of soil science, including soil-forming processes

Describe some important properties of soil

Characterize the role of soils in biogeochemical cycling

Identify the causes and predict the consequences of soil erosion and soil
degradation

Outline the history and explain the basic principles of soil conservation

Lecture Outline
I. Central Case: Mer Bleue: A Bog of International Significance
1. Mer Bleue is a conservation area just east of Ottawa in an
old channel of the Ottawa River.
2. The bog has a number of unusual plant species that are
specially adapted to moist, boggy acidic conditions.
3. It is representative of the peat bogs of Canada.
4. Canada’s peatlands are among the most extensive in the
world.

II. Soil as a System

A. Soil is a complex, dynamic mixture
1. Parent material is the base geological material in a location.
It may be composed of volcanic deposits, glacial deposits,
sediments from wind or water, or bedrock.
B. Soil formation is slow and complex

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 1. The weathering of parent material is the first step in the
formation of soil.
2. Weathering takes place through the physical, chemical, and
biological processes that break down rocks and minerals.
3. Erosion, the process of moving soil from one area to another,
may contribute to the formation of soil in one locality even
as it depletes topsoil from another.
C. A soil profile consists of layers known as horizons
1. Soils from different locations differ, but soil from any given
location can nonetheless be divided into recognizable layers,
or horizons.
2. The cross-section from bedrock to surface is the soil profile.
3. Many soil profiles contain an uppermost layer consisting
mostly of organic matter; this layer is designated the O
horizon (O for organic).
4. Just below the O horizon in a typical soil profile is the A
horizon (topsoil), which consists of mostly inorganic
mineral components with some organic matter and humus.
5. Unsustainable agricultural practices can cause degradation
and loss of topsoil. This depletes the soil’s fertility over time.
6. Beneath the A horizon is the E horizon, also known as the
zone of eluviation.
7. Leaching picks up particles in the soil and transports them
elsewhere, generally downward.
8. Materials leached from the A and E horizons are carried
down into the layer beneath them, the B horizon (subsoil).
9. The C horizon, beneath the B horizon, contains rock
particles that are larger and less weathered than the layers
above.
10. The C horizon sits directly above the R horizon, which is
also known as the parent material, or bedrock.
D. Soils vary in colour, texture, structure and pH
1. Canadian soil scientists have classified soils into 10 major
groups, based largely on the processes thought to form them.
2. Soil colour is an indicator of soil composition and
sometimes soil fertility.
3. Soil texture is determined by the size of particles and is the
basis on which the USDA assigns soils to one of three
general categories:
a. Clay consists of particles less than 0.002 mm in
diameter.
b. Silt consists of particles 0.002–0.05 mm in
diameter.
c. Sand is particles 0.05–2 mm in diameter.
d. Soil with an even mix of these particle sizes is
called loam.
4. Soil structure is a measure of the arrangement of sand, silt,
or clay particles into clumps, or aggregates.

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 5. Soil pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity, which
influences its ability to support plant growth.

III. Biogeochemical Cycling in Soil

A. Soils support plant growth through ion exchange
B. Soil is a crucial part of the nitrogen cycle
1. Nitrogen fixation: accomplished when air in the top layer of
soil comes in contact with various specialized nitrogen-
fixing bacteria.
2. Nitrification: process where ammonium ions are first
converted into nitrite ions then into nitrate ions. Plans can
take up nitrate ions as nutrients through their roots.
3. Denitrification: when bacteria convert nitrates in soil or
water into gaseous forms of nitrogen.
C. Soil is an important terrestrial reservoir for carbon

IV. Soil Degradation: A Global Concern

A. Regional differences in soil traits can affect agriculture
1. 1. In swidden agriculture a farmer cultivates a plot for one to
a few years and then moves on to clear another plot leaving
the first to grow back into forest.
B. Erosion can degrade ecosystems and agriculture
C. Soil erodes by several mechanisms
1. These include wind erosion and four types of water erosion:
splash, sheet, rill, and gully.
D. Soil erosion is widespread
E. Desertification reduces productivity of arid lands
1. Desertification is a loss of more than 10% productivity due
to soil erosion, soil compaction, forest removal, overgrazing,
drought, salinization, climate change, depletion of water
sources, or an array of other factors.
F. The Dust Bowl was a monumental event in North America
1. Large-scale cultivation of the southern Great Plains of the
United States, combined with a drought in the 1930s, led to
dust storms, destroying the land and affecting human health
in the Dust Bowl.
G. The Soil Conservation Council emerged from the experience of
drought

V. Protecting Soils
A. Erosion control practices protect and restore plant cover
1. Crop rotation is the practice of alternating the kind of crop
grown in a particular field from one season or year to the
next.
2. Contour farming consists of ploughing furrows along the
natural contours of the land.
3. The planting of alternating bands of different crops across a
slope is called intercropping.
4. Terracing, cutting level platforms into hillsides, is used on
extremely steep terrain.

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 5. Shelterbelts are rows of trees that are planted along the
edges of fields to break the wind.
6. With reduced tillage or no-till method, ploughing is
bypassed as an approach to soil conservation.
B. Irrigation boosts productivity but can cause long-term soil problems
1. Crops that require a great deal of water can be grown with
irrigation, the artificial provision of water.
2. Soils too saturated with water may experience waterlogging,
which damages both soil and roots.
3. An even more frequent problem is salinization, the buildup
of salts in surface soil layers.
C. Other chemicals also contribute to soil contamination
1. Nutrient depletion creates a need for fertilizers containing
nutrients.
2. Inorganic fertilizers are mined or synthetically
manufactured mineral supplements.
3. Organic fertilizers consist of natural materials.
D. Grazing practices and policies can contribute to soil degradation

VI. Conclusion
1. Many policies enacted and practices followed in Canada and
worldwide have been quite successful in reducing erosion.
2. Many challenges remain; better technologies and wider
adoption of soil conservation techniques are needed to avoid
a food crisis.

Key Terms
A horizon extensification
agriculture fertilizer
agroforestry Green Revolution
alley cropping horizon
B horizon humus
bedrock industrialized agriculture
Biological weathering inorganic fertilizer
C horizon intensification
cation exchange intercropping
chemical weathering irrigation
clay leaching
compaction loam
compost mechanical weathering
contour farming monoculture
crop rotation no-till
cropland O horizon
deposition organic fertilizer
desertification overgrazing
erosion parent material

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peat soil profile
permafrost Soil structure
permeability Soil texture
physical weathering subsistence agriculture
porosity subsoil
R horizon swidden
rangeland terracing
salinization topsoil
sand traditional agriculture
shelterbelt waterlogging
silt weathering
soil windbreaks
soil degradation

Teaching Tips
1. Bring soil samples to class on which students can conduct a soil texture “feel test.” In
general, sandy soils feel gritty, silty soils feel like flour, and clay soils are sticky
when moistened. Soils feel different because of the size of the most abundant particle
type.
Particles are categorized as follows:
Sand: 2.0–0.05 mm in diameter
Silt: 0.05–0.002 mm in diameter
Clay: less than 0.002 mm in diameter

2. For students to better grasp the differences in soil particle size, have them visualize a
barrel to represent a sand particle, a plate to represent a silt particle, and a dime to
represent a clay particle. Because most soils are a combination of sand, silt, and clay
particles, soil scientists use a more complicated method to determine the percent
composition of each type. A good addition to this soils lab would be to give each
group of students 100 g of soil from a different location. Have them run the soil
through a set of soil sieves and then weigh the fractions to determine the percent
composition of the different particle types (four or five types, depending on the soil
sieves, ranging from gravel to clay). Have students make a pie chart or a bar graph
illustrating the composition of their soil. Have students compare their results with
those of other groups that have soils from other areas.

3. Soil formation is a very slow process, and in some cases it can take 500 years for one
inch of soil to develop. To emphasize the importance of soil conservation, use the
timeline below to demonstrate the time required to form 2.5 cm of soil:
2002: West Nile virus infects humans in Canada.
1996: The first animal, Dolly the sheep, is cloned from an adult cell.
1989: The Berlin Wall is torn down.
1970: The first Earth Day is celebrated.
1962: The Beatles, a British pop group, make their first recordings.
1945: World War II ends.
1934: Dust Bowl occurs in the Great Plains.

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 1915: Albert Einstein formulates his general theory of relativity.
1885: Canada establishes its first National Park at Banff.
1854: Henry David Thoreau publishes Walden.
1681: The dodo, a large flightless bird, becomes extinct.
1608: Native Americans teach colonists how to raise corn.
1513: Juan Ponce de León discovers Florida.
1500: The Incan empire reaches its height.

4. Demonstrate runoff and erosion. First, put a piece of grass sod on a cafeteria tray.
Have a student pour water over the sod using a watering can or a spray bottle to
simulate rain. Observe the runoff. Repeat this procedure using a pile of loose dirt on a
second tray. Compare the runoff. Repeat the procedure with each tray held at a 20- to
30-degree angle to simulate the problems on slopes.

5. Assign students to read the first chapter of The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck.
This chapter of the classic novel describes the conditions of Dust Bowl Oklahoma
that ruined crops, causing massive numbers of foreclosures on farmland.

6. Contemporary agriculture occupies a large area of the Prairies that was formerly
Tallgrass Prairie. Innovations in agriculture are re-examining the capacity of this
landscape to produce biomass efficiently. Some cattle producers are removing cattle
from large feedlots and returning them to permanent pastures composed of local
native prairie grasses and wildflowers. Native prairie vegetation also has a
tremendous potential to store carbon in its root system. When compared to non-native,
cool-season European grasses commonly planted for hay and pastures, prairie species
are able to absorb and hold much more rainwater and, because of the root system,
more carbon. To prove this to students, secure seeds of common, cool season lawn
grass such as perennial rye and native prairie species such as Big Bluestem, Little
Bluestem, and Side Oats Grama. Have students plant several seeds in clay or peat
pots, place them on a windowsill, and watch the events unfold. When several inches
of growth has accumulated, gently pull the plants near the base and observe the root
system. Depending on the time of year, the prairie grasses will exhibit robust root
growth and might even be pot-bound. Prairies produce two-thirds of their biomass
underground, making them excellent carbon sinks.

7. Use signalling for concept understanding. There are several sets of concepts in this
chapter—soil horizons, types of erosion, and erosion reduction methods, for instance.
A good way to check for understanding is signalling. With the types of erosion, for
instance, give students the following keys:
• Wind erosion: Hold one hand with fingers extended, palm perpendicular to the
desk. The fingers look like a flag blowing in the wind.
• Splash erosion: Hold one hand with palm parallel to and facing the desk, fingers
spread wide apart and angling down toward the desk.
• Sheet erosion: Hold hand with palm parallel to and facing the desk, fingers
straight out and close together.
• Rill erosion: Make a small fist.
• Gully erosion: Hold hand with palm facing up as if cupping a softball or making
the shape of a gully.

Now show students a photo or ask them to decide on the type of erosion that

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 would occur in a particular circumstance. Each student, on your mark, will
indicate the answer with his or her signal. You can instantly tell which students
know the correct answer, which are uncertain (hesitating, glancing around at
others), and which have incorrect answers. This is an easy way to know if you
need to cover a concept more thoroughly or if students are ready to go on.

Discussion Questions
1. What are some of the difference between soil in North America and Sub-Saharan
Africa?

Refer to figure 7.9

2. What are some primary methods of soil erosion?

Wind, water

3. Discuss how overgrazing contributes to soil degradation.

Figure 7.18

Essay Questions
1. What are the five factors that influence soil formation?

Climate, organisms, topography, parent material, time.

2. Explain soil colour, texture, structure and pH.

Soil colour: the soil can indicate its composition and sometimes its fertility.
Black and dark soils are usually rich in organic matter whereas pale grey
to white colour often indicates a chalky composition, leaching, or low
organic content.

Texture: Determined by the size of particles and is the basis on which soils
are assigned to one of the three general categories. Examples include clay
and loam.

Structure: A measure of the organization of the soil. Some degree of

structure encourages soil productivity, and organic matter, biological
activity, and clay help promote this structure.

pH: The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil influences the soil’s ability
to support plant growth. Plants can die in soils which are too acidic or
alkaline.

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 3. What are some erosion-control practices?

Crop rotation, intercropping and agroforestry, contour farming and terracing,

shelterbelts, reduced tillage.

Additional Resources
Websites
1. About the Dust Bowl, Modern American Poetry
(www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/depression/dustbowl.htm)
This website provides a brief description of the Dust Bowl, plus a map, photos, and a
timeline.
2. Soil Science Basics, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
(http://soils.gsfc.nasa.gov/basics.htm)
This website provides information about soil formation, chemistry, microbiology,
and field characterization.

Audiovisual Materials

1. The American Experience: Surviving the Dust Bowl, 1998, PBS Home Video
distributed by WGBH (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/dustbowl/)
This program looks at America’s “worst ecological disaster,” which brought financial
and emotional ruin to thousands of people in the Great Plains.
2. On American Soil, 1983, the Conservation Foundation, video distributed by Bullfrog
Films (www.bullfrogfilms.com/)
This video shows the nature and extent of erosion in America.
3. The Living Soil: The Value of Humus, 1991, distributed by Films for the Humanities
and Sciences (www.films.com)
This program is part of a series, Planet Under Pressure: Geochemistry and the Fate
of the Earth. This film examines how nutrients in the soil are replenished through
interactions between organisms and abiotic factors in the environment.

Weighing the Issues: Facts to Consider

Earth’s Soil Resources
Facts to consider: At the rate of 500 to 1000 years to produce 2.5 cm of topsoil, soil
cannot be considered a renewable resource compared with human timescales. But,
because forming new soil requires such a long time, and because good soil is essential to
the survival and well-being of humans as well as the larger environment, we should act in
ways that preserve and enhance soil. Though some soil is forming, soil is presently being
lost much more quickly than it is being gained. The best way to have the soil resources
we need is to preserve the soil that exists today. Examples of agricultural practices that

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 enhance and preserve existing soils include preserving and allowing natural flooding, no-
till farming, using compost, increasing soil biodiversity, and following practices that
encourage the growth of plant cover.

Measuring and Regulating Soil Quality

Facts to consider: Environment Canada sets standards for air and water and describes
levels of specific chemicals that are harmful to organisms. Most of these chemicals are
somewhat easily detected, and sources of these toxic chemicals are not too difficult to
determine. Soil is more difficult to characterize in this fashion. While toxic levels of
some chemicals may be easy to find in soil, the high levels of these toxic chemicals may
be naturally occurring and difficult to reduce. Perhaps, then, more useful standards for
soil quality would consider the qualities that help soil remain stable and support life.
These might include texture, structure, acidity, soil biota, and organic content, as well as
the thickness of the topsoil.

The Science behind the Story

Dark Earth: A New (Old) Way to Sequester Carbon
Observation: About 15 years ago, in the central Amazon of Brazil, Dr. Johannes
Lehmann encountered patches of unusually dark, rich, firtile soil, locallyed called terra
preta.
Question: What causes these dark patches of soil?
Hypothesis: Black soil is remnant of pre-Columbian indigenous residents of the areas,
from as long ago as 450 BCE.
Study: Dr. Lehmann began to research methods for producing the black earth. The most
promising technology for this has been pyrolysis, which is a relatively straightforward,
low temperature heating process.
Results: Dr. Lehmann’s calculations show that with low-temperature pyrolysis of
biomass it should be possible to halve the amount of carbon being released to the
atmosphere.

Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions

Testing Your Comprehension

1. Soil is a complex plant-supporting system that consists of disintegrated rock, organic

matter, water, gases, nutrients, and microorganisms.
2. Soil is formed by the weathering of rocks and minerals and by the input of organic
material. Physical or mechanical weathering breaks down rocks without changing
them chemically. For example, ice wedges can form in small cracks in a rock,
breaking it in two. Chemical weathering results from water or other substances
chemically interacting with the parent material. Biological weathering occurs when

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 living things are responsible for breaking down the parent material by either physical
or chemical means—for example, root growth wedging cracks open, or organic acids
dissolving some minerals.
3. Leaching is a process in which materials suspended or dissolved in liquid are
transported through the subsurface.
4. The five factors influencing soil formation are climate, organisms, relief, parent
material, and time. Warmer and wetter climates have accelerated rates of physical
weathering. Differences in local vegetation alter the input of organic material.
Steeper slopes lead to higher rates of erosion. Soil formed from the weathering of
limestone will be different from that formed from granite. Recently formed soils will
not be as well developed as older soils.
5. Soil horizons, or distinct layers, are created by the interaction of the processes of
weathering, erosion, deposition, and organic matter generation and decay. Generally,
the degree of weathering and the concentration of organic material decrease as one
moves downward in the soil profile.
6. Erosion is considered a destructive process because local rates of erosion can greatly
exceed local rates of soil formation. Erosion is increased by the overcultivation of
fields, overgrazing of rangelands, and deforestation. Erosion by water may occur as
splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion, or gully.
7. Farming techniques that can help reduce the risk of erosion include contour farming,
strip cropping, crop rotation, terracing, grazing management, reforestation, and
wildlife management. Additional techniques include establishing shelterbelts and
using conservation tillage, or “no-till” farming.
8. Terracing converts a slope into a series of stair steps, with each step or terrace being
level. No-till farming drills seeds and fertilizer into the stubble of the previous year’s
crop without first ploughing or cultivating the field. The old crop’s roots and
aboveground stubble are left in place between the harvest and the next planting to
hold the soil and protect it from splash and wind erosion.
9. Fertilizers boost crop growth if they supply required nutrients that were otherwise not
sufficiently available to the crop plants. If more fertilizer is added to a field than the
crop can take up, the excess nutrients may be leached from the soil into streams or
groundwater. Some nutrients may also be converted to a gaseous form, mostly by
bacteria. These gases may then be released to the atmosphere.
10. Overgrazing exposes the soil surface to erosion by wind and water and may cause
soil compaction that limits water infiltration, soil aeration, and plant growth. Public
land policies can be linked to the practice of overgrazing. Grazing practices are
sustainable if they do not decrease the amount and diversity of vegetation on the
grazed lands over time.

Interpreting Graphs and Data

1. Soil savings are approximately 5 Mg/ha, or 31%. Organic carbon savings are
approximately 65 kg/ha, or 34%. Nitrogen savings are approximately 7 kg/ha, or 37%.
2. Under conventional tillage, the ratio of soil lost to crop yield is approximately 4:1.
Under reduced tillage, the ratio dropped to approximately 2.75:1.
3. Reduced tillage is a step in the right direction for Nepalese farmers, since it
significantly reduced the rate of soil loss. The rate, however, is still high, and so the
system is probably not sustainable. To be certain, one would also need information

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about local rates of soil formation. In steep terrain, terracing is an excellent method
for reducing erosion rates.

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