Tool & Manufacturing Engineering Handbook

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CHAPTER 8
MECHANICAL FASTENING
Assembly in manufacturing often involves some ments on all its cars are made with metric fasteners. CHAPTER
type of mechanical fastening of a part to itself, or One major advantage of metrication has been the CONTENTS:
two or more parts or subassemblies together, to reduced number of standard fasteners with respect
form a functional product or a higher level sub- to thread diameter-pitch combinations. Metric Integral
Fasteners 8-2
assembly. Mechanical fasteners are available in a and inch standards are discussed in subsequent
wide variety of types and sizes to suit the individual sections devoted to individual types of fasteners. Threaded
requirements for different joint and assembly Selection of a specific mechanical fastener or Fasteners 8-7
Materials and
designs. Types discussed in this chapter include fastening method depends primarily on the mate- Finishes 8-8
integral, threaded, nonthreaded, and special- rials to be joined, the function of the joint, strength Strength 8-10
purpose fasteners. Other methods of mechanical and reliability requirements, weight limitations, Bolts and
Studa 8-15
fastening also discussed in this chapter are stitching dimensions of the components, and environmental N uta 8-18
and stapling, shrink and expansion fitting, and conditions. Other important factors that must be Screws 8-20
injected metal assembly. carefully considered include costs, available instal- Straw Thread
Inserts 8-26
The numerous mechanical fasteners available lation equipment, appearance, and whether the Captiva 8-32
have resulted in inconsistent nomenclature and assembly has to be dismantled. Value analysis in Self-Locking 8-37
made identification difficult. While it would be the product design stage can often make assembly
Spatial-Purpose
desirable to have all fastener names based on their easier and more economical by reducing the num- Fasteners 8-39
shapes and/ or features, many are named for their ber of components in the assembly or by modifying
application or the product on which they are used, the design or processing to facilitate assembly. Riveta 8-42
Joints 8-47
the materials from which they are made, or their When dismantling of assemblies is required, Strengths 8-48
size. A comprehensive glossary of terms for threaded or other types of fasteners that can be ~k:;hing 8-49
mechanical fasteners is presented in ANSI Stan- removed quickly and easily should generally be 8-55
dard B 18.12. The terms used for many different used. However, such fasteners should not have a Eyelets 8-61
fasteners are presented in subsequent sections. tendency to loosen after installation. When dis-
Most mechanical fasteners are now being pro- assembly is not necessary, permanent fasteners Retaining
Rings 8-63
duced by cold forming (extruding and upsetting), such as rivets or threaded fasteners locked with Tapered-
as discussed in Volume 11, Forming, of this Hand- adhesives are often used. Permanent joints are also Section 8-64
book series, but some are made by warm or hot often made by other processes, such as welding, Spiral-Wound8-67
Wire-Formed 8-73
forging. Advantages of the cold forming process brazing and soldering, and adhesive bonding,
include fast and economical production, design which are discussed in Chapters 9, 10, and 11, Pins 8-75
versatility, high quality, increased strength, and respectively, of this volume.
Washers 8-79
material savings. Required shear and tensile strengths must be
While standard mechanical fasteners are avail- known before a mechanical fastener or fastening Stitching and
able in many types and sizes, there are numerous process can be selected. Applications subject to Stapling 8-83
requirements and an increasing demand for special vibration and/ or cyclic stresses often require the Shrink and
fasteners. For some applications, fastener manu- use of self-locking fasteners, locknuts, rivets, or Expansion Fits 8-88
facturers can meet special requirements with only processes such as welding or adhesive bonding.
Injected Metal
slight alterations to existing fasteners, thus reduc- The weight of the fastener is also a critical con- Assembly 8-94
ing costs compared to designing an entirely new sideration for some applications; assemblies requir-
special fastener. ing a large number of fasteners can suffer a
Metrication of mechanical fasteners has pro- significant weight penalty.
gressed further than for most other products, Fasteners exposed to corrosive environments,
particularly in the automotive industry. General high or low temperatures, or other severe condi-
Motors Corp. started metrication for its 1977 line tions must be made from or coated with materials
of large cars, and today about 9570 of the attach- that will withstand the conditions, A variety of
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Frank Arsenault, Product/Project Engineer, Bostitch Div.,
Textron Inc.; Richard C. Baubles, Vice President, Research and Development, Jacobson Mfg. Co., Inc.; Wallace
Berliner, Chief Product Engineer, Truarc Retaining Rings Div., Waldes Kohinoor, km; Joseph J, Braychak,
Product Development Manager, POP Fasteners Div., Emhart Fastener Group; Lawrance B. Curtis, Manager. Sales
and Application Engrg. , Equipment Div. , Fisher Gauge L td.; Richard L. Davis, Manager, Applications Engrg. and
Service, HeIi-Coil Products, Div. of Mite Corp.; W. E. Duffey, President, Driv-Lok, Inc; Robert S. Eckles. Vice
President and General Manager, Brainard Rivet Co.; Richard B. Ernest, Vice President—Engrg., Penn Engrg. &
Mfg. Corp.; Dr. John L. Frater, Associate Professor, Cleveland Stete University; Donald Johnston, Sales/
Marketing Specialist, GEMCOR Drivmatic Div.; Michael M. Joseph, Application Engineer. Southern Screw. Div.
Farley Metals, Inc.; Kenneth E. McCullough, Manager, Technical Services, SPS Technologies; John Nasiatka,
Sales Engineer, Duo-Fast Corp.; MichaelM. Plum, Manager. Magneform Business Dev,, Maxwell Laboratories,
Inc.; James F. Sullivan, Sales Engineer, Stitching Products, Acme Packaging, Div. of Interlake, Inc.; Dr. H. E.
Trucks, Consultant; Paul W. Wallace, Vice President, Engrg. , Aerospace Div., SPS Technologies; Stephen M.
Ward. Spiralox Design Engineer, Ramsey Piston Ring Div. , TRW Automotive Products Inc.
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: Wayna F. A\lgaier, Mech. Engrg. & Fabrication, Advanced
Products and Mfg. Engrg, Staff, General Motors Corp. , General Motors Technical Center; Frank Arsenault,
Product/Project Engineer, Bostitch Div. , Textron Inc.; George C. Bartholomay, Sales Manager. Industrial
Retaining Ring Co,; Richard C. Baublas, Vice President, Research and Development, Jacobson Mfg. Co., Inc.;
8-1
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
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CHAPTER 8
INTEGRAL FASTENERS
materials and coatings are used to suit different requirements. extensively for applications in corrosive industrial applications.
Zinc-coated carbon steel fasteners are resistant to normal Materials. finishes. and coatings for specific fasteners are
atmospheric corrosion, and stainless steel fasteners are used discussed ‘later in this chapter. -
INTEGRAL FASTENERS
Integral fasteners are formed areas of the component part or
parts that function by interfering or interlocking with other
areas of the assembly. This type of fastening is most commonly
applied to formed sheet metal products and is generally
performed by lanced or shear-formed tabs, extruded hole ///A
flanges, embossed protrusions, edge seams, and crimps. in all (a) (b)
these methods, the joint is made by some method of metal
shearing and/ or forming.
Details of the various shearing and forming operations are Fig. 8-1 Methods of fastening shafts, wires, or cables to metal plates:
presented in Volume 11, Forming, of this Handbook series. (a) lanced tab and (b) lanced bridge.
Other processes used for fastening and assembling that are also
discussed in Volume 11 include beading, hemming, bulging,
swaging, expanding, shrinking, roll forming, and electromag-
netic forming.
LANCED OR SHEAR-FORMED TABS

Tabs, also called ears, flaps, lugs, and prongs, are a versatile
construction element for lightweight products made from sheet
metal components. The economic advantages of tabs for
assembly are reduced material use, lower labor costs, reduced
\\\\\\\\\\\\\
weight, and reduced tooling costs. Lanced tabs are used most 2’/////f///fAJ
widely for permanent assembly but rarely for temporary or even
semipermanent assembly.
A common use of a tab bent or curved around a shaft, wire, Fig. 8-2 Shear-formed tab folded through a slot for fastening.
or cable to locate and hold the parts firmly is shown in Fig. 8-1,
view u. A similar design is the lanced bridge, view b, in which
both ends of the lanced area remain attached. I
Tabs that are shear formed in one part may be introduced
into matching slots or holes in a second part and then folded
over, as shown in Fig. 8-2. According to the best bending
techniques, the tab should always be bent so that its burred edge
is located on the inside of the bend. The finish bend of the tab
should always be in the same direction as the primary bend. In
some cases, auxiliary parts are included in the tab fastening
design, as shown in Fig. 8-3.
The best shapes for tab ends are round or half round (see Fig.
8-4, view a), tapered (view b), square with chamfered corners
(view c), or triangular. These shapes are easier to introduce into
slots than the square tab (view d), which should never be used fA’A\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\y
for folded fastenings. The matching slots should be made with
dimensions somewhat larger than the tab thickness. However,
the punches used to form the slots maybe weak, so the shapes of Fig. 8-3 Auxiliary part included in a tab fastening design.
Reviewers. cont.: Daniel P. Baumann, President, Bracker Corp.; Robert L. Beers, Marketing Manager, Specialty Fastener Div. ,
Rexnord; Wallace Berliner, Chief Product Engineer, Truarc Retaining Rings Div. , Waldes Kohinoor, Inc.; John H. Bickford. Vice
President. Manager of Po wer-Dyne Div. , Raymond Engrg. , Inc.; Paul R. Bonenberger, Fastening Systems, W3-C Structural Analysis,
Engrg. Building, General Motors Technical Center; James L. Bo wman, Corporate Vice President Engrg. , Long-Lok Fasteners Corp.; Robert E.
Branshaw, Marketing Manager, Ind. Fastening Systems Group, Microdot; JosephJ. Braychak, Product Development Manager, POP Fasteners
Div. , Emhart Fastener Group; Paul L. Cady, Supervisor—Sales Engrg. , Chicago Rivet & Machine Co.; Vito Cardone, Vice President/
Manufacturing, Anderton-United Products; Donald H. Chadwick. Vice President—Engrg. , Rockford Products Corp.: W. S. Clement,
Advertising Manager, South co, Inc.; Richard G. Cooper, Technical Salas Dept. , A vdel Engineered Assembly Systems; George Davis,
General Manager, Dzus Fastener Co,, Inc.; Richard L. Davis, Manager, Applications Engrg, and Service, HeIi-Coil Products, Div. of Mite Corp.;
8-2
CHAPTER 8
INTEGRAL FASTENERS
Embb (a) (b) (c) (d)
—
Fig. 8-4 Shapes for fastening tabs: (a) desirable round or half round, (b)
desirable tapered, (c) desirable chamfered square, and (d) undesirable r_r–––-––-~7
sharp-cornered square.
the slots should be revised whenever possible to allow use of

reinforced punches; Fig. 8-5 illustrates a satisfactory solution db
with triangular slots. To reduce tool costs and tool maintenance, II II
II
simple round holes instead of elongated slots maybe applicable. LL--–– ——-1J
One folded tab alone has little strength, and, in the case of
thin, large stampings, it is better to use two or more tabs if
possible. For strength in the greatest number of directions, the
tab should be bent alternately unless the stamping is U-shaped. Fig. 8-5 Use of triangular fastening slots to allow slot-punch
reinforcement.
Tbe joint is strongest if the tabs are stressed for shear (see Fig.
8-6) instead of for tension, as is usually the case. If there is not
m
enough space for more than one tab, the tab may be split
longitudinally, with the two halves bent in opposite directions
for additional joint strength. The designer should remember
0
that tbe tabs should be bent at least 45° across the grain
direction of the metal to prevent cracking and tearing.
Metal stampings employed as inserts in moldings, castings,
0
and rubber parts must be properly anchored. A simple 90°
lanced tab performs this task (see Fig. 8-7, view a), and two tabs
provide greater strength. If the stamping is not totally embedded Fig. 8-6 Folded tabs stressed for shear rather than tension.
in the molding but forms one of the surfaces of the assembly, the
tabs must be inclined to resist both transverse and longitudinal I
loads (views b and c).
For greater efficiency and flexibility, lanced tabs may be
shaped or even tapped for use with discrete fasteners. Two of
the most characteristic of these types of tabs are the speed nut,
which is formed by shaping two opposite arched prongs in tbe
lanced part to accept a threaded screw, and the speed clip, which
is usually a separate part formed by lancing to accept and clamp
smooth, unthreaded studs, rivets, and tubes.
Temporary bayonet-lock joints for parts such as small light (a) (b)
bulbs and their holders are often formed by projections created
by lancing (see Fig. 8-8, view a). The same design is often found
in caps for small containers (view b).
EXTRUDED HOLES I (c)
A simple, inexpensive method of increasing the length of a Fig. 8-7 Methods of fastening metal stampings to castings and
hole in sheet metal is to form an integral, extended collar moldings.
Reviewers, cont.: Lon DeHaitre, Abbott Interfast Corp.; J. DeHaven, President. Yardley Products Corp.; Anthony DeMaio,
Vice President, Mfg. and Engrg. , Gesipa Fasteners USA, Inc.; Thomas S. Doppke, Senior Fastener Engineer, Truck and Bus Group,
General Motors Corp.: Max F. Dorflinger, President, Nylok Fastener Corp.; W. E. Duffey, President, Driv-Lok, km; Robert S. Eckles, Vice
President and General Manager, Brainard Rivet Co.; Richard B. Ernest, Vice President—Engrg, , Penn Engrg. & Mfg. Corp.; Stephen
Faldman, Chief Engineer, Industrial Fasteners Corp.; Robert J. Finkelston. Manager, Systems Engrg. , Aerospace Div. , SPS
Technologies; William H. Gibbons, Consultant—Marketing, Communications, Engineered Fasteners Div. , Eaton Corp.; Loran
Godfrey, Director— Technical Services, Associated Spring Barnes Group Inc.; HarlandS. Graime, Plant Manager, Acme Rivet & Machine
Corp.; Frederick E. Graves, F. E. Graves Associates, Consulting Engineers; Joseph P. Guy, Merketing Manager, Engineered Fasten-
ers, The BFGoodrich Co.; Fred A. Hammerle. Manager of Product Engrg. , Fasteners Div. , TRW Assemblies and Fasteners Group;
8-3
CHAPTER 8
INTEGRAL FASTENERS
=
=
=
—
wT+
(a) (b) (c) (d) =
Fig. 8-9 Uses of an extruded hole for joining: (a) as a rivet with end
flared or swaged, (b) as an interference fitting, (c) with a riveted shaft,
and (d) with a bolt fastener.
Fig. 8-8 Tabbed bayonet locks for temporary joints,
around the hole. The hole is then called an extruded, flanged,

collared, embossed, or drifted hole. Extruded holes are widely
used as integral fasteners, not only on flat surfaces but also on
curved, bent, or drawn surfaces. I I
In the majority of cases, extruded holes are used for joining Fig. 8-10 Embossed protrusions before and after flattening to form an
integral rivet.
two components, one of which is the sheet metal part with the
hole. The extruded collar is often used as an integral hollow
rivet for joining two thin sheet metal components. The free end has limitations. The bosses must be formed on comparatively
of the flange is simply flared or swaged out, creating a head that thick stock, not less than O.10’’(2.5 mm) thick, and the part to be
forms a firm joint (see Fig, 8-9, view a). Common eyelets belong fastened must never be more than half the thickness of the
to this type of fastening method. If the length of the flange with embossed part because the length of the boss is generally limited
respect to the thickness of the second part is favorable, the end to a fraction of stock thickness and is not sufficient to make
of the flange may be curled to form the head. a regular rivet head. For this same reason, joint strength is
Tubing may be ioined with an extruded hole bv means of a usually low.
bead in tie tubing: which acts as a stop, and by fl~ring or half To perform the riveting operation, a proper anvil, as
curling the end of the tube. Tubing may also be fastened by illustrated in Fig. 8-11, must be used to support the boss and
interference fitting of its inner diameter to the flange (see Fig. prevent it from being depressed back into the parent part. For
8-9, view b). A proper guide for shaft riveting maybe provided economic reasons, such riveting should be used only in mass
by an extruded hole (view c); but often, for limited-strength production when the buildirw of the dies needed for the
joints, the shaft may simply be press fit in the flange, with ~peration is justified.
knurling for increased joint strength and torsional resistance.
The shaft may also be fastened by beading the flange.
Perhaps the most common use of extruded holes for
fastening is in conjunction with discrete fasteners. As shown in
Fig. 8-9, view d, the flange is tapped and acts as an integral nut
with a separate screw or bolt. The nut is twice or more the sheet
D
metal thickness, and the strength of the joint is considerably
increased,
EMBOSSED PROTRUSIONS
Embossed protrusions, also referred to as partial extrusions,
lugs, and extruded dowels, are bosses forced out from the
surface of a metal sheet or part on one side of the material. Such
protrusions may be used as integral rivets to form permanent
joints, as shown in Fig. 8-10. However, this fastening method Fig. 8-11 Tools for integral rivet-boss flattening.
Reviewers, cont.: Richardl. Hatch, Director— Technical Marketing, Johnson Steel & Wire Co., Inc.; GirardS. Haviland. Manager, Engrg,
Center. Loctite Corp.; James F. Hestar, Jr.. Americen Rivet Co.; Robert E. Keeler, Townsend Div., Textron Inc.; David J. Koatsier, Sales
Manager, Groov-Pin Corp.; George A4. Loucas, Manager, Process Engrg., Fasteners Div., TR WAssemblies and fasteners Group; Robert A.
Main, Jr., Plant Manager, John M. Dean, Inc.; Vincent J. Manobianco, Presidant, Groov-Pin Corp..’ George E. Marshall. Customar Service
Manager, Chicago Steel & Wire Div., Keycon Industries, Inc.; Bill McClelland, Production Engineer, Smalley Steal Ring Co.; Kenneth E.
McCullough, Manager, Technical Services, SPS Tachnologias; John C. McMurra y, Technical Director, Russell, Burdsall & Ward Corp.;
John C. Moodey, Chiaf Engineer, Specialty Fastener Div. , Rexnord; Ray Okolischan, Vice President—Engrg, , Carr Lane Mfg. Co.;
W. Richard Pamer, Product Engineering Supervisor, Russell, Burdsall & Ward Corp.; Ralph E. Rau. Jr. , Vice President, Stimpson Co, , Inc.;
B. F. Reiland, Director of Research, Camcar Div. , Textron Inc.; Glen N. Rohn, Sales/Marketing Managar, VSI Automation Assembly;
Thomas Russo, Chief Engineer, Acme Rivet & Machine Corp.; Charles H. Saurer, Supervisor—AFM Program, Fairchild Rapublic Co.;
8-4
CHAPTER 8
INTEGRAL FASTENERS
SEAMS
Seaming is often used to interlock the edges of two separate
sheet metal parts or the opposite edges of a given curved or bent
part. While the chief purpose of seaming is assembly, seams also
reinforce the assembly and eliminate sharp edges. Seams are
1
used when other mechanical assembly methods would be
impractical or uneconomical and when welding would cause
excessive distortion. Seaming also often provides greater
strength and tightness under high temperature conditions than
do other joining methods. Seams are normally used on metal
sheets 0,011-0.050” (0.28- 1.27 mm) thick; heavier gage sheets
require too much force for the seaming operation. (b)
(a)
Seams may be classified as follows according to the shape of
the workpiece to be joined:
● Jacket or longitudinal seams. Straight seams for the

bodies of tubular workplaces or simple formed parts,
● Circumferential seams. Closed seams such as those used
forjoininga top ora bottom to the tubular body of a can
or for joining two tubular parts. \\\\\ \ \\\
(c) (d)
The most common seam for light-gage sheets is the simple or
single-lock seam, also known as the standard seam or folded-
pipe seam. The edges to be seamed are first bent to acute angles; Fig, 8-13 Steps in forming a double-lock seam.
then they are fitted together, and the seam is flattened closed. In
most cases the two joined areas must be flush, as shown in Fig,
8-12. The seam maybe located inside or outside the workpiece.
For higher strength, a double-lock seam is formed in the
following steps: the two edges are bent square, with one edge
bent longer than the other; the longer leg is bent over the shorter
one; a standing seam is formed; and the seam is bent down and
flattened against the joined parts (see Fig, 8-13).
The seams just described are direct seams; that is, they are
formed directly on the parts. In special cases, an indirect seam
using an intermediate connector strap or plate may be formed
to fasten parts; such as a seam is shown in Fig. 8-14.
The width of a seam cannot be chosen arbitrarily. Seams
that are too small are weak, not tight enough, and difficult to
Fig, 8-14 Indirect seam with an intermediate connector plate.
form, Seams that are too large demand too much plastic flow,
and they overstress the sheet metal; they also increase stock
usage unnecessarily. Correct seam size depends on the size of straight or circumferential, and whether the seaming is per-
the components, stock thickness, shape, whether the seam is formed manually or mechanically. For sheet metal up to 1/32”
(0,08 mm) thick, the seam should be between 3/16 and I/ 2“
(4.8 and 12.7 mm) wide and should be proportionately wider for
heavier material,
-m\\\\
CRIMPS
Crimps are permanent interlocking joints in sheet metal
assemblies created by deforming the thin wall of one or both of
the fitted components. Crimped fastenittg methods may be
Fig. 8-12 Simple or single-lock seam flattened flush with joined areas. classified roughly into the following five groups:
Reviewers, cont.: Jerry Sessa, Cherry A erospece Fasteners, Cherry Div. , Textron Inc.; Jay Stafford, Project Engineer, Specialty
Fastener Div., Rexnord; David P, Stanger, Weber A utomatic Screwdrivers & Assembly Systems, Inc.; Warner R. Stutz, Vice President,
Taumel Assembly Systems; James F. Sullivan, Salas Engineer, Stitching Products, Acme Packaging, Div. of Interlake, Inc.; Frank R.
Thomas, Vice President, International Eyelets, Inc.; Robert A. Thomson, National Sales Manager, H. K, Metalcraft Mfg. Corp.; John A.
Trilling, Director of Engineering, Holo-Krome Co.; Ward E. Walker, Manager—Product Development, C. E, M. Co., Inc.; Paul W. Wallace,
Vice President, Engrg., Aerospace Div. , SPS Technologies; Stephen M. Ward, Spiralox Design Engineer. Ramsey Piston Ring Div., TRW
Automotive Products Inc.; Brian Waterhouse, Engineering Manager, Anderton International; Jim Weston, Product Manager, Specialty
Fasteners Div. , Rexnor& L. T. Whyte, Machine Sales Manager, Acme Rivet & Machine Corp.; Charles J. Wilson, Industrial Fasteners
Institute; James G. Youness, Markating Specialist, Eaton Corp.; James A. Zils, Managar, Product Development and Product Engrg.,
Russell, Burdsall & Ward Corp.; Bill Zoner, Product Specialist, Specialty Fastener Div., Rexnord.
8-5
CHAPTER 8
INTEGRAL FASTENERS
1. Matching beads (formed inward or outward). Dimpling

2. Matching dimples (formed inward or outward). Matching dimples often serve well for fastening when joint
3. Formed ribs or flanged unions. tightness requirements are not too severe. The holding strength
4. Holding beads. of dimples is usually low. The simplest dimples are round,
5. Special shapes. although dimples may be formed rather deeply and assume the
Crimping cannot be employed without limitations. The shape of double-slit bridges. For increased strength, several
sheet metal of the deformed components should be thin, dimples may be formed (see Fig. 8-17, view a), although only a
preferably less than 0.030” (0,76 mm). The stock must also be single dimple is required for very simple cases. As in beading,
naturally ductile or softened by an annealing process. Copper, thin, soft materials allow both inner and outer dimples to be
tin, brass, aluminum, and low-carbon steel have the proper formed simultaneously; but in harder, thicker materials, the
yield characteristics and are often fastened by crimping. internal component must be spot drilled or grooved before
assembly (view b).
Beading Dimple crimping is used not only on tubular parts but also
Matching beads are used for crimping pipe and tubing on flat or prismatic components. For example, in the assembly
together when the outer diameter of one component matches of a sheet metal stamping to a machined workpiece, the
the inner diameter of the other, as shown in Fig. 8-15. The two stamping, into which a properly located round hole has been
beads are formed together in light-walled ductile tubing; but to previously punched, is introduced into a milled slot in the
avoid overstress in heavier gages and harder metals, it is machined part; the machined workpiece is slightly deformed by
customary to form the inner bead first, with the outer bead a stubnosed punch so that part of it interlocks with the hole in
formed against the inner one after assembly, If two tubes have the stamping (see Fig. 8-18). When parts with cross-sectional
the same diameters, one of them may be expanded or necked shapes other than cylindrical are crim~ed, generous corner radii
down for a short length before beading to allow them to be mu~t be provided t: facilitate assembly. -
fitted together.
Tubing may be joined to a round bar by turning a groove in
the bar and forming a matching bead in the tube against the
groove. Solid shafts may also be fastened to extruded hole r-
flanges by crimping the flange into a groove machined in the
shaft (see Fig. 8-1 6); two shafts are sometimes coupled by
flanges in this way.
+-
=
L
(0)
1
(b)
Fig. 8-17 Crimped dimple fastening of tubular parts: (a) with several
dimples for increased strength and (b) with internal component spot
Fig. 8-15 Use of matching beads for crimp fastening of pipe or tubing. drilled before assembly.
w
I \ I
I
Fig. 8-16 Crimped bead fastening of a solid shaft to a flange, Fig. 8-18 Dimple crimping of flat components.
8-6
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
THREADED FASTENERS
Threaded fasteners are separate components having internal externally threaded fasteners having nominal diameters over
or external threads for mechanically joining parts. The most 1/ 4“ are generally called bolts and below 1/ 4“ are called screws,
common types of threaded fasteners include bolts, studs, nuts, but this is not a rigid rule because of overlapping of some
and screws, all discussed subsequently in this section. fastener sizes. Means of distinguishing between screws and
A primary application of threaded fasteners is for joining bolts are discussed in ANSI Standard B 18.2.1, “Square and
and holding parts together for load-carrying requirements, Hexagonal Bolts and Screws, inch Series.’’ ISOtermino1ogy
especially when disassembly and reassembly may be required. identifies screws as having threads extending to their heads,
Typical assemblies for several types of threaded fasteners are while bolts have unthreaded portions under their heads.
illustrated in Fig. 8-19. Threaded fasteners are also used
extensively for assemblies subject to environmental conditions Heads and Recesses Available
such as elevated temperatures and corrosion. Threaded fasteners are available with many different head
styles and recessed drives (see Fig. 8-20). Other styles not
illustrated include ball, button, square, and T-heads. Headless
fasteners have either enlarged or preformed ends. The body of a
Capscr ud
Bolt
threaded fastener is the unthreaded portion of its shank.
Ut
Nut
9
(a) (b) (c) w$j
Flat
head
Fillister
head
oval
head
Truss
head
a Washer
head
Fig.8-19 Typical assemblies using threaded fasteners: (a) baltand nut,
(b) capscrew, and (c) stud.
Advantages of threaded fasteners include their commercial

availability in a wide range of standard and special types, sizes, a
Hexagon Hexagan Fillister Flat fillister Pan
materials, and strengths. Extensive standardization efforts have
washer head head head head
made most threaded fasteners interchangeable. Most of these head
fasteners are easy to install, remove, and replace, thus providing
B
a low-cost method of assembly. They are capable of joining
identical or different materials and workplaces of various
configurations.
Twelve- Binding head
point
TYPES OF THREADED FASTENERS head
Details about many of the different types of threaded
fasteners are presented individually later in this section. This Heads for threaded fasteners
discussion is limited to the distinction between bolts and screws,
f!?w
the different heads available on threaded fasteners, how the
dimensions of these fasteners are identified, threads used on the
fasteners, and the development of standards. +
Q
Bolt or Screw?
Hex Fluted Cross recess
Bolts are cylindrical, externally threaded fasteners available
o
with various shaped heads. They are generally assembled
through holes in parts and tightened with internally threaded
nuts. Screws are also cylindrical, externally threaded fasteners,
but they are generally assembled by inserting into blind holes in
❑
assembled parts, by mating with preformed internal threads, or
by forming their own threads. Tightening is usually accom-
plished by applying torque to the screwheads. ‘6 w
Confusion with respect to nomenclature exists, however, INonremovable Six-labe
because some bolts and screws are capable of being assembled Square (one way) socket
with nuts or into threaded holes. End use is one method of
Recessed drives
distinguishing between bolts and screws. Recess-drive, exter-
nally threaded fasteners are generally called screws; hex-head,
externally threaded fasteners are sometimes called bolts, and Fig.8-20 Various types of bead styles andrecmsed drives forthreaded
other times, screws. One simplified classification is that fasteners.
8-7
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
Various recesses available, some of which are shown in Fig. threads are also discussed in Volume I, as well as in the
8-20, include the following: following ANSI Standards:
● Slotted—a straight recess, either formed or cut, is
produced laterally across the head, perpendicular to the B 1. 13M, “Metric Screw Threads—M Profile”
body. B 1.21 M, “Metric Screw Threads—MJ Profile”
● Cross recess—a formed recess that produces a tapered B 1. 18M, “Metric Screw Threads for Commercial Industrial
cross indent in the head, axially to the body. Fasteners”
● Hex socket—a formed recess in the shape of a hexagon Coarse threads are stronger than fine threads for fasteners of
with either a flat or tapered bottom. 1” (25 mm) size and larger. The coarse threads permit easier
● Fluted socket—a formed recess with flutes at the corners assembly, are less effected by burrs during assembly, and are
of the indentation. more desirable where corrosion or thread damage is possible.
● Clutch—a formed recess for use with a clutch driver. Coarse threads are generally recommended for fastener
● Security recess—recesses ofvarious designs formed for materials having lower tensile strengths.
nonrernoval or removal only with specia[drivers. Fine threads are used extensively for fasteners in the aircraft,
aerospace, and automotive industries, where wall thicknesses
Dimension Identification necessitate fine-pitch threads. Because fine threads are not as
Terms commonly used in designating the size and dimen- deep as coarse threads, their tensile stress areas are larger and
sions of threaded fasteners are presented in ANSI Standard the clamping forces that can be developed are greater.
B 18.12. Some typical examples are illustrated in Fig. 8-21.
Standardization
Threads Used Threaded fasteners have undergone and are undergoing
Threaded fasteners are made with either inch or metric extensive standardization. Fasteners in the inch series have
threads. Details with respect to thread form, pitches, tolerances, been completely standardized, based on the Unified Standard
and classes for Unified Standard threads are presented in screw-thread system, agreed on in 1948 by the United States, the
Volume 1, Machining, of this Handbook series and ANSI United Kingdom, and Canada. In the early 1970s, the Industrial
Standard B1. 1, “Unified Inch Screw Threads. ” Metric screw Fasteners Institute (lFl) started an Optimum Metric Fastener
System (OMFS) program. The purpose of this program was to
examine current metric practices and develop technical
improvements, cost-saving benefits, and simplification.
--l L i IL., 1 head Working with the International Organization for Standardi-
zation (1S0), a single system of international engineering
standards for metric fasteners is now completed. The 1S0 is a
federation of national standards-writing bodies from all major
manufacturing countries of the world. The American National
Pan head Hexagon head - Flat head Standards Institute (ANSI) is the U.S. member.
Many of the ANSI standards agree with 1S0 standards;
some differences for technical reasons exist but do not interfere
with functional interchangeability. Many applicable standards
~Length~ , ~T.t.l head height are cited subsequently in sections on individual fasteners. The
height development of ANSI and 1S0 metric standards offered the
advantage of reducing the number of individual configurations
H
in existence, thus reducing costs. Fastener standards are
a published in the U.S. by ANSI, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Society of Automotive
Oval head
Engineers (SAE), and IFI. Standards published by 1S0 are
Y available from ANS1.
Inspection and quality assurance procedures for general-
purpose metric fasteners are presented in ANSI Standard
Total head height
B 18.18.1 M and IFI Standards J-23 through J-26. Allowable
Head height limits for surface discontinuities on metric bolts, studs, and
a
screws are covered in ASTM Standard F 788 and on metric nuts
in IFI Standard 533. The testing of mechanical properties of
external and internal-threaded fasteners, washers, and rivets is
presented in ASTM Standard F 606.
Oval undercut head
MATERIALS, FINISHES AND COATINGS
Socket head Mechanical fasteners are made from a variety of materials,
shoulder screw
with steels being the most common. Selection of a material for a
specific fastener depends primarily on application requirements.
Well-manufactured bolts, studs, and screws develop strengths
Fig. 8-21 Terms used to designate dimensions of threaded fasteners.’ equivalent to the strength of the base material.
8-8
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
TABLE 8-1 nuts are made from low-carbon steels that are cold worked in
Typical Tensile Strengths and Relative Corrosion the forming process and generally not heat treated.
Resistance of General Material Categories Chemical, mechanical, and strength requirements for metric
bolts, studs, and screws made from carbon and alloy steels are
Relative presented in ASTM Standard F 568. This standard includes 13
General Material Typical Tensile Corrosion property classes having various treatments such as partial or full
Categories* Stremzths. ksi (MPa) Resistance** annealing, cold working, and quenching and tempering. Re-
Low-carbon steels 60-74 (414-5 10) 1 quirements for metric nuts made from carbon and alloy steels are
Low-carbon 120-150 (827-1034) 1 given in ASTM Standard A 563 M, having eight property classes;
martensitic the inch series is covered in ASTM Standard A 563.
(boron) steels Mechanical and material requirements for externally
Medium-carbon 120 (827) threaded fasteners in the inch series are presented in SAE
steels Standard J429, for machine screws in J82, and for nuts in J995.
Alloy steels 150-180 (1034-1241) 1 Test methods for determining the mechanical properties of
Aluminum alloys 55 (379) 3 externally and internally threaded fasteners are specified in
Copper alloys 50-80 (345-552) 3 ANS1/ ASTM Standard F 606-79a.
Chromium steels 170(1172) 2 Requirements for me$ric bolts, studs, and screws made from
Chromium-nickel 75-160(517-1103) 4 stainless steels are presented in ASTM Standard F 738. This
steels standard includes eight groups of stainless steels: three austen-
Tool steels 260 (1793) 1 itic, such as Al S]/ SAE grades 304, 305, 316, 321, and 347; one
Titanium alloys 60-165 (414-1 138) 5 ferritic, AISl / SAE grade 430; three martensitic, AIS1 grades
Nickel alloys 80-200 (552-1379) 5 410, 416, and 431; and one precipitation-hardening grade.
Cobalt alloys 85-260 (586-1793) 5 Metric nuts made from the same eight groups of stainless steels
are included in IF] Specification 517. Inch series, stainless steel
(SPS Technologies) screws and bolts are presented in ASTM Standard F 593; nuts
* Listed in approximate order of increasing cost. are presented in F 594.
** Relative corrosion resistance: l—lowest, 5—highest.
Other Alloys Used
General material categories presented in Table 8-1 are listed The iron-based superalloy A-286 is used for some fastener
applications having operating temperatures to about 1200° F
in order of increasing cost. Not all materials in each category are
(650” C). Tool steels are being used for high-strength, high-
suitable for manufacturing fasteners, nor are all fastener
temperature applications to temperatures of about 1000° F
materials listed. This table shows typical tensile strengths of the
(540°C), with AISI Type H 11, chromium-type, hot-work tool
various material categories and their relative corrosion resis-
steel being a common choice. Some superalloys, such as Ren&
tance, with 1 being the lowest. However, both strength and
41 and Waspaloy, are usable at temperatures to 1400° F
corrosion resistance vary with the specific environment encoun-
(760° C). There are also special materials with limited use
tered in service. Detailed information about the different
potential to a temperature of 2000° F ( 1095° C), and some
materials and their mechanical properties is presented in
tungsten alloys are used at even higher temperatures.
Volume HI, Materials, Finishing and Coating, of this Hand-
book series.
Nonferrous Metals
Material Selection Aluminum-based alloys, copper and copper-based alloys, nickel
Factors that must be considered in selecting a fastener and nickel-based alloys, and titanium and titanium-based
material include the loads to be encountered, the materials to be alloys are nonferrous metals used for fasteners. Chemical,
joined, and the service environment. Data with respect to joint mechanical, and strength requirements for metric bolts, studs,
function that should be known include loads (both static and and screws made from these metals are presented in ASTM
dynamic) to be applied, design life, reliability, strength-to- Standard F 468 M. Metric nuts made from the same nonferrous
weight ratio, and resistance to creep, environmental corrosion, metals are specified in ASTM Standard F 467 M.
and temperatures. Formability and/ or machinability of the
materials are also important considerations as they affect the Nonmetallic Materials
cost of the fasteners. Where fasteners are subjected to certain corrosive, magnetic,
or electrical environments, they are sometimes made from
Steels for Fasteners plastics. Fasteners are being made from nylon, vinyl, poly-
Low-carbon steels, generally unhardened or cold worked, carbonates, acetals, polyethylene, polystyrenes, fluorocarbons,
are used for some fasteners. Fasteners made from low-carbon, and other plastics. The use of fasteners made from plastics
SAE 1018 steel, not heat treated, have an ultimate tensile requires consideration of design strength and temperature
strength to about 74 ksi (510 MPa); those made from medium- requirements, and the economics of assembly should be favor-
carbon, SAE 1038 steel, also not heat treated, have an ultimate able. Advantages of nonmetallic fasteners include excellent
tensile strength to about 120 ksi (827 MPa). Most bolts and corrosion resistance, light weight, nonmagnetic properties,
screws are made from medium-carbon steels and are heat good thermal and electrical insulation, elimination of the need
treated. Alloy steels, such as SAE 4037, 4137, and 8740, for special finishes or coatings, and easy coloring. However,
generally heat treated, are used for higher strength requirements. fasteners made from plastics will creep or relax under loads and
such as an ultimate tensile strength of 150 ksi (1034 MPa). Most are generally suitable only for light-load applications.
8-9
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
Platings and Coatings and oxide) coatings, anodizing, electroplating, mechanical

Environmental conditions and temperatures encountered in plating, hot dipping (zinc galvanizing and aluminizing), and the
service are critical considerations in selecting a material for a vapor deposition processes is presented in Volume 111.
specific fastener. Platings and coatings are often applied to
fasteners for improved corrosion resistance or appearance and, STRENGTH OF BOLTED JOINTS
in some cases, to provide lubricity. The term “finish” is Bolted joints are used for a wide variety of assembly
commonly applied to a chemical or organic treatment of a applications. Designs include lap, flanged, and butt joints, as
fastener surface after machining or forming, but it is also used well as variations and combinations of these designs. All joint
to indicate the resulting surface condition from manufac- members of an assembly, including the fasteners (see Fig. 8-22),
turing operations or the degree of dimensional precision of may be subjected to tension, torsion, shear, bending, or
the fastener. commessive stresses. or a combination of these forces. Tensile
Plating can protect fasteners by providing barriers to the stre~gth of the fastener is generally the mechanical property of
environment and/ or by sacrificially and chemically inhibiting primary interest, but shear strength, hardness, and fatigue
corrosion. The amount of protection provided by most plating strength can also affect the performance, If the external tension
is directly related to the thickness of the plate. However, plating load exceeds the bolt load, the bolt will experience stress
thickness is limited by the dimensional fit tolerances of the variations and, finally, fatigue failure. For elevated temperature
fastener threads and wrenching surfaces, which are usually, applications, creep and strength at the elevated temperature
respectively, four and two times the nominal plating thickness. must also be considered.
Selection of a specific plating material requires consideration of
the joint design, materials in the joint and the fastener, the
service environment, and maintenance and life requirements.
The effects of platings on the tightening characteristics of
fasteners must also be considered. T T Tension
When possible corrosion in service is not a critical problem,

unplated fasteners are often supplied with a corrosion-retardant
oil-dip finish, a black oxide coating, or a phosphate and oil s
coating. When additional corrosion resistance is required for s

carbon or alloy steel fasteners, it is common practice to apply s
cadmium or zinc coatings. Tin, nickel, copper, and chromium
are other metals also used for coating. Coating is accomplished
by electroplating, mechanical plating, or, in the case of zinc,
sometimes by batch galvanizing (hot dipping). L J
Caution is required to prevent hydrogen embrittlement of Fig. 8-22 Typical forces acting on a bolted connection.
fastener materials, which generally occurs in high-hardness
steels and alloys, generally RC36 and above. Embrittlement
results from the absorption of atomic hydrogen, usually during Preloading
electroplating, chemical treatments prior to plating, or acid Design of a reliable bolted joint requires knowledge of the
cleaning. The possibility of embrittlement can be minimized by joint loading, the joint materials, selection of the proper
mechanically cleaning, electroplating in special baths, and then fastener, and determining the correct amount of preload to be
baking the fasteners immediately or as soon as possible after applied during assembly. While it is necessary to have a bolt
plating. Embrittlement can also be minimized by mechanical strong enough to carry the required loads, it is the proper
plating or vacuum deposition. A phenomenon similar to preload (clamping load) that ensures joint integrity or rigidity.
hydrogen embrittlement can occur in fasteners made from high- The initial tension must be greater than any external tensile
hardness steels (generally higher than RC40) under certain loads applied to the joint and/or must create frictional forces
stress and corrosion conditions. This delayed “hydrogen embrit- between the joint members that exceed any external shear loads
tlement” is referred to as hydrogen-assisted cracking. applied to the joint.
The corrosion resistance of stainless steel fasteners is A fastener made from ductile material should be tightened to
sometimes improved by passivating. This chemical treating develop as high a preload as is compatible with the expected
process, generally consisting of a nitric acid dip, dissolves service loading. Bolt preload in some instances for rigid joints
ferrous particles and surface impurities and produces an may extend beyond yield and into the plastic range. When a nut
invisible, passive oxide film on the surfaces of the fasteners. is tightened on a bolt, the nut is compressed and the bolt
Aluminum alloy fasteners, as well as some fasteners made of stretches elastically. The approximate amount of elongation of
titanium alloys, are sometimes anodized, forming an anodic or a fully threaded steel bolt is about 0.001 in. /in. (mm/mm) of
oxide film on the surfaces. Zinc alloys are chromated for extra grip per 30 ksi (207 MPa) of stress, within the elastic limit of the
protection. bolt material. This is true for all steel bolts regardless of the
Chromate-phosphate bonded, aluminum coatings are being diameter and heat treatment of the bolts.
applied to titanium fasteners used in aluminum aircraft-wing The maximum preload that should be applied to any bolted
skins.z Although titanium has excellent corrosion resistance, joint depends on the loads to be encountered in service, as well
the aluminum coating is used to prevent the wing skin from as the types of fasteners being used. In general, the higher the
corroding sacrificially to the titanium fasteners. A centrifugal, strength of the fastener, the smaller the range between tensile
dip-and-spin process is used to apply these coatings to small and yield loads,
parts such as fasteners. During tightening, frictional resistance introduces torsional
Detailed information on conversion (phosphate, chromate, shear stresses that reduce the amount of preload. Also, as soon
8-10
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
as a bolt is tightened, load relaxation begins. From 2 to 5% of P ❑ tensile load of fastener, lb (N)
the preload can be lost during the first few minutes after A = tensile stress area, of the critical section of the fastener
tightening and another 570 during a few days to a month. Poor (generally the threaded section), in.z (mm2)
surface finishes, burrs, coatings, and foreign matter on the
The tensile load, P, to break the threaded portion of a bolt, stud,
fasteners can also further reduce the preload. Additional long-
term relaxation in metallic joints is generally only significant at or screw (assuming there are no shearing or torsional stresses) is
calculated from the following equation:
elevated temperatures, above 480° F (250° C).
P=SXA (2)
Tensile and Proof Stresses
For inch threads, the tensile stress area, A (the effective cross-
The strength of fasteners is generally specified by tensile and
proof stress values. The proof stress of an externally threaded sectional area), of the external thread is determined by the
fastener is the maximum tensile stress at which no permanent following equation:
deformation occurs in the fastener. Proof load is a specified test
A= O.7854 (D-%)2
load that a fastener must withstand without any indication of (3)
permanent elongation. Tests for determining the ability of
fasteners to pass the proof load include the yield strength test and
the uniform hardness test specified in ASTM Standard F 606. where:
Proof and tensile stresses for certain SAE grades of steel bolts,
A = tensile stress area, in.2
studs, and screws in the inch series are presented in Table 8-2.
D = basic major diameter of thread, in.
Caution must be exercised in the use of various steels. Steels with n . number of threads per inch
similar tensile strengths may be processed differently, including
various tempering temperatures, and may behave differently at
For metric threads, A is calculated as follows:
elevated or reduced temperatures. The SAE steel grades are
designated by numbers, with increasing numbers representing ,4 = 0.7854 (D - 0.9382P)2 (4)
increasing tensile stresses. Proof and tensile loads for various sizes
of the same grade fasteners are given in Table 8-3. where:
Tensile stresses are determined from the following equation:
A = tensile stress area, mm2
(1) D = nominal thread diameter, mm
P = thread pitch, mm
where: Mechanical and material requirements for metric, externally
S ❑ tensile stress of material, psi (MPa) threaded, steel fasteners are presented in SAE Standard J 1199.
TABLE 8-2
Materials, Proof Stresses, and Tensile Stresses for
Certain SAE Grades of Steel Bolts, Studs, and Screws*
SAE Nominal
Grade Diameter, Proof Stress, Tensile Stress,
Decimation Steel Treatment in. ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)
Low or ---
1 l/4through 1 1/2 33 (228)** 60 (414)
medium-carbon
Low or --- 1j 4 through 3/47 55 (379)** 74 (510)

2
medium-carbon 0ver3/4to 1 1/2 33 (228) 60 (414)
Medium-carbon 1/4 through 1 85 (586) 120 (827)
Quenched and
5 or low-carbon
tempered Over lto 1 1/2 74 (510) 105 (724)
martensitic
Medium-carbon
alloy, or low Quenched and
8 l/4through 1 1/2 120 (827) 150 ( 1034)
or medium-carbon tempered
martens itic~
* Abstracted with permission from SAE Standard J429, “Mechanical and Material Requirements for Externally Threaded
Fasteners. ”
** Rarely stress-relieved, except for carriage bolts.
T Grade 2 requirements for 1/ 4 through 3/4’’diam apply only to bolts 6“and shorter in length and to studs of all lengths. For
bolts and screws longer than 6“, Grade 1 requirements apply.
~ Fine-grain steel with hardenability that will produce a minimum hardness of RC47 at the center of a transverse section one
diameter from the threaded end of the bolt, stud, or screw after oil quenching (see SAE Standard J407).
8-11
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
TABLE 8-3
Tensile Stress Areas, Proof Loads, and Tensile Strengths for Certain Sizes
and SAE Grades of Steel Bolts, Studs, and Screws*
SAE Grade Designation

1 2 5 8
Nominal Tensile
Product Stress, Proof Tensile Proof Tensile Proof Tensile Proof Tensile
Diameter and Area, Load, Strength, Load, Strength, Load, Strength, Load, Strength,
Threads/in, in.2 (mm2) lb (kN) rein, lb (kN) lb (kN) rein, lb (kN) lb (kN) rein, lb (kN) lb (kN) rein, lb (kN)
Coarse-thread series (UNC):
1/4-20 0.0318 1050 1900 1750 2350 2700 3800 3800

(20,52) (4.67) (8.45) (7.78) (10.45) (12.01) (16<90) (16.90) (21.13)
3/8-16 0.0775 2550 4650 4250 5750 6600 9300 9300 11,600
(50,00) (11 .34) (20.68) (18.93) (25.58) (29.36) (41,37) (41.37) (5 1.60)
1/2-13 0.1419 4700 8500 7800 10,500 12,100 17,000 17,000 21,300
(91.55) (20.91) (37.81) (34.69) (46.70) (53.82) (75.62) (75.62) (94.74)
3/4-10 0.334 11,000 20,000 18,400 24,700 28,400 40,100 40,100 50,100
(215.48) (48.93) (88.96) (8 1.84) (109.87) (126.32) (178.36) (178.36) (222.84)
1-8 0.606 20,000 36,400 20,000 36,400 51,500 72,700 72,700 90,900
(390.97) (88.96) (161.91) (88.96) (161.91) (229.07) (323.37) (323.37) (404.32)
1 1/4-7 0.969 32,000 58,100 32,000 58,100 71,700 101,700 116,300 145,400
(625.16) (142.34) (258.43) (142.34) (258.43) (318.92) (452.36) (517.30) (646.74)
1 1/2-6 1.405 46,400 84,300 46,400 84,300 104,000 147,500 168,600 210,800
(906.45) (206.39) (374.97) (206.39) (374.97) (462.59) (656.08) (749.93) (937.64)
Fine-thread series (UNF):
1/ 4-28 0.0364 1200 2200 2000 2700 3100 4350 4350 5450
(23.48) (5.34) (9,79) (8.90) (12.01) (13.79) (19.35) (19.35) (24.24)
3/8-24 0.0878 2900 5250 4800 6500 7450 10,500 10,500 13,200
(56.65) (12.90) (23.35) (21.35) (28.9 1) (33.14) (46.70) (46.70) (58.71)
1/ 2-20 0.1599 5300 9600 8800 11,800 13,600 19,200 19,200 24,000
(103.16) (23.57) (42.70) (39.14) (52.49) (60.49) (85.40) (85.40) (106.75)
3/4-16 0.373 12,300 22,400 20,500 27,600 31,700 44,800 44,800 56,000
(240.64) (54.71) (99.64) (91.18) (122.76) (141.00) (199.27) (199.27) (249.09)
1-12 0.663 21,900 39,800 21,900 39,800 56,400 79,600 79,600 99,400
(427.74) (97.41) (1 77.03) (97.41) (177.03) (250.87) (354.06) (354.06) (442.13)
1 1/4-12 1.073 35,400 64,400 35,400 64,400 79,400 112,700 128,800 161,000
(692.26) (157.46) (286.45) (157.46) (286.45) (353.17) (501 .29) (572.90) (716.13)
1 1/2-12 1.581 52,200 94,900 52,200 94,900 117,000 166,000 189,700 237,200
(1020.00) (232. 19) (422.12) (232.19) (422. 12) (520.42) (738.37) (843.79) (1055.07)
* Abstracted with permission from SAE Standard J429, “Mechanical and Material Requirements for Externally Threaded
Fasteners. ”
Shear and Fatigue Strengths clamp load, the force exerted on the components of a joint
While joints are ~ften subject~d to shear loads, the shear should be large enough to keep them from sliding, thus
strengths of threaded fasteners are seldom specified, except in preventing the introduction of shear,
the case of aircraft, aerospace, and other critical applications. Fatigue strengths are important for structural, aircraft,
An increase in the number of shear planes, experienced when aerospace, and other critical applications. The fatigue strength
more than two components are bolted together, generally is only important when an assembly is exposed to repetitive
increases the shear loads that a joint can safely endure. Single cyclic loads. The use of cold-rolled threads, thread roots, and
shear strengths of the fasteners are often estimated to equal fillets, rolled after heat treatment, increases the fatigue strength
55-65% of the tensile strengths. By providing the proper level of of bolts and studs because of the residual compressive stresses,
8-12
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
work hardening, and improved grain flow resulting from the tools require appropriate wrenching surfaces and the power
cold rolling. An important factor with respect to the fatigue life necessary for the assembly operation. Both hand and power-
of an externally threaded fastener is that the preload must operated wrenches, nutrunners, and screwdrivers are used for
exceed the external cyclic load. tightening the threaded fasteners, the choice of tools depending
primarily on production requirements. Tools are available with
Assembly Tools or without detachable sockets and bits. It is essential that
The function of tools used in assembling threaded fasteners openings in or points on the tools fit the bolt heads, nuts, or
(see Fig. 8-23) is to apply the required torque and rotation. The screw slots properly to prevent damage.
Power tools are commonly operated by compressed air, but
hydraulic and electric tools are increasing in popularity.
Multispindle nutrunners are used extensively in high-produc-
tion industries such as automotive. Torque tools, both screw-
drivers and wrenches (see Fig. 8-24), are also in common use,
with torque adjustment often provided by slip clutches.
Power tools generally consist of a motor and reduction
1[ gearbox that reduces the motor speed from a 5000-10,000 rpm
range to output speeds in the 30-300 rpm range, Impact tools do
Yankee
not have gearboxes. Instead, torque is developed through a
hammer impacting mechanism. Power ratchet tools generate
torque by a hydraulic cylinder applying force to a lever arm.
Automatic drilling and riveting machines, as well as indus-
trial robots, are also being used for the installation of threaded
~@ fasteners. These machines are discussed in a subsequent section
Cross recess
of this chapter.
Screwdrivers Methods of Preloading

Accurate preloading is essential for reliable bolted joints.
Torque has been used for many years to determine the amount
of preload in assembling with threaded fasteners, An approx-
imation of the desired torque for required bolt tension can be
obtained by using the following equation:
T= CDF (5)
Reversible screwdriver
(positive clutch) with lever throttle where:
T= torque, lb-in. (N. m)
C❑ torque coefficient
D ❑ bolt diameter, in. (m)
F= bolt tension required, lb (N)
r
I
Socket
-1
u
Reversible impact wrench
~
wrenches
Rotary corner wrench
Power screwdrivers and wrenches
Fig. 8-23 Hand and power-operated screwdrivers and wrenches. Fig. 8-24 Torque screwdrivers and wrenches.
8-13
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
Arbitrary values for the torque coefficient, C (for noncritical

applications), are 0.22 for steel fasteners with a dry zinc plate
and 0.15 for fasteners with a dry cadmium plate. Values differ , Fast-response
for other materials and change with the use of different &
lubricants.
Determining the amount of preload by torque alone is not
accurate because only rotational forces are measured, not air motor i
2#iz
J
clamping forces. Also, there are many variables that influence
2--
Hig
torque, including the hardness and surface finish of the fastener,
Torque ml Torque
transducer Limits i 30 set point
thread fit, friction and lubrication, and the presence of burrs, Low ~’25 H
contaminants, and rust. Various methods for measuring torque Digital
_Jlo
“’) ~~
and newer methods of controlling preload more accurately are meter
discussed briefly in the remainder of this section.

Operator feel. Using the operator’s judgment to feel the
/
“L..
❑ ❑ Signal
amplifier
proper amount of preload with a hand wrench is the oldest and
a low-cost method of assembly. However, it is an inaccurate d
method of tightening and varies from operator to operator. Spindle tor~ue ‘
Estimates indicate there is a torque variation of *35’% with this

method of preload measurement.
Torque wrenches. The use of torque wrenches is a popular
Fig. 8-25 Feedback-controlled, stall-type tightening device.
method of preload measurement because of its simplicity and
low cost. Accuracy is estimated to be t 15-25% or more of
desired preload, but these tools are still being used extensively, level has a torque value just sufficient to seat the fastener against
especially for noncritical assembly applications. Torque-tension the mating parts. When the predetermined threshold torque has
tests duplicating the assembly process are possible and provide been reached, the fastener is rotated an additional number of
more accurate information for setting torque specifications degrees for tightening.
than do calculations. The specific amount of angular rotation performed after the
Impact wrench nutrunners. These tools rely on repetitive threshold torque has been reached is usually determined
torque impulses to tighten fasteners, with desired torque values experimentally, either by measuring bolt elongation or using
being preset at the tools. Repetitive accuracy of these tools is strain gages. A limitation of the torque-turn method is possible
poor because of variations in torque-action dynamics and improper seating during tightening because of rough or warped
operator dependence. Also, impact tools are noisy in operation. surfaces. In such cases, subsequent rotation will be used for
While impact wrenches are still used, they are generally limited seating rather than stretching of the fastener for required
to noncritical applications. tension. This tightening system is usually limited to fasteners
Stall motors. Stall-type tightening devices are superior to that have a large range between tensile and yield strengths.
impact wrenches with respect to repetitive accuracy. A variety Bolt extension tightening. In the so-called bolt extension
of air-powered tools are available that deliver good preload method of tightening, the elongation of the bolt is monitored
repeatability, providing the tool is properly lubricated and during the tightening process until a predetermined axial
maintained; also, the air supply pressure must not fluctuate extension has been achieved. The relationship between bolt
appreciably. A limiting factor is reliance on torque alone as a elongation and load, determined by analysis or test, is a
measure of fastener tension, but the tools are satisfactory for function of bolt geometry and material elasticity,
many applications. In practice, the measurement of bolt elongation is usually
Improved reliability is obtained with torque-monitored stall accomplished by accurately measuring the distance between
motors, consisting of a transducer and electronic units added to two precision ground surfaces, one on top of the bolt head and
a stall-type tightening device. Torque is monitored throughout the other on the end of the threaded portion of the bolt.
the rundown of the fastener, and torque output signals can be Sometimes a long, small-diameter hole is drilled axially along
used for various purposes, such as automatic acceptance or the centerline of the bolt, the hole stopping just short of
rejection of the assemblies, a control warning system, or breaking through the opposite end of the bolt. Extension of the
workpiece marking. bolt can then be measured from one end using a precision
A further advancement of stall-motor devices is to feed the depth gage.
torque monitoring signal back to the motor to automatically Use of washers and flanges. The use of special deforming
stop fastener tightening when a predetermined torque has been washers offers a relatively inexpensive and convenient means of
achieved. As shown in Fig. 8-25, the signal from a reaction-type indicating the amount of preload from tightening. When used
torque transducer is amplified and fed into a torque set-point properly, the washers are said to be capable of determining
comparator module. When the preset torque level is reached, preload within ~ 10~o. Bolts and nuts are available with resilient
the output from the comparator energizes a fast-acting air wave-shaped flanges (see Fig, 8-26). When the bolts or nuts are
shutoff valve mounted on the low-inertia air motor. In addition tightened, the wavy flanges flatten to indicate tightness by
to stopping the motor, the transducer torque signal can also be means of feeler gages. However, the use of such washers or
used for monitoring and actuating quality assurance devices. flanges do not accurately inspect the amount of torque applied
Torque-turn (turn-of-the-nut) tightening. In the torque-turn or indicate excessive loading.
technique, often called turn-of-the-nut tightening in the auto- Electronic systems. There have been many recent advances
motive industry, the fastener is first tightened to a low threshold in electronic control systems, which are being increasingly used
level, using only torque as the starting parameter. The threshold especially for critical applications to ensure more reliable
8-14
CHAPTER 8
THREADED FASTENERS
assemblies. Many of these systems use signals from both torque Ultrasonic monitoring. With this system, a single, high-
transducers and rotational angle encoders (see Fig. 8-27) to frequency sound wave is emitted from a transducer held against
monitor and /or control fastener tightening. Microprocessors one end ofa bolt. The sound wave traverses the length of the
are used in many systems to instantaneously monitor the bolt and is reflected back to the transducer. The change in time
relationship between torque rate and angle of rotation and to from emission to return indicates an increase in bolt length
stop the motor at the proper moment. resulting from tightening. A microprocessor is used to indicate
the amount of elongation or the stress level in the threads.
Fastener Loosening and Failure

Major causes of failure of threaded fasteners include improp-
Loose Tight
er tightening (clamp load), mismatch of the bolt-nut combina-
tion (causing thread stripping), hydrogen embrittlement, and
stress corrosion. Loosening is not often a problem under static
loading conditions, but can be a critical factor with cyclic
I
loading. The best protection against loosening and failure is
I 1— Indicator notch ~
I selecting an optimum fastener and applying the proper preload.
Loosening of threaded fasteners is generally caused by
transverse vibration or possibly by axial vibration, or both.
Tz’
Transverse vibration causes slippage between mating surfaces,
thus reducing the friction created by the preload, and results in
shear loading. Axial vibration causes a radial sliding motion
between the thread flanks, reducing friction. Loosening
can sometimes be minimized or eliminated by using fasteners
that are designed to resist loosening, including various types of
nuts, bolts, screws, and flanged products, all discussed later in
this chapter.
Fastener Marking
Manufacturers marks are required on fasteners by many
specifications. Any bolt or screw 5 mm (0.2”) or larger that does
not carry an appropriate engineering capability mark in
conformance with various standards may have questionable
strength and performance.
Notch accepts feeler gage Notch reiects feeler gage
BOLTS AND STUDS
Bolts are externally threaded fasteners generally assembled
with nuts (refer to Fig. 8-19, view a). While most bolts are
Fig. 8-26 Wavy flange on bolt flattens toindicate tightness. (Russe//,
headed, some are not. The means of distinguishing between
Burdsa/l& Ward Corp.)
bolts and screws are discussed in ANSI Standard B18.2. 1,
“Square and Hexagonal Bolts and Screws, Inch Series,” and in
the introduction to this section on threaded fasteners. Studs are
w
cylindrical rods threaded on one or both ends or throughout
their lengths (refer to Fig. 8-19, view c).
Bolts are available in a wide variety of types and sizes, a
few of which are shown in Fig, 8-28. Some of the head styles
and drives (refer to Fig. 8-20) are the same as used for screws,
discussed later in this chapter, but most bolts have round,
-- II
square, or hexagonal heads.
Hex-Head Bolts
Bolts with hexagonal heads (commonly called hex heads, the
supply
term that will be used throughout this section) are the most
toff valve
commonly used. These heads have a flat or indented top
Air matar
surface, six flat sides, and a flat bearing surface. The flat sides
Spindle angle encoder
11 facilitate tightening the bolts with wrenches. Hex heads are
Reaction-type torque transducer
/// often used on high-strength bolts and are easier to tighten than
Mounting plate
bolts with square heads. They are generally available in
Spindle assembly
standard strength grades as specified by ASTM, SAE, and
Driving socket
other organizations and to special strength requirements for
specific applications.
General data and dimensional specifications for hex-head
Fig. 8-27 Electronic control system monitors signals from both a bolts in the inch series are presented in ANSI Standard B 18.2.1.
torque transducer and a rotational angle encoder. Similar information for metric size bolts is presented in the
8-15
CHAPTER 8
BOLTS AND STUDS
Round-head, ribbed-neck bolts. These bolts, formerly desig-

nated ribbed-head carriage bolts, have ribbed, serrated, or
splined necks on the shanks under their heads. These ribs,
serrations, or splines engage the ID of the bolthole to provide
rotation resistance.
il
Round-head, finned-neck bolts, These bolts have two inte-
gral, diametrically opposed fins at the junction of their heads
and shanks.
Countersunk bolts. These bolts have circular heads, flat top
surfaces, and conical bearing surfaces with an included angle of
about 80°. They are available with or without driving slots in
their heads. Bolts without driving slots in their heads require
Hex Round Round some other feature for wrenching. Countersunk bolts having a
head head, head,
ribbed square
114° included angle and square necks on the shanks under their
neck neck heads were formerly designated countersunk carriage bolts.
Flat, countersunk head, elevator bolts have large-diameter
circular heads with flat top surfaces, shallow conical bearing
surfaces, and integral square necks under their heads. They
provide large bearing areas with nearly flush surfaces and are
used extensively for softer metals.
T-head bolts. These bolts have rectangular heads with
rounded top surfaces and flat bearing surfaces.
Square-Head Bolts
These bolts have square-shaped, external wrenching heads.
Dimensional specifications are presented in ANSI Standard
iii
B 18.2.1, and they are available in two strength grades. Lag
bolts, sometimes called lag screws, usually have square or hex
Round Countersunk Square
head, head, head heads, gimlet or cone points, and thin, sharp, coarse-pitch
finned square threads. They produce mating threads in wood or other resilient
neck neck materials and are used in masonry with expanding anchors.
Battery bolts have square heads and are generally stainless
steel or lead or tin coated for clamping onto battery terminals.
Fitting-up bolts have square heads and coarse-pitch, 60° stub
threads. They are used for the preliminary assembly of structural
Fig. 8-28 A few of the many types of bolts available.
steel components. T-bolts are square-head bo~ts used in the
T-slots of machine tools.
following ANSI Standards: B18.2.3.5M for hex-head,
B18.2.3.6M for heavy hex-head, and B18.2.3.7M for heavy Bent Bolts
hex-head, structural bolts. Structural bolts are also specified in Bent bolts are cylindrical rods having one end threaded and
ASTM Standards A 325 and A 490. the other end bent to various configurations. These include
eyebolts, hook bolts, and J-bolts. Other bent bolts, such as
Round-Head Bolts U-bolts, have both ends threaded. The ends of bent bolts are
Round-head bolts have thin circular heads with rounded or usually square (as sheared).
flat top surfaces and flat bearing surfaces. When provided with Hook bolts. These bolts have their unthreaded ends bent to
an underhead configuration that locks into the joint material, form acute or right angle, round (semicircular), square (two
round-head bolts resist rotation and are tightened by turning right-angle bends), or J-shaped hooks. The bent portions of
their mating nuts. Included in this classification, even though these bolts are available flattened.
the configurations differ, are countersunk and T-head bolts. U-bolts. These bolts, having threads at both ends, are
Variations of round-head bolts include those with square, available with round bends (bent at the middle to a semicircular
ribbed, or finned necks on the shanks below the heads to shape) or square bends (bent at the middle to form two
prevent the fasteners from rotating in their holes. Specifications right angles).
for round-head and countersunk bolts are included in ANSI Eyebolts. These bolts have their forged ends in the form of
Standard B 18.5. Data for metric sized, round-head, square- closed anchor rings. Specifications for eyebolts made from
neck bolts are presented in ANSI/ AS ME Standard B18.5.2.2M, carbon steel are presented in ASTM Standard A 489. These
and short, square-neck bolts are covered in Standard high-strength fasteners are used extensively as mountings for
B18.5.2. IM. rigging and moving heavy machinery.
Round-head, square-neck bolts. These bolts have integral, Forged eyebolts have flattened and pierced rings, with or
square necks on the shanks under their heads. They are also without collars or shoulders under their rings. These forgings
available with short square necks for use in sheet metal. Step are called aircraft, bossed, collared, shouldered, or drop bolts.
bolts are round-head, square-neck bolts with extra large head Collars or shoulders on such bolts limit the distance that the
diameters and thin heads. They are used in fastening step treads, bolts can be inserted into mating parts. Specifications for
flooring, and similar assemblies. forged eyebolts are presented in ANSI Standard B 18.15.
8-16
CHAPTER 8
BOLTS AND STUDS
Other Bolt Types

There are many other types of bolts available for various
applications. Only a few of the more common types are
discussed in this section.
Flanged washer-head bolts. These bolts are made with
Stud end Nut end
circular underhead collars to provide increased bearing areas (a)
and to protect material finishes. The integral collars often
eliminate the need for separate washers.
Machine bolts. These are general-purpose fasteners, gener-
ally supplied with nuts, having cylindrical bodies below various (b)
heads (hex, square, or round). Joint bolts are machine bolts
having conical points.
Internal wrenching fasteners. These fasteners, normally
screws rather than bolts, have large cylindrical heads, and flat
top and bearing surfaces. Recessed hexagonal sockets are
common for driving. High-strength and 12-point heads are used (c)
for high-temperature applications. Fasteners of this type with
heads having tapered sides are used by the aircraft industry.
Plow bolts. These bolts have countersunk heads, coarse
threads, and means provided in their heads or shanks to prevent
rotation. Methods of preventing rotation include square necks (d)
under the heads, triangular or rectangular keys in the heads, or

square, pyramidal-shaped heads. Dimensional specifications
for plow bolts are presented in ANSI Standard B 18.9.
Stove bolts. These bolts, formerly a commercial standard, Fig. 8-29 Studs of various types: (a) double-end stud of interference-
are now supplied as equivalent size machine screws with nuts, thread type, (b) continuous-thread stud, (c) collared stud with machine
screw thread on left end and thread for plastics on right end, and (d)
discussed later in this chapter. shouldered stud. ( Tri-Wesr Producn Inc. )
Stripper bolts. These bolts, used extensively in the tool and
die industry, are now called shoulder capscrews, discussed later
in this chapter. free-running threads at both ends are sometimes called stud
Track bolts. These bolts, originally designed for use with bolts or bolt studs. They are used to clamp two components
square nuts in joining railroad track rails, have circular heads together with nuts on both ends of the studs.
with oval or mushroom-shaped tops and oval or elliptical- Studs with free-running threads on one end and inter-
shaped necks below their heads to prevent rotation. Dimen- ference-fit threads on the other end are sometimes called tap-
sional specifications for track bolts and nuts are presented in end studs. The end with the free-running thread is known as the
ANSI/ ASME Standard B18.10. nut end and the other is the stud end. A finer pitch thread is
Expanding bolts. Fasteners that expand radially when axial commonly used on the stud end. Variations in the amount of
loads are applied are available in various designs. One expand- interference fit for specific applications are obtained by chang-
ing-type headed bolt is described later in this chapter under the ing the pitch diameter of the thread on the stud end.
subject “Special-Purpose Fasteners. ” Double-end studs are available with coarse, fine, or spaced
Self -1ocking bolts. Free-spinning, prevailing-torque, and threads. They are also made with special locking threads,
chemical locking methods of providing self-locking action for discussed later in this chapter under the subject “Self-Locking
boks are discussed later in this chapter under the subject “Self- Threaded Fasteners. ” Double-end locking studs are also avail-
Locking Threaded Fasteners. ” able with external serrations that broach soft parent material or
that are installed in prebroached holes to minimize the possibil-
ity of stud rotation. Stud bodies between the threaded ends are
Studs supplied unfinished or finished (full or undersize), depending
Studs are unheaded, externally threaded fasteners. They are on requirements.
available with threads on one or both ends or continuously Continuous-thread studs. These studs, threaded their entire
threaded. Studs with collars and threaded on one or both ends lengths with conventional, free-running threads for the assem-
are also available (see Fig. 8-29). Heat-treated and/ or plated bly of nuts on both ends, are sometimes called bolt studs or
studs are available to suit specific requirements. They are also threaded rods. Dimensional specifications for continuous-
made with chamfered or dog-point ends. thread studs are presented in ANSI Standard BI 6.5.
An advantage of studs for some applications, such as the Collared studs. These studs are available with threads on
assembly of large and heavy components, is that they can serve only one end and a collar near the opposite end, or with a collar
as pilots to facilitate mating of the components. These fasteners between threads at both ends. The collars are larger in diameter
also facilitate the automatic assembly of various components. than the threads. Studs with collars near one end or the centers
For many applications, studs provide fixed external threads of the studs and threads at the opposite end are frequently used
and nuts are the only components that have to be assembled. to carry gears, pulleys, levers, or other components and are
Double-end studs. These studs are made with conventional, often provided with holes for cotter pins or grooves for
free-running threads at both ends or with a conventional thread retaining rings or washers. Shoulder screws are similar to
at one end and an interference-fit thread at the other end; an collared studs except that all or part of their unthreaded
unthreaded body is between the ends. Clamping-type studs with portions are of a uniform diameter larger than the threads.
8-17
CHAPTER 8
NUTS
Some studs with collars near their centers have machine Nuts are available in regular and heavy types. Regular nuts
screw threads at one end and tapping screw threads at the other are used for average load conditions, and heavy nuts, generally
end, or machine screw threads at both ends. Others have being thicker and having heavier walls, are generally used for
machine screw threads at one end and threads for plastics at the high loading conditions. Nuts in sizes of 5/ 8“ or smaller are
opposite ends, facilitating the assembly of plastics to metal. generally double chamfered. Larger nuts may be double
Other studs. Welded studs are discussed in a subsequent chamfered or have a washer-face bearing surface and chamfered
section of this chapter under the subject “Captive Threaded top. Threaded holes in the nuts are generally countersunk on
Fasteners. ” Spring-clip stud receivers are described in the the bearing surfaces, with included angles of 90-120°.
following section, “Special-Purpose Fasteners. ” Hangar bolts
are stud-type rods having a lag-bolt or wood screw thread and Materials for Nuts
gimlet point at one end and a machine screw thread at the other. Carbon steels are the most common metals for nuts. They
are also available made from alloy steels, corrosion-resistant
NUTS steels, aluminum alloys, brass, bronze, and plastics. Material
Nuts are internally threaded fasteners that fit on bolts, studs, selection depends on application requirements and service
screws, or other externally threaded fasteners for mechanically conditions. Some nuts are heat treated, but most are not. N’ut
joining parts. They also serve for adjusting, transmitting strength is a combination of material strength, thread type, and
motion, or transmitting power in some applications, but nut thickness. Various platings and coatings are also available.
generally require special thread forms. Nuts are available in a For heavy coatings, overtapping, as specified in ASTM Stan-
wide range of standard and special types (see Fig, 8-30), sizes, dard A 563, may be applicable.
materials, and strengths to suit specific requirements.
Hex and square nuts, sometimes referred to as full nuts, are
Minimizing Loosening
the most common. Hex nuts are used for most general-purpose
Self-loosening of assemblies using threaded fasteners can be
applications. Square machine screw nuts are usually limited to
minimized in several ways. Mechanical means include the use of .
I(ght-duty and ~pecial assemblies. Regular and he_avy square
jam, castle, and slotted nuts, discussed in this section. Other
nuts are often used for bolted flange connections.
methods include using self-locking nuts of the free-spinning,
captive Iockwasher, prevailing-torque, and chemical locking
types, discussed subsequently in this chapter under the subject
w
“Self-Locking Threaded Fasteners. ”
Wing nuts,
cold forged
D
Acorn (cap) nuts,
Hex Nuts
Hex nuts have hexagonal bases, with or without washer
faces, and six flat sides that serve as wrenching surfaces. They
high crown or
and stamped
low crown are available in various dimensional series, including heavy and
regular. The nuts are also made indifferent thicknesses, such as
standard, jam (thin), and thick. Castle and slotted types are also
@+ @+~ available.
Dimensional specifications for hex nuts in the inch series,
Regular and heavy Square machine
including thick, heavy, jam, slotted, and castle types, are
square nuts screw nuts presented in ANSI Standard B 18.2.2. The data for metric Style
1 hex nuts is included in ANSI Standard B18.2.4. 1M and for
Style 2 in ANSI Standard B18.2.4.2M. Style 2 nuts are about
10% thicker than Style 1 nuts. Metric heavy hex nuts are the
@~~ @~g
subject of ANSI Standard B18.2.4.6M.
Flanged nuts. These nuts have an integral flange to provide
Hex nuts, Castle nuts, increased bearing areas to distribute the loads. The top surface
regular and heavy finished hex
of the flange is conical or slightly rounded (convex). Dimension-
al specifications for metric hex flange nuts are presented in
ANSI Standard B18.2.4.4M. Inch nuts are covered in IFI
@$_~~ @+j~ Standard 107.
Hex jam nuts. These are thin nuts generally used on shear
Hex iam nuts, Hex nuts,
joints or to obtain locking action. For some applications, after a
regular and heavy machine screw jam nut has been seated, the full nut is tightened to the required
preload while the jam nut is held stationary. This procedure
provides good locking, but the joint may not be well preloaded.
It may be. preferable to load the joint with the full nut and then
+j!$j~~ jam the thin nut on top of the assembly. Specifications for
metric hex jam nuts are presented in ANSI Standard
B18,2.4.5M.
Hex slatted nuts,
regular and heavy
Slotted nuts. These nuts have slots for cotter pins or wires to
lock the nuts in place when used with mating fasteners having
holes in their shanks. Slotted nuts, formerly known as castel-
Fig. 8-30 Various types of nuts. ( Tri- W’esrProducts Inc. ) lated nuts, have cylindrical portions at their slotted ends equal
8-18
CHAPTER 8
NUTS
in length to the slot depths and slightly smaller in diameter than are specifically limited to light-duty applications, but are
the hexagon widths. available with other type threads for some heavier duty
Slotted nuts have opposed slots through the centers of their applications.
flats, with the slots on the ends opposite the bearing surfaces
and perpendicular to the axes of the nuts. Microslotted nuts are Stamped Nuts
the same, but have more slots than standard slotted nuts. Tri- Stamped nuts are hex fasteners stamped from spring steel or
slotted nuts have three large slots. Specifications for metric other metals, with prongs formed to engage mating threads.
slotted hex nuts are included in ANSI Standard B 18.2.4.3M. They are similar to single-thread nuts in that they rely on spring
Prevailing-torque nuts. These nuts, mentioned previously in action for clamping and resistance to loosening, but they have
this section, are discussed in detail in a subsequent section of more prongs to engage the threads on the mating fastener.
this chapter under the subject “Self-Locking Threaded Fasten- Applications include replacements for full nuts in low-stress
ers.” Dimensional specifications for prevailing-torque type, uses and as retaining nuts against full nuts (see Fig. 8-32).
steel hex locknuts are presented in lF1 Standard 100; flange Stamped nuts are made with integral washers, in closed top or
locknuts are covered in IFI Standard 107. Metric nut dimen- bottom styles, and as wingnuts.
sions are included in ANSI Standard B18. 16.3M, and per-
formance specifications are covered in B 18.16.1 M. Captive Nuts
Captive (self-retained) nuts are often used on thin materials
Square Nuts and for blind locations. They include plate or anchor nuts,
Square nuts have square bases, generally without washer caged nuts, clinch and self-clinching nuts, and self-piercing
faces, and four flat sides for wrenching purposes. They are nuts, all discussed in a subsequent section of this chapter under
available in regular and heavy series with varying proportions. the subject “Captive (Self-Retained) Threaded Fasteners. ”
General data and dimensional specifications for square nuts in
the inch series are presented in ANSI Standard B 18.8.2. Other Types of Nuts
There are many other types of nuts available, most designed
Machine Screw Nuts for the requirements of specific applications. A few of the more
Machine screw nuts are hex or square nuts of proportions common types are described in this section.
suitable for use with machine screws. They are almost always Crown nuts. These nuts, also called acorn or cap nuts, are
used for light-duty applications, such as for joining sheet metal hex fasteners having an acorn-shaped top and a blind threaded
assemblies, where strength requirements are minimal. Specifi- hole. They are available with high or low crowns. Their closed
cations for machine screw nuts are included in ANSI Standard tops protect the projecting ends of mating, externally threaded
B18.6.3. fasteners and provide a pleasing appearance. They are com-
monly used when the projecting ends of externally threaded
Wingnuts fasteners may be hazardous, as in toys.
Wingnuts, sometimes called thumb nuts, have so-called Track-bolt nuts. These square nuts were originally designed
“wings,” generally two per nut, designed for manual tightening for use with track bolts in joining railroad track rails. They are
without wrenches or drivers. Four types of wingnuts in the inch available with 45 or 60° chamfers. Dimensional specifications
series are specified in ANSI Standard B18. 17. Type A is cold
formed or forged, Type B is hot forged, Type C is die cast, and
Type D is stamped from sheet metal. Types C and D have three
wing styles with different wing heights. Types A, B, and D are
generally made from carbon steel, corrosion-resistant steel, or
I Single-
,thread
nut
brass. Type C wingnuts are cast from a zinc alloy.
Single-Thread Nuts
Single-thread nuts, sometimes called spring nuts, are formed
by stamping a thread-engaging impression (arched prongs) in a
flat piece of metal (see Fig. 8-31). These nuts are generally made Bolt
screw
from high-carbon spring steel (SAE 1050-1064), but are also
available in corrosion-resistant steel, beryllium copper, and
other metals. Fig. 8-31 Single-thread nut.
Single-thread nuts are made in many shapes and styles, but
all depend on spring action for their holding power and
I
a
resistance to vibration. Flat, circular, and round types are I Stamped
common, and some have spanner holes for driving. They are nut
also available in J and U-types that snap over the edges of

panels or into hole locations, holding themselves in place for
blind assemblies. Angle nuts having a single thread impression
Full
on each leg are used to join perpendicular components.
nut
As an alternative to full nuts, single-thread nuts permit faster
assembly and reduced weight with lower costs, Other advan- Bolt
tages include minimum torque requirements, easy disassembly,
and elimination of the need for Iockwashers. Single-thread nuts Fig. 8-32 Stamped nut applied and tightened after full nut is in place.
8-19
CHAPTER 8
NUTS
for track-bolt nuts are presented in ANSI Standard B 18.10. nuts are discussed later in this section under the subject
Coupling and conduit nuts. Coupling nuts, generally thin “Captive (Self-Retained) Threaded Fasteners. ”
and round, are used to connect pipes or tubes. They are Self-locking nuts. Nut-washer assemblies, nuts with ele-
generally stamped and are available in square, hexagonal, or ments made of plastics, locknuts, and other free-spinning and
octagonal shapes. Conduit nuts are used to connect electrical prevailing-torque fasteners are discussed subsequently under
pipe or fittings to boxes, Most conduit nuts are round and have the subject “Self-Locking Threaded Fasteners. ”
ears that provide wrenching surfaces, locking action, and
electrical grounding. These nuts normally have one to two
SCREWS
threads that are either tapped or formed. Most conduit nuts are
Screws are externally threaded fasteners capable of being
made from steel, but they are also available as zinc die castings.
inserted into holes in assembled parts, of mating with pre-
Panel nuts. These thin nuts, normally hexagonal, are similar
formed internal threads, or of cutting or forming their own
to conduit nuts but are used to assemble externally threaded
threads. They are generally tightened or released by rotating the
fasteners to panels. They typically have fine or extrafine threads
screwheads. Because of their basic design, it is possible to use
and are available made from steel, brass, or zinc alloy.
some screws, which are sometimes called bolts, in combination
T-nuts. These square nuts having T-shapes are designed to
with nuts. Criteria for distinguishing between such screws and
fit into the T-slots on machine tools.
bolts are delineated in ANSI Standard B 18.2.1, “Square and
Barrel and sleeve nuts. These nuts are made in two types.
Hexagonal Bolts and Screws, Inch Series. ” 1S0 terminology
Type 1 is a blind, internally threaded fastener having an
identifies screws as having threads extending to their heads,
external shape like a machine screw (see Fig, 8-33). Type 2 is a
with bolts having unthreaded portions under their heads.
cylindrical nut having its internal thread at a right angle to the
Screws are available in a wide variety of types and sizes to
axis of the cylinder. Sleeve nuts are essentially the same as Type
suit specific requirements for different applications. Major
1 barrel nuts except that their threads extend throughout their
types discussed in this section include machine screws, cap-
entire lengths.
screws, setscrews, sems (screw and washer assemblies), and
Aircraft nuts. These nuts, usually of high strength and light tapping screws. Other types of screws not discussed in this
weight, conform to material and dimensional standards promul-
section include lag, miniature, wood, and thumb or wing
gated by the aerospace industry and other organizations.
designs. Self -1ocking screws and other fasteners of the free-
Round nuts. These nuts have plain cylindrical peripheries
spinning, prevailing-torque, and chemical locking types are
with no provisions for wrenching onto mating threads. They are
discussed in a succeeding section of this chapter.
usually applied by hand tightening. Round nuts having part(s)
of their cylindrical peripheries knurled to facilitate hand
tightening are called knurled nuts. Head Styles
Spline nuts. These internally threaded cylindrical fasteners Screws are available with many different head styles and
have external splines or serrations that hold them in place when drives, some of which are illustrated earlier in this chapter (refer
the nuts are forced into holes that are slightly smaller in to Fig. 8-20). Selection depends primarily on the joint material,
diameter, They are also cast in place in plastics and low- type of assembly equipment to be used, joint loading, and
strength, die cast alloys. appearance requirements. Means provided integral with the
Internal wrenching nuts. These cylindrical nuts have sockets heads for driving the screws include slots, recesses, and
in their ends for wrenching (see Fig. 8-34). wrenching surfaces.
Captive nuts. Plate, anchor, and weld nuts; push and snap-in Round heads. These commonly used heads have flat bearing
nuts; clinched and self-clinching (press) nuts; and self-piercing surfaces and spherical-sector top surfaces, with slots or recesses
for driving.
Flat heads. These heads have flat top surfaces and conical
bearing surfaces for flush mounting with work surfaces when
the mounting holes are countersunk. Screws are made with the
conical bearing surfaces at various angles. Included angles of 82
and 100° are most common for inch series screws, but 90° is
standard for metric series screws. Heads with a 100° included
angle are thinner and larger in diameter than those with an 82°
angle and are generally preferred for use with soft metals or
nonmetallic materials. There is some usage of flat heads that
Fig. 8.33 Type 1 barrel nut with a fillister head. have an included angle of 130° for aircraft composite structures.
Flathead screws are available with slots or recesses for driving,
and they should seat flush in the mounting holes. Hole
clearance must be provided to allow for head eccentricity.
Flat trim heads. These heads have a smaller diameter and
shorter height than standard flathead screws. Screws with these
heads are sometimes called “shear head’’ fasteners because they
L
are often used where shear is the principle concern; however,
tensile strength is poor. Recessed drives are generally used for
screws with this type of head.
Flu/ undercut heads. These heads are essentially the same as
I I 82° flat heads except that they are undercut to make them about
Fig. 8-34 Internal wrenching nut. one-third thinner, thus slightly increasing the thread length.
8-20
CHAPTER 8
SCREWS
They are commonly used for joining thin materials and are which are discussed later in this section, these heads have
generally the standard for short-length screws. rounded top surfaces and may be tapered or radiused into their
Fillister heads. These heads have rounded top surfaces, bodies under the heads.
cylindrical side surfaces, flat bearing surfaces, and small Socket heads. These heads have flat, chamfered top surfaces;
diameters. High side surfaces and deep slots or recesses permit smooth or knurled cylindrical side surfaces; and flat bearing
applying high torque loads. They are commonly used in surfaces. A hexagonal or splined (sometimes called fluted)
counterbored holes, Flat fillister heads are similar to fillister recessed drive socket is formed in the center of the top surface.
heads except that their top surfaces are flat, permitting driving These heads are also available in flat and button head styles.
flush with work surfaces in counterbored holes. T-heads. These heads are oblong shaped and have rounded
Pan heads. These heads have flat bearing surfaces and, for top surfaces, flat sides, and flat bearing surfaces. The heads are
slotted designs, flat top surfaces that are rounded into cylindri- generally not used to drive the screws.
cal side surfaces. This design provides an optimum combination Twelve-point heads. These heads, sometimes called double-
of head thickness and bearing surface, as well as good driving hex heads, have flat or indented top surfaces; 24 short, flat sides;
characteristics, and is therefore often the preferred design. circular collars at the bottoms of their heads; and flat bearing
Recessed pan heads, having semielliptical top surfaces rounded surfaces. Screws with these heads are used extensively for
into the cylindrical side surfaces, provide thicker heads to fastening aircraft components because they ensure good wrench
accommodate recessed drives. engagement and permit high tightening forces.
Binding heads. These heads have rounded top surfaces,
tapered side surfaces, and flat bearing surfaces that are Screw Points
generally undercut adjacent to the threaded shanks. The Various configurations are used on the ends of screw shanks
undercut permits binding wire without fraying and tends to to suit specific requirements. The points used on setscrews and
captivate solid or stranded wires when tightened. However, tapping screws are discussed subsequently in this section.
undercuts are only provided at the option of the screw Chamfered points. Truncated conical points facilitate the
manufacturer unless specifically ordered, insertion of screws into holes at assembly, The ends of
Button and truss heads. Button heads have low, rounded top chamfered points are flat and perpendicular to the axes of the
surfaces and large, flat bearing surfaces. Truss heads, some- screws, and the included angles of the chamfers vary from 45 to
times called oven heads or stove heads, are similar to button 90°. When cold formed, these points are called header points.
heads except that their heads are larger in diameter for a given The minimum diameter of the point is generally equal to or
screw size. The thin truss heads are used extensively for slightly less than the minor diameter of the screw thread.
covering large holes in sheet metal, to provide extra holding Chamfered points are mandatory for capscrews.
power, or for soft materials. Plain points. The screw ends are cut or sheared flat,
Washer heads. These heads, sometimes called flanged heads, perpendicular to the screw axes, but may be slightly concave
have circular collars that provide large, flat surfaces for when the threads are rolled.
increased bearing areas and to protect material finishes during Cone and needle points. Sharp conical points are used for
assembly. This design eliminates the need for separate assembly perforating or aligning requirements. Needle points are longer
of washers. Various head styles, such as round or hex heads, are cone points used for piercing operations.
provided on top of the collars. Corrugated patterns are Pinch points. These short, sharp, conical points generally
sometimes formed on the bearing surfaces to prevent rotation, have an included angle of 45°, but the included angle can vary
but there are no industry standards for such heads. from 30 to 90°. They are used on small tapping screws. The
Hex heads. These heads have flat or indented top surfaces, points can be rolled when threading.
six flat sides, and flat bearing surfaces. The flat sides facilitate Oval points. Screws with oval points have radiused ends.
driving with wrenches. Some hex heads have their flat sides Spherical points. These are oval points in which the point
cross drilled to accept safety wires or pins. radii are equal to half the shank diameters.
Oval heads. These heads have rounded top surfaces and Pilot points. These cylindrical points have diameters smaller
conical bearing surfaces, with the included angle between the than the shank diameters of the screws. They facilitate the
conical surfaces generally being 82° for inch series screws and alignment and starting of screws and other fasteners and are
90° for metric series. The oval tops are sometimes desirable for commonly called dog points, semidog points, or cone points.
their neat appearance. Gimlet points. These are threaded conical points generally
Oval undercuf heads. These heads are essentially the same as having an included angle of 40-50°. They are used on some
standard oval heads except that they are undercut, thus making thread-forming and wood screws.
them about one-third thinner and increasing their thread Cup points. These points are discussed subsequently in this
lengths slightly. They are often used for short-length screws. section under the subject “Setscrews.”
Oval trim heads. These heads are of smaller diameter and
shorter height than standard oval heads and controlled radii at Machine Screws
the junctions of their top and bearing surfaces. Recessed drives Machine screws are usually inserted into tapped holes, but
are generally used for screws with this type of head. are sometimes used with nuts, They are generally supplied with
Ball heads. These heads are approximately spherical in plain (as sheared) points, but for some special applications they
shape. Special screws with such heads are frequently used for are made with various types of points. Machine screws have
ball-and-socket swivel applications. slotted, recessed, or wrenching heads in a variety of styles and
Headless. Special screws of this type have no heads and are are usually made from steel, stainless steel, brass, or aluminum.
provided with slots, recesses, or sockets in one end. Many machine screws are made from unhardened materials,
Square heads. These heads have flat top surfaces, four flat but hardened screws are available. Grade 5 screws have a
sides, and flat bearing surfaces. When used on setscrews, minimum tensile strength of 120 ksi (827 MPa) and Grade 8
8-21
CHAPTER 8
SCREWS
screws, 150 ksi (1034) M Pa). They have replaced the formerly Shoulder capscrews have cylindrical shoulders (larger in
commercial standard stove bolts. diameter than the threads, but smaller in diameter than the
Complete general and dimensional data for slotted and heads) under their heads to serve as bearings or spacers and
recessed-head machine screws and machine screw nuts is necked portions between the threads and the shoulders. These
presented in ANSI Standard B 18.6.3. Specifications for metric shoulder screws, formerly called stripper bolts, are used exten-
machine screws are included in lFI Standard 513, which will be sively in the tool and die industry.
withdrawn when the planned ANSI Standard B 18.6.7M is General data and dimensional specifications for hex-head
published. capscrews in the inch series are presented in ANSI Standard
B 18.2.1. Hex-head capscrews in the metric series are specified in
Capscrews ANSI Standard B 18.2.3.1 M. Dimensional differences of these
Capscrews are manufactured to close dimensional tolerances metric capscrews from those in I SO Standard4014 are very few
and are designed for applications requiring high tensile strengths. and relatively minor and do not affect their functional inter-
Heat-treated, alloy steel capscrews have tensile strengths to 180 changeability. Formed, hex-head capscrews in the metric series,
ksi ( 1240 M Pa). Metric socket-head capscrews have tensile which are cold formed with fully upset (untrimmed) heads, are
strengths varying from 830 to 1220 MPa. They are available in covered in ANSI Standard B 18.2.3.2M, conforming essentially
standard sizes from 1/ 4 to 3“ diam. with 1S0 Standard 4015. Heavy, hex-head capscrews in the
The shanks of capscrews are generally not fully threaded to metric series are the subject of ANSI Standard B 18.2.3.3M.
their heads, but some are, and the ends are as specified in ANSI Dimensional data for socket-head and shoulder capscrews
Standard B 18.2.1. They are made with hex, socket, or fillister in the inch series is presented in ANS1/ASME Standard B18.3.
slotted heads (see Fig. 8-35). Low-head capscrews are available Metric series, socket-head capscrews are the subject of ANSI
for applications having head clearance problems. Most cap- Standard B 18.3.1 M. Other standards for socket-head cap-
screws are made from steels, stainless steels, brasses, bronzes, screws include ANSI B 18.3.4M for buttonhead screws and
and aluminum alloys. Standard nomenclature for hex-head ANS1/ ASME Standard B18.3.5M for flat countersunk-
capscrews is illustra~ed in Fig. 8-36. head screws.
Data and dimensions for slotted-head capscrews in the inch
series are presented in ANSI Standard B 18.6.2. Metric, socket-
head shoulder screws are the subject of AN S1 Standard
B 18.3.3 M. Hex-head, flanged (washer) capscrews in the metric
series are specified in ANSI Standard B 18.2.3.4M and ANS1/
ASME Standard B18.2.3.9M.
Hex head
Setscrews
Setscrews (see Fig. 8-37) are hardened fasteners generally
used to hold pulleys, gears, and other components on shafts.
Socket head
Hardness of the shaft is an important consideration in selecting
‘a Fillister slotted head

a proper setscrew. They are available in various styles, with
square-head, headless-slotted, hex-socket, and splined (fluted)
socket styles being the most common. Holding power is
provided by compressive forces, with some setscrews providing
additional resistance to rotation by penetration of their points
Fig. 8-35 Cagrscrews with various heads. into the shaft material.
Maior
Im
diameter
Pitch
diameter
Minor
diameter
n di
Crest J
Pitch
Roat
Roat
radius
*
I
M
Fig. 8-36 Standard nomenclature for hex-head capscrews. ( Tri-West Products k.)
8-22
CHAPTER 8
SCREWS
Drive types. The drive configuration determines how much

torque can be transmitted for clamping. For example, less
torque can be transmitted through slotted-head setscrews than
can be transmitted through hex or splined socket-head set-
screws, resulting in less holding power. The torque that can be
applied to square-head setscrews is about twice that of socket-
recess setscrews.
Point styles. Setscrews are available with various point styles
(see Fig. 8-37) to suit specific requirements. Cup and cone
I Square
head
Headless
slotted
Flat C,jp point Ova I
points are used without spotting holes in the shafts and

penetrate deeper than oval or flatpoint setscrews.
Flaf points. These are designed for holding with minimum
penetration, They are used for frequent relocation of parts on ] Hex Fluted Cane Half dog Full dog
I
shafts, especially on hardened steel shafts, with minimum socket socket
Setscrew points
deformation to the shaft surfaces. Flats are sometimes ground Setscrews
on the shafts for better contact. Flatpoint setscrews are also
desirable where the walls of the assembly components are thin Fig. 8-37 Common types of setscrews and setscrew points.
or as a backing for soft metal plugs.
Cup points. These are the most commonly used points on
setscrews. They provide good holding power with slight pene- commonly used; full dog points are for applications requiring
tration. Cup-point setscrews are used on shafts having harn- longer points.
esses to within Rc 10-15 points of the screw harnesses and Standards. General data and dimensional specifications for
where digging-in of the points is not undesirable. They are socket-head setscrews in the inch series are presented in ANSI
available with knurled cups, knurled outer cones, hexagonal Standard B 18.3. Similar information for square-head and
recesses, and other designs to provide more secure self-locking. slotted headless setscrews in the inch series is contained in ANSI
Oval points. Oval-point setscrews are used where frequent Standard B 18.6.2. Metric, socket-head setscrews are covered in
adjustments are required or where excessive indentation of the ANSI Standard B18.3.6M. These metric setscrews are func-
shafts or mating parts is undesirable. They are also used where tionally interchangeable with those specified in 1S0 Standards
the points contact angular surfaces. Sometimes, spots or 4026,4027, 4028, and 4029.
grooves of oval section are provided on the assembly compo-
nents for better seating. Sems—Screw and Washer Assemblies
Cone points. Setscrews with this type of point are used for Sems is a generic word for a preassembled screw and washer
permanent locations of components. Spotting holes are fre- fastener. The washer is placed on the screw blank prior to roll
quently provided on the components, especially hardened threading and becomes a permanent part of the assembly after
shafts, to accommodate the points, with the points usually roll threading, but is free to rotate. Sems are available in various
entering the holes to half the point lengths. combinations of head styles and washer types (see Fig. 8-38 and
Dog points. Setscrews with cylindrical dog points are Table 8-4). Washers commonly used include flat (plain),
generally used for the permanent location of components. The conical, spring, and toothed Iockwashers, discussed later in this
flat-end points are spotted in holes or slots having the same chapter. Some manufacturers produce sems with as many as
diameters as the dog points. Half dog points are the most four washers per assembly.
Truss-head screw and Fillister-head screw Round-head screw and

external-toathed and internal-taathed internal-external taathed
Iockwasher Iackwasher Iockwasher
—
Hex-head screw and Panhead screw and Panhead screw and
spring Iockwasher conical spring washer plain flat washer
Fig. 8-38 Various screw and washer assemblies.~
8-23
CHAPTER 8
SCREWS
TABLE 8-4
Screw and Washer Assembly Combinations4
Toothed Lockwasher
Conical
lnternal- Spring Spring Plain
Screw Head Style External Internal External Lockwasher Washer Washer
Fillister x x x x x
Flat x
Hex x x x x x x
Hex washer x x x x x
Oval x
Pan x x x x x x
Round x x x x x x
Truss x x x x x x
Hex socket x x x x x
Sems are used extensively in mass production industries, Advantages of tapping screws include rapid installation
such as automotive and appliance, and are suitable for auto- because nuts are not needed and access is required from only
matic assembly operations. These fasteners permit more con- one side. Mating threads fit the screw threads closely, with no
venient and rapid assembly by eliminating the need for a clearances necessary. Underhead serrations or nibs on some
separate washer assembly operation, ensure the presence of the screws increase locking action and minimize thread stripout.
proper washer in each assembly, and prevent the loss of washers Thread-forming screws. When these screws are driven,
during maintenance. material adjacent to the holes is displaced and flows around the
General data and dimensional specifications for sems in the screw threads. Applications are typically in materials where
inch series are presented in AN S 1 Standard B 18.13. Similar large internal stresses are permissible or desirable to increase
information on metric sems is contained in IFI Standard 531. resistance to loosening. There are five types: AB, B, BP, A, and
C (see Fig. 8-40), as well as high-performance, thread-rolling
Tapping Screws screws, aid special thread-form-ing screws for plastics.
Tapping screws (see Fig. 8-39) cut or form mating threads TJpe A B. These tapping screws have spaced threads and
when driven into holes. Self-drilling, self-piercing, and special gimlet points and are generally used in thin metals, resin-
tapping screws are also available. They are made with slotted, impregnated plywood, asbestos compositions, and soft woods.
recessed, or wrenching heads in various head styles and with Type B. These tapping screws have spaced threads and blunt
spaced (coarse) inch or metric threads. Tapping screws are points with incomplete entering threads. They are used in thin
generally used in thin materials, but some can be driven through to medium-thickness metals, nonferrous castings, and some
materials to 1/ 2“ ( 12.7 mm) thick. Additional information on plastics, 0.050-0.200” (1.27-5.08 mm) thick.
thread forming and cutting screws for plastics is presented in a Type BP. These tapping screws have spaced threads the
subsequent section of this chapter under the subject “Special- same as Type B, but have conical points extending beyond the
Purpose Fasteners.” incomplete entering threads. They are used in assemblies where
I Self-tapping screws
For fastening all For plastics, For metals and For plastics. For metals. Forms,
types and thickness Note double slot plastics. Note Has coarse lead rather than cuts,
of metal multiple dots threads
For sheet metal For sheet metal up For heavy gage

up to 18 gage, ta 6 gage, nonferrous ~ sheet metal,
plywood, asbestos, castings, plastics, % castings,
and composition plywaod, asbestos, structural steel,
materials and composition i plastics, and
* materials T plywood
I
Fig. 8-39 Common types of tapping screws.
8-24
CHAPTER 8
SCREWS
45” * 5“ Type BF
-< Type AB
Type BT Type D
Type B
Type BP
Type F
Type A
Type G Type T
Type C
Fig. 8-40 Types of thread-forming tapping screws. (Southern.$cre~) Type U (metallic

drivescrew)
holes are misaligned and for piercing fabrics to tap thin metals,
nonferrous castiruzs. and some ulastics. Fig. 8-41 Types of thread-cutting tapping screws and a metallic drive-
screw. (Soulhern ScreM,)
Tvpe A. These-tapping scre-ws have coarse-spaced threads
and gimlet points. They are not recommended for new product
designs and are being supplanted by Type AB screws. 7“pe BF. These thread-cutting screws have spaced threads,
T}pe C. These tapping screws have threads of machine screw blunt ends, and tapered entering threads, complete or incom-
diameter-pitch combinations, blunt points, and tapered, incomplete. Serrations on the points cut the mating threads, and some
plete entering threads. They are used where machine screw chips may fall into the product being assembled. These screws
threads are preferred to the spaced threads on other thread- are used in thin metal and some light-duty plastic bosses.
forming screws. However, their use is declining, primarily Type BZ Thread-cutting screws of this type, also known by
because of the high driving torques required, and they are not manufacturers designation 25, have wide shank slots to cut the
recommended for new product designs. mating threads. They are used in sheet metal of medium
High-peflormance, thread-rolling screws. Tapping screws of thickness and plastics.
various designs having performance capabilities beyond those ~}pes D, F, G, and T. These thread-cutting screws have
normally expected of other standard thread-forming screws are threads of machine screw diameter-pitch combinations, blunt
available for roll forming the threads. Tightening requirements points, and tapered entering threads having one or more cutting
are generally low, depending on hole size, material thickness, edges and chip cavities. The tapered threads on Type F screws
and other factors, and they can be used in thicker materials. may be complete or incomplete; all other types have incomplete
General data and dimensional specifications for these types of tapered threads.
screws in the inch series are presented in IF I Standard 1 I2. Types D and T, also known by manufacturers designations 1
Screws for plastics. There are several designs of thread- and 23, respectively, as well as Type F screws are used in
forming screws for plastics. One, Type BHL, has dual-lead, aluminum and zinc die castings, steel sheets and shapes, cast
spaced threads consisting of alternate high and low thread irons, and some plastics. Type G screws are also used to cut
profiles. These screws are suitable for forming threads in softer threads in thin materials, but are used more extensively in
plastics and are available with cutter slots for cutting threads in tapped holes as adjustment screws.
harder plastics. Metallic drivescrews. These screws, designated Type U (see
Thread-cutting screws. These screws have cutting edges and Fig. 8-41 ), have multiple-start threads of large helix angle and
chip cavities that create mating threads by removing material flat pilot points. When forced under pressure into workplaces
from the assembly component. They are used in materials made of metals or plastics, they make permanent fastenings.
where internal stresses are undesirable or where excessive Self-drilling and piercing screws. Starting holes are not
driving torques are required with thread-forming screws. required with these screws. Self-drilling tapping screws have
Thread-cutting screws are made in the following types: BF, BT, self-contained drills, the points of which produce holes when
D, F, G, and T (see Fig. 8-41). the screws are driven. Portions of the screws behind the drilling
8-25
CHAPTER 8
SCREW THREAD INSERTS
tips cut or form the mating threads. There are two basic types of SCREW THREAD INSERTS
self-drilling screws: one with spaced threads and the other with Screw thread inserts are threaded plugs or spiral coils that
machine screw type threads. Basic point types are milled, die serve as taDDed holes for bolts. studs. and screws. Thev r)rovide
point (cold-forged), and combination cold-forged points with strong thr~~ds, allowing frequent assembly and disas~e’mbly of
milled slots. Self-piercing screws have pointed tips to produce externally threaded fasteners.
pilot holes.
Special tapping screws. Tapping screws with preassembled Applications
captive washers are called sems, discussed previously in this The major application for screw thread inserts is to provide
section. Tapping screws coated with sealing materials are also
strong threads in lightweight materials, such as plastics, alum-
available. Other special tapping screws include self-captive and inum, magnesium, and wood. Such lightweight materials are
double-lead thread types. weaker and less resistant to wear than iron or steel, and the
These types of special tapping screws combine coarse-pitch disadvantages of having to tap them can be avoided by using
starting threads with finer-pitch threads further along the screw threaded inserts. Inserts are also used sometimes in hard
shanks. The coarse threads produce pilot threads, and then the materials to provide wear-resistant threads, thread-locking
fine threads change the pitch of the mating threads pro- features, and to permit the repair of damaged assemblies by
duced. Because of the pitch change, the screws cannot be replacing the inserts, Certain floating types of inserts can be
removed easily. used to allow nuts to align themselves radially.
Standards. Dimensional specifications and general data for
tapping and metallic drivescrews in the inch series are presented
Selection Factors
in ANSI Standard B 18.6.4. Metric sizes are specified in lFI
Selecting an optimum insert for a specific application
Standard 502, which will be withdrawn when the planned ANSI
requires consideration of several factors. Assembly strength,
Standard B18.6.5M is published. Thread-rolling tapping screws
thread size, length, weight, and unit and installed costs are the
in the inch series are covered in lFI Standard 112 and SAE
major criteria. Additional consideration must be given to the
Standard J81 and in the metric series in SAE Standard J 1237.
insert and fastener materials, plating and coatings used for
Metric size, self-drilling tapping screws are specified in IF1
corrosion protection or lubrication, and the provision for
Standard 504, and inch sizes are specified in SAE Standard J78.
internal thread-locking features. The many types of inserts
available are designed to meet almost every need.
Captive Screws
Captive screws remain attached to panels or assembly com- Assembly Design
ponents after they have been disengaged from their mating
It is important to design threaded assemblies to ensure the
parts. Advantages include fast assembly and disassembly and
correct loading of mating parts. When designing clearance
elimination of the possibility of the screws coming loose and
diameters of component parts, the insert and not the parent
damaging other assembly components or becoming lost. Other
material should carry the load (see Fig. 8-43). The correct
types of captive (self-retained) threaded fasteners are discussed
in a subsequent section of this chapter.
Various methods are used to attach the screws. Figure 8-42
illustrates a snap-in captive screw assembly. Retaining rings
and nut retainers are used in some designs to captivate the
screws, and split washers can be added after the screws have
been inserted. Other designs use a ferrule or sleeve that is
pressed, swaged, or flared to the assembly component. Captive
screws are available with various head styles and drives, single
or multiple-lead threads, and spring loading for partial or full
ret raction.
lc—Y——Tl I
Correct
Fig. 8-42 Snap-in captive screw assembly. (Specialty Faslener Div., Fig. 8-43 Incorrect and correct methods of designing assemblies with
Rexnord) screw thread inserts.
8-26
CHAPTER 8
assembly is referred to as a “clamping condition” and the insert out of the parent material through a spacer having
incorrect assembly as a “jackout” (torque tension) condition. adequate clearance for the outside diameter of the insert.
However, with externally threaded inserts, the external thread Backout torque is the amount of rotational torque applied in a
transmits ioad to the parent material. counterclockwise direction to start the insert backing out of the
The insert length and external thread (on externally thread- parent material.
ed inserts) allow selection so that the tensile strength of the
assembly exceeds the tensile strength of the bolt or screw. The Types of Inserts
length of thread engagement required depends on the shear A wide selection of screw thread inserts, some of which are
strength of the parent material. From a repairability stand- illustrated in Fig. 8-45, isavailable tosuit various applications.
point, if the assembly is overloaded, the bolt should fail, not the Some, such as wire thread, solid bushing, thread-cutting, and
insert assembly. thread-forming inserts, have both external threads (to hold the
Testing Assemblies
Insert assemblies are tested using four different procedures:
measuring tensile strength, rotational torque, jackout torque
(see Fig, 8-44), and backout torque. The minimum, ultimate
tensile strength is the axial force required to pull the insert out
of the parent material a predetermined amount, generally at
least 0.020” (0.5 1 mm). Rotational torque is the torque required
Wire thread inserts
to turn the insert in the parent material. Jackout torque (torque
tension) is the torque, applied to a mating screw, that pulls the
! Solid bushing inserts
H=B~~
UltrasOnlc Inserts
uwwLH{@
Expansion inserts
Tensile strength
(r -n
Thread-cutting inserts
Rotational torque
MIII Thread-forming
SIB
inserts
Mold-in and press-in inserts
Jackout torque
(torque tension)
Thin-wall inserts
Fig. 8-44 Three methods used to test assemblies containing screw Fig. 8-45 Some oftbemany types ofscrew tbreadinserts. (Heli-Coil
thread inserts. Producn. Div. oj’Mite Corp.)
8-27
CHAPTER 8
inserts in place) and internal threads (to accommodate the inserts areavailable in UNCsizes No. lthroughl l/2’’ and
fasteners). Others, such as ultrasonic, expansion, mold-in, cast- UNF sizes No. 2 through 1 1/2”. They are also available in
in, potted-in, and press-in inserts, have only internal threads UNEF, UNS, UN, metric, spark plug, and pipe thread sizes.
and are used in drilled or cored holes and solid or sandwich- The metric sizes available are M2 through M39 coarse and M8
panel or honeycomb materials. through M39 fine.
Wire thread inserts. Helically coiled wire thread inserts are Insert materials. Wire thread inserts are available in stainless
precision-formed screw thread coils, generally made of 18-8 steel (AMS 7245) for normal applications up to 800° F(425” C),
(AMS 7245) stainless steel wire having a diamond-shaped cross Some manufacturers recommend Inconel X-750 (AMS 7246)
section. They are manufactured from round wire that is cold for applications from 800 to 1000° F (425 to 540° C) or where
rolled into a diamond shape to a tensile strength above 200 ksi low magnetic permeability is required. Phosphor bronze (AMS
( 1380 M Pa) and a hardness of RC43-50. The resultant surface 7247) is recommended for low-permeability, salt water applica-
finish is8-16 pin, (0.20-0.41 ~m). This wire is wound intoa tions or for electrical conductivity requirements.
helical coil that, when installed into holes tapped for specific Advantages. The advantages of using wire thread inserts
screw thread inserts, forms conventional 60° internal screw include the following:
threads. These inserts are also frequently used to repair
Minimum thread wear. Erosion of the threads from
damaged threads.
repeated assembly and disassembly is virtually elimi-
Srarzdards. Wire thread inserts and tooling comply with the
nated because of the insert hardness and smooth sur-
following military and federal standards and specifications:
face finish.
MS122076 through Insert, Corrosion Resistant, Helical Design flexibility, Five insert lengths are available in each
MS122275 Coil, Coarse Thread. thread size.
MS124651 through Insert, Corrosion Resistant, Helical Corrosion resistance. The stainless steel used provides
MS124850 Coil, Fine Thread. superior corrosion resistance and minimizes galvanic
MS21208 insert, Screw Thread, Free Running. action in normal applications.
MS21209 Insert, Screw Thread-Screw Locking, Minimum space and weight. Helically coiled inserts are
MS33537 lnsert-Standard Dimensions, Assembly. smaller in diameter and lighter (in some sizes) than other
MI L-T-21309 Tools for Inserting and Extracting type inserts. They can generally be incorporated in
Helical Coil Inserts. existing designs having minimum wall thicknesses where
FED-STD-H28 Screw Thread Standards for Federal no provision has been made for inserts. Space, weight,
Services. and cost savings include the elimination of lock washers,
nuts, lock wires, locking compounds, plastic pellets/
Insert designs. There are two designs of wire thread inserts:
patches, and other locking mechanisms.
standard, which provides a smooth, free-running thread, and
screw-locking. Thescrew-locking design provides self-locking Applications. Typical uses for helically coiled, screw thread
(prevailing) torque ontheexternally threaded member bya inserts include original equipment applications on aerospace,
series ofchords formed on one ormoreof theinsertcoils (see industrial, military, nuclear, automotive, communications,
Fig. 8-46). Both designs havea driving tang for installation, commercial, and other products. In addition, the products are
which is notched for easy removal after installation. supplied in repair-kit form, which includes drills, taps, inserts,
Inserf sizes. Wire thread inserts are larger in diameter, before and installation tools for repairing tapped holes that have been
installation, than the receiving tapped hole. During installation, stripped or damaged because of overtightening, corrosion,
the inserting tool reduces the diameter of the insert. After or other reasons.
installation, the insert coils expand outward with a spring-like Installation and removal. Special taps are used to prepare
action, permanently anchoring the insert in the tapped hole. holes for helically coiled inserts. Conventional drilling and
tapping methods are employed. The class of fit of the final
assembly is determined by the tapped hole; tap and gage are
selected for the class of fit required.
Tang
Various designs of hand tools are available for inserting wire
Notch
thread inserts. Finer pitch inserts generally have to be prewound
to a smaller diameter for installation. Prewinding consists of
threading the insert through a special tool to elastically
compress the insert for easy entry into the hole. Large coarse
pitch inserts need only a threaded mandrel tool for installation.
For high-volume production, power tooling is available to
Chord Chord
speed installation rates. Such tooling consists of a radial arm-
mounted or handheld air motor driver. The inserts can be bulk
loaded or coiled into plastic strip and supplied on reels for easier
and faster loading into the tool,
Insert driving tangs must be removed to eliminate interfer-
ence with the assembled bolt. Automatic tang-breakoff tools
consist of a spring-loaded punch that strikes the tang, breaking
it off at the notch. Such tools are also available in pneumatic
models for higher production rates. For insert sizes more than
Fig. 8-46 Series ofchords ononeormorecoitsof wire thread inserts
provides self-locking (prevailing) torque on fastener. Driving tang is 1/ 2“, long-nose pliers are sometimes used to remove the tangs.
used forinstallation, and notch facilitates removal of tang. With some insert sizes, it is difficult to remove the tangs.
8-28
CHAPTER 8
For removing inserts, extracting tools, consisting of a two- parent material. The internal serrations mate with those on the
sided blade on a T-handle, are available. The tool is applied to insert flange.
the insert and struck a light blow with a hammer. It is then Internal rhread lock. Solid bushing inserts are also available
turned counterclockwise while maintaining a steady downward with an internal thread-locking feature. The purpose is to
pressure. provide a locking torque to secure the bolt or screw. The locking
Solid bushing inserts. For applications requiring maximum device is designed to maintain sufficient locking torque even
structural reliability, positive-locked solid bushing inserts are after as many as 15 installations and removals of the fastener.
available in several thread combinations, styles, and materials, Methods of obtaining the locking action vary depending on the
and in a wide variety of standard sizes. They are used for many insert size, style, manufacturer, and application. Typical lock-
different applications, including structural and component ing methods include the following:
parts of aircraft, electronic units, and gas turbine engines, where
. Dimpling the outside diameter of the insert to provide a
high reliability and strength are essential. They offer most of the
deflected internal thread.
advantages previously discussed for wire thread inserts.
s Slotting and crimping the insert on its bottom end.
Solid bushing inserts consist basically of a solid bushing that
. An integral plastic ring crimped into the insert on its
is threaded internally and externally. Terms such as lightweight,
bottom end.
standard-wall, heavy-duty, and extra-heavy-duty are used to
. The use of nylon pellets.
describe the thread combinations available. For example, a
1/4’’-20 internal thread, lightweight insert could have a 3/ 8“-16 Narrdards. Military standards covering solid bushing inserts
external thread. The heavy-duty insert with the same internal include NAS 1838 through 1854, MI L-1-459 14, MS51830 through
thread could have a 7/ 16”-14 external thread. The extra-heavy- 51834, NAS 1394 and 1395, and MS5 1990 through 51998.
duty insert with the same internal thread could have a I / 2“- 13 Inset-i materials. Solid bushing inserts are made from several
external thread. different materials, with selection of the material depending on
Pullout strength of a solid bushing insert is calculated by the requirements for a specific application. Corrosion-resistant
multiplying the minimum shear engagement area of the insert AISI Type 303 stainless steel and A-286 superalloy are used
by the minimum ultimate shear strength of the parent material. extensively. Type 303 is recommended for industrial and aero-
Solid bushing inserts provide strong, permanent, reliable, and space applications where high corrosion resistance is required.
wear-resistant threads in virtually any material that can be Alloy A-286 is recommended where the heat-treatable char-
tapped. Depending on the design and manufacturer, there are acteristics and high strength of this material are desirable and
three basic methods of insert retention: keyring-locked, key- can be used in place of cadmium-plated SAE 4140 or carbon
locked, and ring-locked. All three of these methods provide a steel for other industrial and aerospace applications.
positive mechanical lock that prevents insert rotation due to For applications requiring high-strength alloy steels, SAE
vibration or the insert coming out with the bolt, stud, or screw. 4140 chromium-molybdenum steel is sometimes used. Precipita-
Keyring-locked. A hardened ring with two prongs is proposi- tion-hardening A-286 stainless steel is recommended where the
tioned on the insert (see Fig. 8-47, view a) and acts as a depth characteristics of high strength and temperature resistance to
stop for locating the insert. The ring is driven downward, self- 1200° F (650° C) are required.
broaching into the parent material along axial slots on the Insfallafion and removal. Solid bushing inserts are installed
outside diameter of the insert. in standard-drilled, counterbored or countersunk, and tapped
Key-locked. The two or four prepositioned keys (called kees holes. Keyring-locked inserts are rotated to the correct position
by one insert manufacturer), the number depending on insert and then driven into the parent metal (see Fig. 8-48). Key-
thread size, are driven downward into the parent material along locked inserts are installed similarly (see Fig. 8-49). Installation
axial slots on the outside diameter of the insert (see Fig. 8-47,
u
view b). The prepositioned keys automatically set the insert at
the proper depth below the surface of the parent material.
Inserts are available with keys made from materials and having
configurations that permit self-broaching parent materials with
harnesses in excess of RC40, thus eliminating the need for
prebroaching.
Ring-/ocked. An internally and externally serrated lock ring
is driven downward, broaching the external serrations into the
I I
(a) (b)
(a) [b)
Fig. 8-48 Method of installing solid bushing inserts: (a) rotating to

Fig. 8-47 Methods of retaining solid bushing inserts: (a) keyring-locked correct depth position and (b) driving lock ring (or keys) into the parent
and (b) key-locked. metal. (He/i- Coi/ Products, Div. qf Mile Corp. )
8-29
CHAPTER 8
Key before
installation Keys
Grommet type
Insert
Parent Expansion-sleeve type
material
MECHANICALLY INSTALLEDINSERTS
Before After
installation installation
Fig. 8-49 Installation of key-locked solid busbing insert. (Speciahy

Fastener Div., Rexnord) .e-
“Body
Double flange
One-piece Two-piece Three-piece

tooling used varies from handheld tools, which can be used with
a hammer or chucked in an arbor press, to pneumatic, impact, POTTED-IN (MOLDED) INSERTS
and other type tools, Most high-volume installation is being
done with pneumatic tools that can install an insert in less than 5
seconds. When necessary, the inserts can be removed by drilling
out the lock ring or keys and using a screw-type extractor. Fie. 8-50 Inserts for honeycomb and sandwich-panel materials.
(S&ciahy Fastener Div., Re;nord)
Identical inserts can be installed in the original holes without
any reworking of the holes being necessary.
Honeycomb and sandwich-panel inserts. These inserts are brittle materials. A major advantage of self-threading inserts is
designed to provide strong metal threads in honeycomb and the elimination of the need for tapping operations.
sandwich-panel materials for aircraft, electronics, and similar Self-threading inserts are installed into drilled, cored, or
applications. There are two basic types: those that are me- molded holes. The thread-cutting or thread-forming action
chanically installed and those that are potted-in or molded retains the insert in place by friction. Because of the large
(see Fig. 8-50). outside diameter (shear area) of the insert, the pullout strength
Mechanically installed inserts. These inserts come in two will usually exceed the breaking strength of the threaded
configurations: grommet and expansion sleeve types. Both fastener, except in very weak materials.
types are designed for applications where moderately heavy Self-threading inserts are available in a wide variety of
structural loads are a factor. The high column strength of these designs and in inch and metric thread sizes. They are typically
two-piece inserts eliminates the crushing of panels under high available in brass, stainless steel, and case-hardened steel. Other
compression loads. The fasteners are lightweight and require no design variations include the use of plastic patches or pellets, or
potting material, thus minimizing overall panel weight, a key distorted external threads for added rotation resistance and
consideration in sandwich-panel construction. Optional thread self- internal thread-locking features. Several insert types have a
locking features eliminate the need for locknuts and nut plates, symmetrical design, which is advantageous for automatic
reducing costs and providing versatility. Installation is simple: a feeding systems used in high-production applications. In addi-
through hole is made in the parent material, and the insert is tion to the solid bushing type, helically coiled, self-tapping
installed using pneumatic or hand-operated tools. inserts are available for wood and fiberboard materials.
Pot~ed-in inserts. These inserts are used for blind applica- Self-threading inserts provide high assembly strengths and
tions having access to only one side of the panel. They come lower insert costs. Installation costs are also less because they
preassembled, with one, two, or three-piece configurations, and are used in drilled or cored holes, thus eliminating hole
provide moderately high tension pullout and shear load capa- preparation and tapping costs. Also, no tangs have to be
bilities. Installation requires a cored hole in one side of the removed after installation.
panel; the insert is set in place, and potting material is injected Slotted-type inserts forplastics. This type ofinsert can be
into the surrounding area. Vent holes are provided for injection used in either thermoplastic or thermoset plastic materials. The
and to show when the potting material has filled in around the insert has two slots that provide cutting edges, much the same as
insert. Military standards covering potted or molded-in inserts a tap. When driven into a cored or drilled hole, the insert cuts its
inch.rde NAS 1832 through 1836. own thread. Friction between the insert and plastic holds the
Self-threading inserts. There are two types of self-threading insert in place after installation. Slotted-type inserts are also
inserts: thread-cutting and thread-forming. These inserts are available for soft materials, such as zinc die castings and
used primarily in aluminum, magnesium, plastic, and wood aluminum sand castings.
products. Thread-forming inserts are generally used in softer Hole-~ype inserts. This type of insert is designed for tough-
materials; thread-cutting inserts are used instronger or more to-thread materials, such as wrought aluminum, magnesium,
8-30
CHAPTER 8
mild steel, and tough aluminum-alloy castings. A cross hole in Design features of ultrasonic inserts permit automated
the insert acts as a thread-cutting device when the insert is feeding, rapid installation, and optimum transfer of frictional
driven into the receiving hole. energy from the insert to the plastic. Most insert designs feature
Fluted se~-tapping inserts. This type of insert utilizes three knurls and undercuts or ribs for torque and pullout resistance.
external flutes for cutting action and chip retention. They are Some designs use axial flutes instead of knurls. The knurls and
used in plastics, soft metals, and wood. Such inserts are made in undercuts are filled with molten plastic during installation from
brass, steel, and stainless steel. Symmetrical inserts permit the downward compressive force. The difference in cooling
simplified adaptation to automated feeding systems. Nonsym- rates of the metal insert and plastic produces a microscopic
metrical versions are also available with a lead-in pilot and relief zone that prevents the compressive radial stresses normal-
special external-thread forms having a flat, upper thread flank ly associated with molded-in inserts.
for reduced radial stresses and high pullout resistance. Ultrasonic inserts are supplied primarily in brass, but are
Waveform, external-thread inserts. This type of insert has also available in aluminum, plated steel, and stainless steel. The
external threads extending almost the entire length for maxi- inserts are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. To obtain
mum thread engagement. It is a thread-forming insert and is maximum assembly strength, the wall thickness of the plastic
symmetrical in design to allow for automated installation. The part should be one-half to one times the outside diameter of the
external threads have wave crests with depressions that serve to insert. If the insert application is in a circular boss, the boss
secure the insert in place while minimizing stress on the parent diameter should be two to three times the insert diameter.
material. The inserts are available in short, medium, and long Thinner walls and bosses may be used, but this may affect the
lengths; made from brass or stainless steel; and of locking or assembly strength.
nonlocking design. Molded-in inserts. Molded-in inserts are used where ap-
I’hin-wa// inserts. Thin-wall inserts are solid bushing inserts plication and production factors make it practical to have the
with an internal and external thread. They are installed in drilled inserts cast or molded into place while the part is being formed.
and tapped holes. These inserts have a thinner wall between the This type is frequently used in thermoset plastics, rubber, and
internal and external threads than standard and heavy-duty solid ceramics. They are especially advantageous in thermoset plas-
bushing inserts. Their smaller outside diameter provides a space tics in which ultrasonic insertion is not possible or where self-
and weight savings advantage over other solid bushing inserts. threading inserts induce severe stresses.
They are supplied with or without an internal thread-locking One drawback with respect to molded-in inserts is the
feature. Typical materials include stainless steels and plated steels. overall installed cost, which is generally higher than other
One type of thin-wall insert features an external serrated inserts. The open mold time required to load the inserts
area at the top that is swaged outward into the base material to increases the molding cycle. Another factor is the difference in
lock the insert in place. Another type of thin-wall insert consists cooling rates of the metal insert and the plastic material; the
of an internally threaded solid bushing with a nylon locking difference can induce stresses that can cause cracking or crazing
element in the external thread. The locking element, either a of the plastic.
pellet or patch, retains the insert in place when the insert is Molded-in inserts are typically available in brass, aluminum,
screwed into the drilled and tapped receiving hole. and stainless steel. They are supplied in either blind-end or
Ultrasonic inserts. Ultrasonic inserts are designed to provide open-end designs and normally incorporate external knurls and
strong metal threads in thermoplastics at an economical cost. undercuts to secure the insert in the parent material. Accuracy
The inserts are installed into plastics using ultrasonic welders or of the internal thread is important to ensure snug fits on mold
thermal equipment that generates heat at the insert-plastic core pins. Also, flat ends are required to prevent flash on the top
interface. A narrow zone of plastic is remelted around the surface of the parts.
annular and longitudinal grooves in the insert (see Fig. 8-51) Expansion inserts. Expansion (pressed-in) inserts are used
that, when resolidified, provides the high strength of a molded- to provide strong metal threads in thermoplastic or thermoset
in insert. Advantages of installation after molding include plastic materials after molding. They are supplied primarily in
increased productivity due to reduced open mold time and brass, but are available in other materials. Whiie expansion
elimination of scrapped parts and damaged molds. inserts are generally more expensive than other types of inserts,
simple assembly without the need for costly installation equip-
ment is a cost advantage. The inserts are installed in a drilled or
molded hole either manually or with automated equipment.
High pullout and rotational strength is provided without
subjecting the walls of the receiving holes to any significant
axial forces during installation.
Expansion inserts are locked in place by radial expansion of
the knurled or finned portions on the outside of the insert. One
type of insert incorporates a two-piece configuration, consisting
of a threaded insert and a captive spreader plate. When the
spreader plate is depressed, the knurled portion expands and
anchors the insert in the hole. Tooling as simple as a punch and
hammer, as well as an arbor press, can be used for installation.
For high volume, the inserts are suitable for automated feeding
equipment.
Another type of expansion insert uses the mating threaded
Fig. 8-51 Ultrasonic inserts provide strong metal threads in parts fastener to expand the insert. As the assembly fastener enters
molded from thermoplastics. the insert, it expands the knurled or finned portion, anchoring
8-31
CHAPTER 8
CAPTIVE THREADED FASTENERS
the insert in the hole. Full pullout and rotational strength is Typical Applications
achieved only when the screw engages the full thread length of Captive fasteners are used in many different consumer,
the insert. industrial, and military products. They are commonly used in
Inserts for special applications. There are many other types sheet metal, die castings, or molded plastics where the materials
of inserts available, most of them designed for special appli- are too soft or thin to permit tapping threads or where
cations. Some of the more common include cast-in, floating, additional thread strength is required. They are also often
blind-end, solid, and hydraulic inserts. Miniature inserts and necessary for inaccessible or blind locations. As inserts for thin
high-strength aluminum inserts are also available for aerospace components or printed circuit boards, they can provide features
and electronic applications where space and weight are critical of prevailing torque, floating action, or a means of standing off
requirements, a secondary panel or component.
Cmr-in inserts. These inserts aresimilar tothe molded-in
inserts discussed previously, but are designed for use in Selection Criteria
nonferrous metal die castings as well as plastic molded parts.
There are four basic criteria to be considered when specifying
Floating inserts. These inserts are designed to permit radial
captive fasteners: functional requirements, reliability, tooling
movement to compensate for misalignment of mating fasteners.
and equipment requirements, and installed cost. Many times,
They are used frequently for the assembly of curved surface
manufacturing engineers do not have the prerogative of making
parts or for use with recessed or flush screws.
the best selection for their purposes. They must satisfactorily
Blind-end inserts. These inserts have their bottom ends
install the fastener that has been designed into the product being
closed to isolate the assemblies. This design protects the
manufactured. However, the considerations of proper fastener
fastener threads from contaminants and prevents the fastener
selection are still important for manufacturing engineers,
or foreign objects from contacting critical areas of the assembly.
because they may be able to obtain a design change if they can
Hydraulic inserts. These inserts have built-in seals to protect
prove that a different fastener is more reliable and/or more cost
hydraulic or fuel system ports and to prevent fluid from leaking
effective. As a result, these selection considerations are as
through the inserts.
important to the manufacturing engineer as they are to the
Solid inserts. These inserts are used for relocating holes that
design engineer.
have been drilled and tapped in wrong locations. Other
Functional requirements. Loads to be applied and environ-
applications include plugging holes, salvaging castings, and
mental conditions in service must be known for proper fastener
providing hard, wear-resistant pads on soft materials.
selection. Product size, clearances available, and whether
Replaceable sleeves. These components consist of separate,
frequent removal and/ or replacement are necessary must also
internally threaded cores used to replace damaged threads in
be considered.
cast-in inserts.
Reliability in service. Reliability depends on many factors,
including proper size and condition of the insertion holes, the
CAPTIVE (SELF-RETAINED) thickness and hardness of the assembly component, proper
THREADED FASTENERS installation, and the design of the fastener and the assembly.
Captive threaded fasteners are preassembled to and become Performance specifications for the fastener that should be
an integral part of assembly components (panels, brackets, and tested include resistance to torque out (rotation), torque
chassis). They are captivated fasteners used for the subsequent through, and pushout. For some applications, shear strength is
acceptance of mating fasteners, such as bolts, studs, nuts, or also an important consideration. Specifying any fastener that
screws. The fasteners are captivated by various means, including has been developed by a specific manufacturer by adding “or
riveting, welding, pressing, caging, clinching, and swaging. equivalent” to the drawing or purchase order can be a
Captive fasteners are available in many types designed to dangerous practice. The “equivalent” fastener may be lower in
meet almost every need. The types of captive fasteners discussed cost, but it may also be of different material, poor quality, or
in this section include plate, anchor, and caged nuts; push and improperly heat treated. Testing for adherence to standard
snap-in fasteners; clinch and self-clinching nuts; and self- specifications is essential.
piercing fasteners. Sems (screw and washer assemblies), which Tooling requirements. Tooling and equipment needed for
are not self-retained fasteners; captive screws; and screw thread the preparation of the mounting holes and also for the
inserts are discussed in preceding sections of this chapter. Rivets installation of the fasteners must be considered. Size, shape,
of the internally threaded and compression types are discussed and tolerances for the holes, and adaptability of the installation
in the “Blind Rivets/ Fasteners” section of this chapter. equipment to automation, when necessary for production
requirements, are important factors.
Advantages of Captive Fasteners Installed cost. The installed cost, including the cost of
equipment and tools, should be the primary consideration,
Captive fasteners can provide strong threads in thin mate-
rather than just the cost of the fasteners. Some low-cost
rials, permitting repeated assembly and disassembly of their
fasteners may require high-cost installation and/ or low pro-
mating fasteners. For some applications, they permit the use of
duction rates. Also, rejects due to the failure of poorly designed,
thinner materials in assemblies. Captive fasteners permit fasten-
manufactured, or installed fasteners contribute to high pro-
ing from one side of assemblies in blind locations, resist
duction costs. More expensive fasteners often have lower
loosening, ensure the positive positioning of mating fasteners,
installed costs.
and minimize the possible loss of fasteners. Versatility is
another advantage of captive fasteners: they can be installed
during fabrication of a product, many can be installed after Plate, Anchor, and Weld Nuts
components have been coated or painted, or they can be Plate nuts, also called anchor nuts, have one or more
finished as part of the assembly. mounting lugs projecting from the bases of their threaded
8-32
CHAPTER 8
bodies or a flange (see Fig. 8-52) for permanent attachment by facilitate attachment by resistance welding, Close control of
riveting or welding to the surface of the part to be assembled. amperage, force, and cycle time is required in projection
When multiple nuts are required, channel assemblies consisting welding such nuts. Capacitor-discharge welding and automatic
of a number of nuts in a long mounting carrier are used. Some feeding of the nuts are being used for some applications.
forms of plate nuts are called T-nuts. Mounting lugs on the
baseplate and flanges are available in various shapes and sizes Caged Nuts
to suit requirements. Prong-type nuts have straight or twisted In caged nuts, a standard nut, usually square, is retained in a
projections that grip soft materials such as wood, spring-steel box or cage (see Fig. 8-53). The nuts can be staked
The nuts are made in nonfloating (fixed), radial floating to the retainers or assembled loosely to provide float for
(two-piece construction), and self-aligning designs. Floating possible misalignment. Lugs on the retainers can be snapped
types are available in permanently assembled styles and with into square holes, slipped over panel edges, or locked behind
removable/ replaceable nut elements. Internally threaded por- panels. On some designs, the lugs engage and lock the threads of
tions of these fasteners can be equipped with nylon inserts, the mating fastener. Advantages of caged nuts include elim-
elliptical offsets, or segments that bend inward for self-locking inating the need for riveting, welding, clinching, or staking, but
purposes. Capped nuts are available to cover the ends of mating they are usually hand installed. These nuts also permit easy
fasteners, and the holes can be countersunk in riveted types for replacement in case of thread damage during assembly or while
flush mounting. in service.
These types of captive fasteners provide good resistance to
torque out, torque through, and pushout when properly riveted Other Push or Snap-in Fasteners
or welded. However, installation costs are generally high. Also, Nuts similar to plate or anchor nuts, having internally
weld nuts must be installed prior to finishing the assemblies threaded bushings and baseplates, are available for pushing or
unless removable-type nuts are used. snapping into assembly components. These fasteners, some-
Riveted nuts. Riveting of plate or anchor fasteners is times called clip nuts, eliminate the need for riveting or welding,
common. However, this method of attachment requires the but are generally limited to lighter duty applications.
production of holes in the part to be assembled and the use of A push-in type, panel-retained fastener is illustrated in Fig.
rivets and riveting equipment, thus adding to installation costs. 8-54. Two spring-resilient loop legs extend from a flat plate in
Three or more holes are needed—two or more for rivets and one which there is a single helical thread for accepting a tapping
for the mating fastener.
Welded nuts. These types of captive fasteners are attached
by resistance welding (projection or spot). Welding eliminates
the need for producing rivet holes in the assembly component,
but installation costs are often higher than with other types of
captive fasteners because of the need for welding equipment and
operations, Weld nuts are available with piloted ends for
greater alignment accuracy. Locking features for torque control
are sometimes provided.
Spot welding equipment is generally less costly than that for
projection welding. However, projection welding permits more
flexibility y in design and often provides higher quality and/or
more reliable assemblies. The nuts used for projection welding
have embossed or coined projections on their flanges. Nut /
Other weld nuts. Solid nuts without flanges are also used. Retainer
These nuts have lugs, embossments, or annular rings to I
Fig. 8-53 Caged nut.
Floating rivet type

Fixed rivet type
e
o~
Projection-weld type
Fig. 8-54 Push-in type, panel-retained fastener. (Fa$teners Div., TRW

Fig. 8-52 Several types of plate, anchor, and weld nuts. Assemblies & Fasieners Group)
8-33
CHAPTER 8
screw. When the fastener is pushed into a hole in a panel, the

two loops compress together and then snap back, with the
shoulder tops pressing firmly against the back of the panel for
retention. When the screw is applied, it experiences prevailing-
torque resistance from the helical-form thread. Removal is
prevented by the blocking of the shoulder sections of the loops,
thus keeping them from deflecting inward. The fastener can be
used in both sheet metal and plastics.
Nut
Clinched Nuts
These captive fasteners are solid nuts having pilot collars
projecting from one end. The collar is inserted into a hole in the
assembly component and spread, flared, or rolled over to
produce a “clinch” (see Fig. 8-55). Possible limitations are that
Fig. 8-55 Installation of clinch nut.
special tooling is required for clinching, and the nut collars must
be soft enough to permit plastic flow. Also, hole diameters must
be held to close tolerances, generally a total of 0.003-0.004”
(008-0. 10 mm).
Self-Clinching Fasteners
Self-clinching nuts, sometimes called press nuts, have a pilot
shank containing knurls or ribs and an undercut, recess, or
groove (see Fig. 8-56). They are installed simply by pressing into
holes in the sheet materials. All self-clinching fasteners must be /
Clinching ring squeezes sheet and
harder than the materials into which they are inserted to effect material flows oround back tapered
cold flow of the materials instead of distortion of the fasteners. shank, securely locking fastener
For this reason, most are heat treated.
Various designs of self-clinching fasteners (see Fig. 8-57)
include blind, floating, self-locking, floating self-locking, prevailing- Fig. 8-56 Self-clinching nut. (Penn ./%gineering & Mfg. Corp. )
torque, and removable nut features. Broaching-type self-clinch-
ing fasteners are used extensively in printed circuit boards made
of plastics. Specially formed axial grooves around the fastener
shank broach (cut) into the boards, creating a firm interference
fit. In addition to nuts, self-clinching fasteners are available as
inserts (flush on both sides), studs, nonthreaded pins (used as
Positive stop
guides), and spacers and standoffs to hold assembly components
apart from each other .
Installation of self-clinching fasteners can be done manually
or with a press. Forces required for insertion generally vary {
L
from 1000 to 12,000 lb (4.45 to 53,4 kN), depending on fastener
type and size. Generally, only simple shapes are needed for the
punches and anvils.
When production quantity and consistent quality require-
ments dictate, automatic equipment is available for installing
u (a) shank
self-clinching fasteners, Some automated presses are specifically protrusion
designed to feed these fasteners into punched or drilled holes Threads

and to seat them correctly with parallel squeezing forces. extend
Feeding rates are three to six times faster than manual into
insertions. Also, the squeezing action is adjustable to compen- retainer
shank
sate for variations in thickness and hardness of the assembly
component and height of the fasteners. Depending on the
complexity of configuration of the assembly component and
w
how much handling is necessary, an operator can install up to
20 self-clinching fasteners per minute.
Pasitive
Self-Piercing Fasteners
Self-piercing and clinching nuts for thin sheet materials
generally have a piloted body, an undercut or back tapered
G ‘tap
(b)
pilot, and a shoulder or embossment feature (see Fig. 8-58, view
a). When pressed into an assembly component, they pierce their
own mounting holes, and material from the component flows Fig. 8-57 Self-clinching fasteners: (a) blind and (b) floating. (Penn
into the undercuts or around the back tapered pilots for secure Engineering & Mfg. Corp. )
8-34
CHAPTER 8
fastening. They are available in strip form for feeding under a with countersunk heads and closed ends for watertight in-
press ram or in loose bulk form for hopper feeding. The stallations are two of the more common types, in addition to the
assembly components must be fixtured or automatically located flanged-head style shown. For additional antirotation pro-
to ensure proper fastener location. tection, keyed or hex styles are available.
Another category of self-piercing and clinching nuts (see
Fig. 8-58, view b) for higher strength applications is specifically Studs
designed for use in structural bracket components formed from Studs and other externally threaded fasteners are available
thicker sheet and plate materials. These nuts are manufactured in self-clinching designs (see Fig. 8-60, view a). Weld studs and
from medium-carbon steels and heat treated to develop the full screws (view b) are also available. For capacitor-discharge
strength available from SAE Grade 8 or property class 10 bolts. welding, weld studs and screws are made with a single, small
These nuts are available for plate thicknesses ranging to 0.354” projection in the center of their heads. Projection welding by
(8.99 mm). capacitor discharge permits attaching studs to thin metal with
minimum distortion or discoloration. However, some large
Nut Retainers studs must be arc welded in place.
Nut retainers (see Fig. 8-59) are clinched in position by the Self-clinching studs are supplied for flush head mounting,
controlled collapse of the portions that extend through the with thin heads for mounting to thin sheet, and as structural
attachment holes. They are used extensively for blind-side studs, with heads stronger in tension than the threads. All are
installations and are available made from steel, aluminum, and simply pressed into thin sheet metal and become self-retained
various other metals, and in different styles. Fhrsh mounting with a simple punch and anvil. Broaching studs can be used for
pressing i~to brittle materials, such as p~inted circuit boards,
Undercut
Shoulder
Fig. 8-59 Nut retainer.
Before
installation
?!ii!+
Assembly
component
Punch
stud
L-JAnvil
(a)
c1 (b)
‘rued (b)
Fig. 8-58 Self-piercing and clinching nuts. (Russell, Burdsall & Fig. 8-60 Captive fasteners: (a) stud with knurled shank and (h) weld
Ward Corp.) screw with projection-weld projections under head.
8-35
CHAPTER 8
Bolt-Nut Combination also be exercised to prevent hydrogen embrittlement, especially

A self-retaining, positive-locking bolt-nut combination is with fasteners having a hardness of more than RC35.
shown in Fig. 8-61. The fastener consists of a retained receptacle The preparation of assemblies of heat-treated steel fasteners,
assembly attached to the blind surface (inside) of a structure with the exception of those made from stainless steel, in steel
and a sleevebolt that passes through and is retained in the sheet must also be done with care because acid cleaners will etch
attachment or panel. Self-locking is provided by the config- the high-carbon surface of the fastener before the low-carbon
uration of the internal threads in the sleevebolt. sheet material. Once the fastener has been severely etched,
exposing the carbon, it is virtually unpalatable. Always advise
Installation of Captive Fasteners plating suppliers of the material from which the installed
As a general rule, it is recommended that most self-retained fasteners are made and whether they are heat treated. Plating of
fasteners be installed after the sheet metal has been finished by heat-treated fasteners requires extreme care and may change
methods such as plating, anodizing, and painting. However, the torque ranges of self-locking fasteners,
sometimes this cannot be easily done because panels, chassis, The anodizing process will destroy either steel or stainless
and other assembly components are often fabricated by welding, steel fasteners if they are installed in aluminum before anodizing.
and fasteners must be installed in difficult places prior to welded If fasteners must be installed in aluminum before anodizing,
assembly of the unit. then the fasteners must be made of aluminum alloy.
If a steel assembly with steel fasteners is to be plated, the Painting can be done after the fastener installation, but if the
fasteners should be unplated when installed. These could be threads are to freely accept their mating fastener they must be
projection welded fasteners or heat-treated, self-clinching masked. With any fastener having a nylon locking element, care
fasteners. Expensive problems and spoiled products can result must be taken to protect the nylon if the paint is baked.
if, for instance, cadmium-plated fasteners are installed in base Following are 10 simple rules for correctly installing captive
steel sheet and the assembly is subsequently prepared for zinc fasteners. Some of these rules apply particularly to specific
plating. The cleaning and stripping of the cadmium is not types of fasteners, such as clinched (press) nuts, but most are
compatible with the zinc process; thus, blackened fasteners, generally applicable to all fasteners. Specific information on
streaked plating on the sheet, and/or severely etched fasteners installation techniques and special tooling requirements can be
may result if the proper procedure is not followed. Care must obtained from the fastener manufacturer or supplier.
1. Provide a mounting hole of proper size for each

fastener.
2. Be sure the fastener shank or pilot is within the hole
before force is applied to complete the installation.
P
3. Apply a squeezing force between parallel surfaces.
Sometimes the parallel surface may need to have a relief
hole or shoulder to match the specific fastener design.
Sleevebolt 4. Use sufficient force to embed the clinching ring around
its entire circumference, or to spread or flare the shank
of the clinch nut, or to provide the proper weld contact
for a projection-weld nut. Most fastener designs provide
a physical or visual stop feature to determine when the
Removable panel fastener is completely and properly installed.
/ 5. Do not install steel or stainless steel fasteners in
aluminum before the aluminum panels have been
anodized. The cleaning and anodizing process will
destroy the fastener.
6. Do not deburr or countersink the mounting holes for
self-clinching fasteners because the sharp corner is
Grommet ~nd ring assembly necessary to provide sufficient cold flow of sheet
\
material into the undercut of the fastener. Do provide a
countersink for clinched (press) nuts that have their
shanks spread and for rivets when required.
7. Do not install the fastener closer to the edge of the sheet
than specified by the manufacturer. Minimum edge
distances are specified to keep the sheet from bulging or
Substructure
to keep the head of the fastener from overhanging the
edge of the sheet. When these limitations are violated,
the performance of the fastener may suffer, and the hole
Ill
\ Receptacle assembly position of the thread will become out of tolerance.
w
8. Do not oversqueeze, as this may flatten the fastener
head, distort the threads, and/ or-buckle the panel into
which it is installed. Any distortion to the top of a
Fig. 8-61 Self-retaining, positive-locking bolt-nut combination. (SF’S locking fastener will destroy its prevailing-torque
Technologies) characteristics.
8-36
CHAPTER 8
SELF-LOCKING THREADED FASTENERS
9. Do not install clinched (press) nuts with a hammer required. This can bean advantage where long travel (run-ons)
blow. Doing so does not allow sufficient time for the is required for seating. Additional tightening causes digging
sheet material to cold flow and may distort the shape of into the bearing surface, which results in the locking action.
the fastener and the gageability of its threads. A Preloading of free-spinning fasteners is essential to develop
squeezing force is required for optimum performance of proper locking action. If digging in of the teeth can cause
most captive fasteners. failures of clamped parts, this type fastener should not be used.
10. Exceut for nut retainers. do not install a screw in the Integral teeth. Self-locking fasteners having integral teeth or
head’side of a fastener; install from the opposite side. serrations (see Fig. 8-62) use the preloaded tension of the
This type of installation directs the load toward the fasteners for part of the locking action, but add mechanical
sheet. Except for standoff-type fasteners, the joint engagement between bolt or screwhead, or nut, and the bearing
assembly should always have the screw mated with the surface. This provides an additional amount that the pretension
nut so that the self-clinching portion of the assembly is must relax before fastener disengagement. However, if the
being clamped to the sheet material. The joint assembly bearing surface on the work is harder than the teeth or
should always pull a self-retained fastener in its direction serrations, there will be no additional locking action, Both the
of installation. bolt and the nut should be toothed to prevent relative rotation.
Spring washers. Spring washers, of cylindrically curved,
waveform, conical, Belleville, or helical design (all discussed
SELF-LOCKING later in this chapter), add some slight additional tension to the
THREADED FASTENERS amount applied in preloading. While there are many different
Self-loosening of assemblies using threaded fasteners can be designs of these so-called self-locking fasteners with spring
minimized in several ways. Mechanical means include the use of washers, most should be tightened sufficiently to flatten the
toothed-type washers, discussed subsequently in this chapter. washers. Performance varies with different designs.
Jam nuts and castle (slotted hex) nuts, for use with cotter pins or As long as pretension is maintained to keep the bearing
locking wires, discussed previously in this chapter, are also surfaces engaged, no locking is necessary. However, if the
employed. Problems with and deficiencies of these means of assembly relaxes and the clamp load is lost, a common
minimizing loosening, especially under cyclic loading condi- occurrence under shock and cyclic loading, the fasteners will
tions, have resulted in the increased use of self-locking fasteners. disengage.
There are many different types of self-locking fasteners Self-locking threads. Special or modified taps are also used
available, each having some advantages and disadvantages. to produce self-locking threads in locknuts (see Fig. 8-63). At
Most of these fasteners are satisfactory for some applications, the bottom of the nut thread, the thread is angled to form a
but no one type is suitable for all applications. The three basic wedge ramp. Wider clearances thus provided permit easy
types of self-locking fasteners are: free-spinning, prevailing- rotation of the nut for assembly, making it a free-spinning
torque, and chemical locking. Locknuts are more common than
locking bolts or screws. Self-locking types of screw thread
inserts are discussed previously in this chapter.
Selecting Iocking system that will give the best perfor-
i!!!!
mance at the lowest cost for a given application requires careful
consideration of many factors. Critical considerations include
reliability, the fastener material, cost, ease of assembly, reus-
ability, and operating requirements and conditions. Perfor-
mance and dimensional specifications provide only a limited
amount ofhelpin choosing the optimum self-locking fastener
for a specific assembly. There is no cross-referencing
between specifications because performance characteristics
often differ.
For example, two widely used specifications for self-locking Fig. 8-62 Ratchet-shaped serrated teeth on flange of locknut
nuts are Military Specification MI L-N-25027 and IFI Standard embed into bearing surface for locking action.
100. The military specification requires 15 reuses from a
locknut, but does not require the nut to be seated. In contrast,
the lFI standard requires a relatively high seating load.
Depending on the application, more reuses mayor may not be Nut
better. For critical applications, no self-locking nut can be
reused reliably without further treatment or testing.
Free-Spinning Fasteners
Captive toothed washers. Free-spinning devices for self-
Iocking are provided on bolts, nuts, or screws, usually in the
form of toothed captive washers that facilitate assembly but Bolt
increase cost. However, while fastener costs are higher, assem-
bled costs are generally lower. Screw and washer assemblies
(known generically as sems) are discussed previously in this Fig. 8-63 Special or modified taps produce self-locking threads in
chapter. Such free-spinning fasteners can be rotated easily and locknuts. Wedge ramps force bolt threads into locking position.
seated against the work surface before any significant torque is (Spiralock Nut, Microdot)
8-37
CHAPTER 8
SELF-LOCKING THREADED FASTENERS
fastener. However, when the nut is seated, tightening pulls the

bolt threads along the wedge ramps for, metal-to-metal thread
mating and self-locking. A clamp load is essential for optimum
performance of this type of self-locking thread.
Prevailing-Torque Fasteners
Prevailing-torque fasteners are based on an interference fit
between the mating threads. Unlike free-spinning fasteners,
they require continuous tightening during installation. How-
ever, prevailing-torque fasteners do not require contact with
seating surfaces; they stay in whatever position where tightening ;ig. 8-64 Bolt with nylon patch.
stops as the result of their built-in self-locking action. The
Iockingtorque is generally retained independent of the clamping
load. The two major kinds of prevailing-torque fasteners are the
plastic additive types and all-metal fasteners with distorted or
deflected thread types.
Plastic additive types. Nuts and bolts are available with
elements made of plastics to provide an interference fit with
mating threads. Advantages are that the elements are non-
damaging to mating threads, and the nuts or bolts are reusable
after disassembly. A possible limitation is that the plastics are
limited with respect to maximum service temperatures.
Various types of nuts and bolts with elements made of Fig. 8-65 Nylon collar grips bolt threads with this prevailing-torque
locknut.
plastics are available. Patches of the material are bonded to the
threads in some types (see Fig. 8-64), and plugs or rods are
embedded in the threads in other types. The patches are made in
different thicknesses and lengths and the plugs and rods in
different diameters and lengths to suit application requirements.
In another type of locknut (see Fig. 8-65), a plastic collar is held
by crimping metal over the collar or fusing the collar into a
groove. All plastic additive, self-locking fasteners are especially
suitable for applications involving considerable vibration be-
cause the plastics act as vibration dampers. (a)
Distorted or deflected threads. Various designs of all-metal
locknuts, some of which are shown in Fig. 8-66, use distorted or
deflected threads or nut shapes to provide an interference fit.
o
One type, called center-lock nuts, has depressions made in the
outer faces of standard nuts (see view a) to cause thread
deformation. This type of locknut is generally satisfactory to be
reused only a few times because of the limited number of
deformed threads.
@ (b) a
Additional locking action is obtained by providing spring
a
action. Circumferential spring action is provided by using an
out-of-round nut or an out-of-round crown on the nut (see Fig.
8-66, view b). Elliptical-type locknuts (view c) are available as
true ellipses, where the nut is distorted across one axis, and
trilobular ellipses, where the nut is distorted inward at every
other hexagon flat. True ellipses have more spring action, but
trilobular ellipses have less distortion of the wrenching surfaces
on the nuts. For many applications, the nuts are heat treated to
improve the wear resistance of the contact surfaces and to
provide a more resilient spring action. The effectiveness of these
@ (c)
nuts depends on rigid adherence to all thread tolerances.

Slotted locknuts (see Fig. 8-66, view c), sometimes called
spring nuts, are another means of providing self-locking action
with deflected threads. The ID of the slotted sections is slightly
less than the OD of the bolt to provide a spring frictional grip on
the bolt threads. @@ (d)
Separate locking means. Pins, wires, or springs, fitted to
locknuts, are also being used for self-locking action. The
Fig. 8-66 Four types of prevailing-torque locknuts: (a) depressions in
locknut shown in Fig, 8-67 has a hardened projecting pin that outer faces of nut deform threads, (b) distorted crown on nut provides
impinges against the bolt to provide a ratchet-like locking spring grip on bolt threads, (c) elliptical type locknut, and (d) slotted
action. The reuse of such nuts is limited by wear of the pin tips. sections deflect inward to grip threads.
8-38
CHAPTER 8
SPECIAL-PURPOSE FASTENERS
Advantages of using adhesives for locking include simple

and easy application and curing, and good performance under
severe service conditions. Adhesives provide a fluid seal and
prevent corrosion of the threads. Anaerobic adhesives remain
liquid while exposed to air, but when oxygen is excluded by the
f!!?
mating threads, they cure rapidly. Curing produces a thermoset
bond, providing a solid plastic, zero-clearance fit between the
mating threads, regardless of the thread tolerances.
Limitations of using adhesives for locking are that the shelf
life of most adhesives is about one to four years, not all metals
or plastics can be bonded with equal strength, and their use is
restricted by temperature and other environmental conditions.
However, most adhesives retain about 50% of their full strength
at temperatures to 300° F ( 150° C) and some to 425° F (220° C).
Fig. 8-67 Nut has a projecting pin that provides a locking action.
Another limitation is that adhesives lose their effectiveness
when the fasteners are disassembled. Reuse of the fasteners
without the reapplication of adhesive is questionable.
Chemical Locking Preapplication of adhesive by the microencapsulation
Chemical locking as-a method of minimizing the loosening method is generally limited to high-vohrme requirements
of threaded fasteners is accomplished by coating the fasteners because of the cost of coating. The microcapsules, with liquid
with an adhesive. Adhesivescommonly used and methods of adhesive centers, form a dry inert coating on the threads. The
applying include using strips oftwo-component epoxies, apply- shearing action of thread engagement crushes the capsules and
ing a single-component anaerobic at assembly, and preapplying allows the adhesive to be distributed over the threads and cure.
microencapsulated epoxies or anaerobic. Certain types of In most cases, not all the capsules are broken in initial assembly.
cyanoacrylate adhesives are also being used. All of the adhesives This allows the fastener to be reused, generally not more than
are available in different strengths to suit application one time, without recoating, but with a progressive loss of
requirements. locking efficiency.
Despite the many types and sizes of standard mechanical magnetic-action, and various designs of hose clamps. The types
fasteners available, there is an increasing demand for special include turn-operated, stud-receptacle fasteners with fast-lead
fasteners to meet specific requirements. Special fasteners include threads; fasteners that operate with push-action draw latches
modified standard fasteners and fasteners designed to perform that pull edge-mating panels together; slide latches that retain
one or more special functions for specific applications. edge-mating panels perpendicular to their surface planes; and
Special fasteners, including threaded and nonthreaded types, detent latches using magnetic attraction or a specially shaped
sometimes perform several functions and often reduce assembly stud that expands spring-loaded receptacle blades.
costs or the number of parts required for an assembly. In some Turn-operated fasteners are generally of the stud or pawl
cases, they permit the use of thinner and less expensive panel type, with quarter-turn panel fasteners being one of the most
materials by using the strength of the fasteners to meet commonly used. Many turn-operated fasteners operate against
requirements. Some special fasteners may cost more than spring pressure that clamps the fastened part against its
standard fasteners, and their use should therefore be based on support. Some can be released by finger pressure, but tools are
reduced assembly costs and/ or improved product quality. often required for unlocking.
It is beyond the scope of this section to cover the many One design of turn-operated fasteners consists of a stud
different types of special-purpose fasteners available, and only assembly, a grommet, and a receptacle (see Fig. 8-68, view a).
some of the more commonly used fasteners will be discussed. The grommet is secured to a removable panel by dimpling or
Other special-purpose fasteners, such as push and snap-in countersinking the panel and then pushing the dimple back with
types, are discussed in a preceding section of this chapter, a special closing tool (view b) or using a snap ring (view c). The
“Captive (Self-Retained) Threaded Fasteners. ” receptacle can be fastened to the underside of the base
component with two rivets (view d), and the fastener is locked
QUICK-OPERATING FASTENERS or unlocked with a quarter turn of the stud. Studs are also
Many quick-operating fasteners, also called quick-release available with winged or cross-recessed heads (view e), as well as
fasteners, are now being used so extensively that they are no other head styles.
longer considered to be special-purpose fasteners. They are With the high-strength, quick-operating fastener shown in
used most commonly when repetitive access to components is Fig. 8-69, the stud is held to the panel by a retaining ring. The
required. Major types of quick-operating fasteners include base is drilled and countersunk for two rivets to hold the
turn-operated, lever-actuated, lift-and-turn (a combination of receptacle. Locking or unlocking of the fastener is accomplished
turn-operated and lever-actuated), slide-action, push or pull, with a quarter turn of the stud. Receptacles are available for a
8-39
CHAPTER 8
Panel Grommet Panel closes flush

\ with base
Stud
assembly
!?$
/ \
Grommet Dimple pushed back here with Grommet
@
special closing tool
Q (b) (d)
9
Receptacle
e 0
(0) Snap-ring
(c)
I Grommet
Fig. 8-68 Quick-operating fastener of thequarter-turn type.
,Stud
Stud
nel
Panel
Retaining
\ w
Sho
tush ----
~ Base
(a) Unlocked (b) locked

/ r \ \
Receptacle Fig. 8-70 Shock-mounted, quick-operating fastener.
Fig. 8-69 High-strength, quick-operating fastener.
variety ofapplication methods. lnaddition to being riveted to

the inner panel, they can be clipped in place, pressed into holes,
or welded. Shock-mounted receptacles are often used.
Shock-mounted, quick-operating fasteners (see Fig. 8-70)
reduce shock vibration and noise between the panel and the
fixed base. Such fasteners are permanently attached to the
panels by assembling the components and inserting pins with
special pliers (view a). A half turn of the stud locks the panel to
Nylon
the base by compressing a rubber sleeve against the base (view
sealing ring
b). The quick-operating fastener shown in Fig. 8-71 has a nylon
ring (held captive in a groove on the underside of the stud head)
for moisture and pressure sealing. A grooved pin is driven into Fig. 8-71 Quick-operating fastener with sealing ring.
the stud of this fastener during installation.
Most turn-operated, quick-operating fasteners are made of
steel, but they are also available in other materials, including SPRING CLIPS
plastics. Receptacles are made in many types, such as slip-on Spring clips are one-piece stamped fasteners or simple
(side-mount), snap-on, and press-in styles, and are clipped, assemblies, generally self-retaining, that slip into holes or onto
riveted, or welded to the base. Studs may be removable or panel edges. They are held by spring tension and do not require
retained by snap rings and various types of grommets, including secondary fasteners, such as bolts, screws, or rivets. Spring clips
tool-deformed and push-on designs. are usually made from hardened, high-carbon steel, but are
8-40
CHAPTER 8
available in other metals and plastics. Various coatings can be

applied to suit application requirements. Dart-type spring clips
Tapered
have dart-shaped retainers to engage the holes or panels. Spring
clips are made in many different shapes to hold various
assembly components.
Stud receivers are spring clips designed for attaching to
unthreaded rods, pins, or rivets. They are available in push-on,
tubular, and self-threading types. Push-on receivers have two or
more prongs that lock the fasteners in place when forced onto
studs. So-called “Christmas-tree” clips or ratchet fasteners have
multiple flexible ribs on their shanks and are available with
various head and point styles. The ribs bend when the fastener is
pressed into a hole and then snap back for retaining. Tubular
Thr’ust Th;ust
spring clips have a split tubular sleeve for securing the
washer washer
unthreaded component of the assembly. Self-threading types
have flutes or teeth that form threads as they are turned onto
studs made of soft metals or plastics. Fig. 8-72 Expanding type of headed bolt. (,4~jusrab/e Bushing Corp.)
TAMPER-RESISTANT FASTENERS fasteners being made of plastics include bolts, studs, nuts, and
Tamper-resistant fasteners, such as screws, bolts, quick- screws; nonthreaded fasteners include rivets, washers, retaining
operating types, and other fasteners, are designed to be difficult rings, and pins.
to disassemble, thus minimizing unauthorized entry, vandalism, Advantages of plastic fasteners include low cost, light
or theft. This is often accomplished by providing the fasteners weight, corrosion and chemical resistance, and electric insu-
with unusual heads, such as special sockets or recesses, standard lation. Versatility is another advantage; fasteners can be
sockets with integral pins or inserts, heads with one-way slots or produced in various colors, with molded-in inserts, and in
nonstandard shapes, and breakoff (breakaway) heads. Such special shapes. Dimensional standards for fasteners made of
fasteners generally require the use of special tools for disas- plastics are the same as for metal fasteners. A possible
sembly. Fasteners can be made permanent by riveting, welding, limitation is lower load-carrying capacity than metal fasteners.
or adhesive bonding. Nylons, acetals, polypropylenes, polyvinyl chlorides, and
polyethylene are among the plastics being used most commonly
for fasteners. A discussion of the various plastics and their
EXPANDING FASTENERS properties is presented in Volume 111, Mater-ia/s, Finishing and
Fasteners that expand radially when an axial load is applied Coating, of this Handbook series. Some fasteners are made
remove clearances between the holes and the fasteners, thus with glass or metallic fibers in the plastics for improved
ensuring rigid joints. Typical applications inchrde linkage and properties; others are made from two or more different plastics
structural joints, and as rod-end bearing pins. Assemblies with for the same reason. Nylon screws are available with reinforcing
expanding fasteners permit periodic adjustments to compensate metal cores,
for wear or to vary the fit as desired.
The design of one type of expanding fastener is illustrated in MECHANICAL FASTENERS FOR PLASTICS
Fig. 8-72. Radial expansion is accomplished by a series of
The more extensive use of plastics in various products and
alternately tapered segments that have free axial movement on
the many types of plastics available have increased the demand
the supporting bolt body (unthreaded portion of the bolt shank).
for special fasteners. Advantages of such fasteners over standard
When an axial load is applied by the nut, the outer tapered
types often include lower torque requirements for driving the
segments expand into the bore of a hole; the inner tapered
fasteners into assemblies, higher shear strengths because of the
sections contract against the bolt body, thus removing any
special threads used, and the capability of withstanding higher
clearances. Similar designs are available for blind bolts and pins.
torque loads before the fastener threads begin to strip the
plastics. Screw thread inserts, discussed previously in this
SELF-SEALING FASTENERS chapter, are used extensively to hold fasteners in plastics.
When required to retain gases or liquids, fasteners are Many types of special fasteners are available because
available with preassembled or built-in seals. The choice of requirements vary with the plastics used in the assemblies. The
sealing material, such as rubber, neoprene, silicone, nylon, or plastics must be sufficiently strong to withstand the strain of
polyethylene, depends on the pressure and temperature to fastener insertion, and the fasteners must distribute the loads
which the seal will be exposed, possible reaction of the material and stresses properly. General requirements for special fasteners
to the gas or liquid, environmental factors such as corrosion, used in plastics include large flank areas on their threads, wide
and cost. Some thread-locking materials and interference fits, thread spacing, and sharp threads.
discussed previously in this chapter, serve as seals for some Special fasteners of the thread-forming type, which eliminate
applications. the need for tapping and inserts, thus resulting in lower costs,
are used most extensively for softer plastics. Thread-cutting
fasteners are more common for harder plastics. Metal inserts
FASTENERS MADE OF PLASTICS are sometimes provided in the plastics components, especially if
The increasing use of fasteners made of plastics makes them the fasteners must be removed periodically. Most fasteners are
no longer special-purpose assembly components. Threaded available with a variety of head and point styles.
8-41
CHAPTER 8
Thread-forming types of special fasteners for plastics are BOLT-NUT COMBINATION

generally made of low-carbon steels, SAE 1018 to 1022, and are A self-retaining, positive-locking bolt-nut combination is
case hardened to about RC45. The fasteners are commonly zinc shown in Fig. 8-74. The locking feature of this special-purpose
plated, but other finishes are also available. One fastener design fastener consists of a spring-loaded plunger pin loaded and two
has a single-lead, spaced (high pitch) thread with a sharp 40° hardened steel ba[ls positioned within the shank of the bolt.
profile and large root diameter. This design provides ample Spring force maintains the plunger in an extended position,
material between the threads formed. securely maintaining the balls in an expanded position. This
Another type of special fastener has a trilobular-shaped, expansion provides a mechanical lock with mating axial
single-lead, coarse thread with a one to two-thread tapered grooves or splines in the nut. To unlock the fastener, it is
point. It roll forms threads in plastics without cutting and necessary to depress the plunger pin, which allows the balls to
minimizes radial stresses. A fastener developed specifically for retract and permits the nut to rotate freely on the bolt. Because
use with heat-sensitive thermoplastics has a twin-lead thread. of the hollow design of the bolt, tension applications should be
The number of threads is the same as a single-lead fastener, but avoided. Shear applications, such as clevis joints, where the
each of the two leads has only half as many threads. This design bolt-nut is free to turn with the joint, are the primary uses for
permits faster insertion with less frictional heat generated. this type of fastener.
Another special fastener for plastics has a double-lead
thread of dual-height design. The lower thread on this fastener
varies in height from one-third to one-half that of the higher
thread. This design provides high strength and resistance to
pullout forces. Push-in or push-on fasteners that require no
rotation during assembly are also available. These fasteners
have flexible barbs, rings, ribs, or threads on their shanks and
are pressed into thermoplastic assemblies. The pressure flanks
of the barbs, rings, ribs, or threads grip the material.
Fie. 8-73 Glass-reinforced eDoxv

. . fastener for use with comDosite
m~terirsls.
FASTENERS FOR
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
The advent of advanced composite materials, which are
Pin in unlock position Nut
finding increased use in the aircraft and aerospace industries
\ /
because of their strength and light weight, has posed some
B
fastening problems. Many metallic fasteners are fairly incom-
patible with composite materials because of corrosion. Stainless
steel and titanium fasteners work relatively well for composites,
but stainless steel introduces some weight penalties, and
titanium results in increased costs.
The Vought Corp., through both in-house funding and an
Air Force Materials Laboratory contract, has been working on
the development of composite fasteners. Fasteners made of
glass orgraphite-reinforced plastics do not corrode galvanically,
are lightweight, and reduce costs because corrosion-resistant
i /
coatings and sealants are not required.
One design for a sleeve-and-pin type fastener made of glass-
reinforced epoxy is illustrated in Fig. 8-73. When these fasteners
Pin in normal
or lock position 1
Locking
Springs
balls mote with

are made from thermosetting plastics, they are installed with an axial splines af nut
adhesive. When made from thermoplastic materials, they swell

on installation, thus eliminating the need for close hole Fig. 8-74 Self-retaining, positive-locking bolt-nut combination.
tolerances. (Specialty Fastener Div., Rexnord)
RIVETS
A rivet is a one-piece, unthreaded, permanent fastener A major advantage of rivets is that they can be installed
consisting of a head and a body. It is used for fastening two or economically and rapidly and are suitable for automatic
more pieces together by passing the body through a hole in each assembly operations. Other advantages include low cost and the
piece and then clinching or forming a second head on the body fact that rivets are good for joining dissimilar materials of
end. Once set in place, a rivet cannot be removed except by different harnesses or thicknesses. A possible limitation is that
chipping off the head or clinched end. The terminology for a the impact required for clinching can deform thin sheets. Rivets
rivet and a riveted joint is illustrated in Fig. 8-75. with large heads or washers can be used to spread the stresses.
8-42
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
Rivets are usually less expensive than threaded fasteners, but Semitubular Rivets
their strength in shear or tension maybe lower, especially when Semitubular rivets are another widely used type. They have a
compared with heat-treated bolts. straight or tapered hole in one end, with a hole depth normally
Riveting is the primary fastening method used by the aircraft not exceeding the shank diameter of the rivet.
and aerospace industries for joining together members such as
skins, channels, spars, and other structural components and
subassemblies. The process is also used in many other industries Tubular Rivets
for a wide variety of assemblies. In addition to their use as Deep-drilled, full-tubular rivets have cavities extending
fasteners, rivets also serve as electrical contacts, inserts, spacers, practically the full lengths of their shanks. Some companies
and pivot shafts. consider a tubular rivet to be any small rivet whose cavity depth
exceeds 1 1/ 2 times the shank diameter. Full-tubular rivets are
RIVET TYPES used for assembling leather, plastic sheets, wood, fabric, or
There are six basic types of small rivets: solid, semitubular, similar materials. With such materials, these rivets can pierce
tubular, bifurcated (split), compression, and special solid types their own holes, and the slugs of material are compressed inside
as shown in Fig. 8-76. Structural rivets are large-diameter solid the rivet cavities. The shear strengths of these rivets are less than
rivets ( 1/ 2“ diam and over). Blind rivets and eyelets are for semitubular rivets of comparable size.
discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter.
Compression Rivets
Solid Rivets Compression rivets are formed by two members: one solid
Solid rivets are one of the most commonly used rivets. They and the other a deep-drilled or extruded tubular member. The
perform a good job of hole filling, resulting in high shear and diameters of the solid shank and the drilled or extruded hole
compressive strengths. Solid rivets under 1/ 2“ diam are classi- produce a compression or pressed fit when the parts are
fied as small and those more than 1/ 2“ diam as large. The major assembled. Because most rivets of this type are made with
distinction between the two types is that small rivets are always special tooling, close concentricity tolerances can be held
annealed and large rivets are never annealed unless specified between the head and the shank. and both heads have the same
by the user. appearance when assembled.
p-cl
A—Body diameter A—Body diameter

B—Head style B-Head style
C—Head diameter C—Head diameter
‘cB D—Head thickness
D—Head thickness
E—Body length E—Rivet length
I ~..i~ F—Hale depth measured along wall
G-Hole diameter +A+
f;
Note: All hole depths F are meosured
x along wall unless otherwise indicated
Assembly hale diameter
Ie diameter
M Material
allawance thickness
th
A
ength
Semitubrrlar Solid
Fig. 8-75 Rivet and riveted joint terminology. (Brcrirrcrrd Rivet Co.)
(mm (c)
‘%fW’w (e)
Fig. 8-76 Types of small rivets; (a) solid,(b) semitubrrlar, (c) tubular, (d) bifurcated (split),(e) compression, and (f) special rivets with decorative heada
and various shoulders.
8-43
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
Split (Bifurcated) Rivets Structural Rivets

Split (bifurcated) rivets, as the name implies, are solid rivets Large rivets, I / 2“ diam and larger, commonly called struc-
whose bodies are split by either sawing or punching to form two tural rivets, are cold squeezed or compressed, depending on the
legs or prongs. The sawed rivet provides a greater taper and application. For structural steel work, rivet diameters range
stronger legs to fasten light-gage metals or heavier sections of from 1.2 to 1.4 times the square root of the thickness of the
fiber, wood, or plastics. The punched type is more suitable for thickest of the riveted plates. Smaller sizes are usually preferred
lighter piercing of nonmetallic materials. Normally these rivets for multiple-riveted joints. For aluminum, the rivet diameter
are furnished with an inside bevel at the end of the legs to usually ranges from one to three times the thickness of the
control the direction in which the legs are to spread. If desired, thickest plate that it holds, depending on the antici-
an outside bevel may be specified to aid in driving. pated stresses.
Rivet Caps Metal Piercing Rivets

Caps are often used in combination with full-tubular and Thin metalscan be piercedby semitubular,tubular, split,and
split rivets to conceal the clinch. Functioning as a washer, the pointed rivets. With semitubular and tubular rivets, piercing is
cap prevents the clinch from tearing through the material, adds done by the tubular walls of the rivets; with split rivets, piercing is
strength, and gives the appearance of a second head. accomplished with the legs or prongs of the rivets. The walls and
legs are sometimes hardened to facilitate piercing. Metals pierced
Special Solid Rivets with such rivets include low-carbon steels and aluminum alloys,
Various types of solid rivets include those:(1) with a straight generally having a hardness less than RB50.
tenon, (2) with a shoulder to use as a pivot, (3) with fluted or Pointed rivets do not pass through both parts to be joined
knurled shanks to facilitate use as an insert in a molding or and do not require clinching. They generally have a groove
casting or as a hinge pin, (4) with ornamental heads for cosmetic behind their pointed end into which material from the assembly
hardware or such products as fountain pens or pocket lighters, component flows for locking purposes. Pointed rivets are
or (5) with special heads such as balls, cams, or hex configur- generally limited to light-duty applications such as attaching
ations to perform other functions besides that of fastening. nameplates.
Gage pointers for television channel selectors, electrical con-
tacts, and bearing pivots for gages and instruments are typical Rivet Head Styles
applications. It is difficult to classify some of these designs as Rivets are made with various head styles, some of which are
belonging to the rivet or special-product category. For example, shown in Fig. 8-78. Rivets in the semitubular and full-tubular
the fastener shown in Fig. 8-77 combines the permanence of a
rivet with the disassembl&g feature of a nut. -
Head I ?read
Button Truss
Ser
ube
Perma-nut
I
before setting
Trtm Ova I Flat

countersunk
Pan
Fig. 8-77 Special combination

machine.
I
Perma-nut after setting
with a roll clinch
rivet and nut, fed and set by a riveting

m? Flat
Fig. 8-78 Various head styles for rivets.

Cone
8-44
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
classificationsare generallymade in oval, truss, or countersunk button, cone, or pan head, and is generally of the solid rivet
head styles. Split rivets are also available in these three general type. When a flush surface is desired, the countersunk-head
head styles, although oval head designs are more common. rivet may be used. Buttonhead rivets are generally used in
Dimensional and specification data for some representative structural steel applications. Because tubular and split rivets
standard rivets are presented in Tables 8-5, 8-6, and 8-7. can be automatically fed and set with greater speed and less
Selection of a specific type and head style depends primarily power than are needed for solid rivets, they are especially
on the job to be done, the joint location, strength requirements, desirable for requirements of smaller diameters.
and the appearance of the joint. When shear is the only
considerable stress applied, appearance requirements may be Rivet Materials
the governing factor. If the rivet is to be subjected largely to Any metal that can be cold worked is suitable for making
tension, it should have a relatively high head, such as the rivets. The metals most commonly used for rivets include
TABLE 8-5
Data for Some Solid Rivets*
Solid Rivet Work Holes

Fractional 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4 5/ 16 3/8 7/16 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8
Body Diameter
Designation
Body diameter range 0.121- 0.152- 0.182- 0.244- 0.304- 0.365- 0.428- 0.478- 0.600- 0.725- 0.850-
0.127 0.158 0.191 0.253 0.316 0.380 0.443 0.523 0.655 0.780 0.905
Work hole diameter, 0.128 0.159 0.191 0.257 0.323 0.391 0,453 0.531 0.656 0.781 0.906
reference only (5-7~o
larger than rivet
diameter)
Solid Rivet Lengths for Various Grips
Rivet Diameters
Grips 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4
1//2 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 1/2 1 5/8 1 3/4 2 2 1/4 –- ---
5/8 1 1/4 13/8 1 5//8 1 3/4 1 7/8 21/8 2 3/8 --- ---
3/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 3/4
--
17/’8 2 1/8 21/4 2 1)2 –- ---
l=%’h-i 7/8 ] l/2 15/8 i 7/8 2 21/4 23/8 2 5/8 --- ---
EN
1 1 5/8 1 3/4 2 21/8 2 3/8 21/2 23]4 2 7/8 ---
1 1/8 1 3/4 17/8 2 1/8 2 1/4 2 1//2 25/8 27/8
—— J 1/4 1 7/8 2 2 1/4 23,/8 25/8 27/8 3 3 ;/8 ::
3/8 2 21/8 23/8 2 1/2 23/4 3 3 1/8 3 1/4 ---
1/2 21/8 2 1/4 21/2 23/4 3 3 1/8 33/8 3 1/2 3 3/4
5/8 21/4 23/8 25/8 27]8 3 1/8 3 1/4 3 1/2 3 5/8 37/8
3/4 23/8 21/2 23/4 3 3 1//4 33/8 35/8 3 3/4 4
7/8 2 1/2 25/8 27/8 3 1/8 33/8 3 1/2 33/4 3 7/8 4 1/8
2 25/8 23/4 3 1/8 3 1/4 3 1/2 3 3/4 37I8 4 4 1/4
1/8 23/4 27/8 3 1/4 33]8 35/8 37/8 4 41/8 43/8
1/4 27/8 3 33/8 3 1/’2 33/4 4 4 1/4 41/4 41/2
3/8 3 3 1/8 3 1/2 35/8 37/8 41/8 43/8 43/8 45/8
1/2 3 1/8 3 1/4 35/8 37/8 4 4 1/4 41/2 45/8 43]4
5/8 3 1/4 33/8 33/4 4 4 1/8 43/8 45/8 4 3/4 47]8
pi;qt’~ 3/4 33/8 3 1/2 37/8 4 1/8 43/8 41/2 47/8 47/8 5 1/8
-- 7/8
3
3 1/2
35/8
35/8
3 3/4
4
41/4
4 1/4
43/8
41/2
45/8
45/8
43/4
5
5 1/8
5
5 1/8
5 1/4
53/8
H’
-1
1/8 --- --- 43/8 4 1/2 4 3/4 47/8 5 1/4 5 1/4 5 1/2
-- -1
1/4 --- --- 4 1/2 45/8 47/8 5 5 1/2 5 1/2 55/8
318 --- --- 45/8 4314 5 511’8 5 5/8 5518 5 3/4
1>2 --- --- 43)4 5 5 1/8 5 1)4 5 3)4 5 3)4 57)8
5/8 --- --- 47/8 5 1/8 51/4 53/8 5 7/8 57/8 6
3/4 --- --- 5 5 1/4 53/8 5 1/2 61/8 6 1/8 6 1/4
7/8 --- --- 5 1/8 53/8 5 1/2 55/8 61/4 6 1/4 63/8
(continued)
8-45
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
TABLE 8-5—Continued
Solid Rivet Lengths for Various Grips

Rivet Diameters
Grips 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4
4 53/8 5 1/2 55/8 5 3/4 63/8 63/8 6 1/2
1/8 :: --- 51/2 55/8 5 3/4 57/8 61/2 6 1/2 65/8
1/4 --- --- 55/8 5 3/4 57/8 6 1/8 65/8 6 5/8 63/4
3/8 --- -– 5 3/4 5 7]8 6 6 1/4 6 3/4 6 3/4 67/8
1/2 --- –- 57/8 6 6 1/4 63/8 67/8 67/8 7
5/8 --- –- 6 6 1/8 63/8 61/2 7 7 7 1/8
3/4 --- --- 6 1/8 61/4 6 1/2 65/8 7 1/8 7 1/8 7 1/4
7/8 --- --- 6 1/4 63/8 65/8 6 3/4 73/8 73/8 73/8
5 --- 6 1/2 65/8 63/4 67/8 7 1/2 7 1/2 75/8
1/8 ~~~ --- 65/8 63/4 67/8 7 7 5/8 75/8 7 3/4
1/4 -- --- 6 3/4 67/8 7 1/8 7 3/4 73/4 77/8
3] 8 --- --- 67/8 7 ;/8 7 1/4 7 7/8 77/8
1/2 –- --- 7 7 ;/8 73/8 7 1/2 8 1/8 8 1/8 8 !/8
5/8 --- --- 7 1/8 7 1/4 71/2 75/8 8 1/4 8 1/4 8 1/4
3/4 --- -– 7 1/4 7 3/8 75/8 7 3/4 83/8 83/8 83/8
7/8 --- –- 73/8 7 1/2 73/4 7 7/8 8 1/2 8 1/2 8 1/2
6 --- —- 75/8 7 3/4 77/8 8 85/8 85/8 8 3/4
For countersunk deduct 1/4 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 7/8 1 1/16
(Brainard Rivel Co.)
* All dimensions in inches.
TABLE 8-6
Data for Some Full-Tubular and Split Rivets*
Full-tubular Split
rivets rivets
Fractional body diameter
desiiznation - 9/64 3116 3132 1/8 9164 3/16
Body diameter range o.141- 0.182- 0.086- 0.113- 0.144- 0.187 -
0.146 0.188 0.090 0.117 0.149 0.192
Work hole:
Recommended min 0.154 0.199 0.093 0.128 0.154 0.199
Corresponding drill size 23 8 42 30 23 8
Clinch allowance:**
Nominal 1/8 3/16 5/64 3/32 1/8 9/64
Max 5/32 1/4 7/64 1/8 5/32 11/64
Rivet length:
Min 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16
Increments 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16
** For star or corrugated clinch.
aluminum alloys; brass, bronze, and other copper alloys; low, Standards for Rivets
medium, and high-carbon steels; alloy steels; and corrosion- General and dimensional data for small solid rivets, 7/ 16“
resistant steels. Rivets are also available made from plastics. nominal diameter and smaller, are presented in ANSI Standard
Rivets are often supplied with a natural (as-processed) B 18.1.1. Similar data for metric sizes of small solid rivets,
finish, with no plating or other coating. However, they can be 12 mm diamand smaller, is given in ANSI Standard B18. 1.3M.
provided with various plated finishes, including zinc, cadmium, Large solid rivets, 1/ 2“ diam and larger, are covered in ANSI
nickel, tin, copper, and brass. Standard B 18.1.2.
8-46
CHAPTE R8
RIVETS
TABLE 8-7
Data for Some Semitubular Rivets*
Fractional body diameter

designation 1/16 3/32 0.099 1/8 9/64 3/16 7/32 1/4
Body diameter range 0.058- 0.085- 0.095- 0.118 - 0.141 - 0.182- 0.210- 0.244-
0.061 0.089 0.099 0.123 0.146 0.188 0.217 0.252
Work hole:
Recommended min 0.064 0.093 0.104 0.128 0.154 0.199 0.234 0.265
Corresponding drill size 52 42 37 30 23 8 15/64 17/64
Clinch allowance:
Nominal 0.032 0.046 0.051 0.064 0.076 0.098 0.102 0.130
Max 0.038 0.055 0.061 0.077 0.092 0.118 0.141 0,159
Rivet length:
Min 1/16 5/64 5/64 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32
Increments 1/64 1/64 1/64 1/64 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16
Dimensional tolerances:**
Body diameter *0.0015 *0.002 *0.002 +0.0025 +0.0025 *0.003 *0.0035 *0.004
Head diameter *0.005 2co.oo5 +0.005 *0.005 *0.005 iO.006 *0.007 *0.007
Head thickness +0.002 *0.003 *0.003 +0.005 +0.005 *0.005 *0.007 *0.007
Length up to 3/8 *0.005 *0.005 *0.005 *0.010 *O.O1O *O.O1O *O.O1O *0.010
Length more than 3/8 *0.007 *0.007 io.oo7 *O.O1O *O.O1O *O.O1O *0.015 *0.015
. . .. .. . . . .
* All cllmenslons m mcnes.
** Also applicable to full-tubular and split rivets (Table 8-6).
Dimensional specifications for general-purpose, semitu- 2. Maximum length of clinch for full-tubular and
bular, full tubular, and split rivets and rivet caps are presented bifurcated rivets should be figured at 100VOof shank
in ANSI Standard B 18.7. Data on general-purpose, semi- diameter.
tubular, metric rivets is included in ANSI Standard B 18.7.1 M. 3. Maximum length of clinch for semitubular rivets should
be 50-70% OF shank diameter to prevent buckling
DESIGN OF RIVETED JOINTS and ensure a tight set. If a semitubular rivet has been
When specifying the rivet, the relationship between the properly selected, its clinch allowance will force the
diameters of the rivet body and the work hole must be tubular portion of the rivet to disappear in the clinch and
determined to realize maximum shear strength. Excess work- a solid shank will remain, providing maximum strength.
hole diameter will prevent the rivet from filling the hole to form
To establish proper rivet length for a roll clinch, add the total
a solid assembly and will result in improper fastening. On the compressed thickness of the workplaces to be assembled to the
other hand, an undersized work-hole diameter slows up auto- nominal clinch allowance recommended for the rivet body
matic feeding and clinching of the rivet. diameter to be used. In the case of a flat countersunk-head rivet,
follow this procedure and then subtract the thickness of the
Hole Sizes rivet head. If the rivet length so determined does not conform to
Recommended hole sizes for various types and sizes of rivets the fractional length listed in the increments shown in Table 8-5,
are given in Tables 8-5, 8-6, and 8-7. If the hole is not clean and use the next longer increment and check against the maximum
straight, these recommendations should be increased. When clinch allowance shown. If this gives a greater-than-maximum
two or more rivets are to be set in the same assembly, tolerances clinch allowance, specify the next shorter length. If the rivet to
between centers should be taken into account when establishing be used is of an intermediate body diameter not listed in the
hole dimensions. If molded or cast parts are to be joined, the table, the nominal clinch allowance may be figured at 50-55% of
tolerances of pieces produced in different molds or dies should the maximum body diameter and the maximum at 65~o thereof.
be taken into account, because variations can prevent high- When roll clinches are desired on full-tubular rivets driven
production assembly. through work without prepunched holes, use semitubular
clinch allowances in Table 8-5 as a guide. However, for best
Upset and/or Clinch Allowances results, it is suggested that samples of work be submitted to the
Upset and clinch allowances, no less important than hole rivet manufacturer for recommendation of rivet applications.
clearances, are also given in Tables 8-5, 8-6, and 8-7. Three rules
of thumb have been developed for sizes not listed in the tables: Types of Joints
1. For solid rivets, the upset material should be about 1.5 In rivet joint design, either lap or butt joints are generally
times the diameter of the body, plus 1/ 16” for large rivets. used. In chain-rivet joints, the rivets are in even rows; in stagger-
Spin setting usually requires less volume of material, and rivet joints, the rows are staggered diagonally. When rivets are
1.0 times the diameter of the body is a good starting used to join metal parts together, they must be selected to match
reference. the materials (type and thickness) to be joined and spaced to
8-47
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
meet the load requirements of the joint. Rivet joints should Experience has shown that a plate containing a hole will
always be designed so that the rivets are subjected only to shear have an endurance limit of about one-third its tensile strength,
loads. The centerline through a row of rivets drawn parallel to but the amount will vary in actual practice. For example, a
the joint edge is known as the gage line. The distance from the punched hole will have a lower endurance limit than a well-
edge of the joint to the first gage line is edge distance. Spacing or drilled hole, and a punched or drilled hole that is reamed will
pitch is the distance between rivets, Because of the infinite have a higher limit than a drilled hole. The one-third endurance
number of possible joint configurations and load conditions, limit applies only to an open hole and is improved by filling the
only the most general guidelines can be given. hole with the rivet. The following six general conclusions have
been drawn from tests of various riveted joints:
Rivet Spacing
1. Riveted joints in double shear have better fatigue strength
In general, pitch or spacing of rivets should be as large as
than those in single shear.
practicable without impairing the efficiency of the joint. It
2. Fatigue strength tends to increase with rows of rivets.
depends, to a great extent, on the proportions of the members
being joined. Minimum spacing, about three times the rivet 3. Cold-driven steel rivets are better in fatigue than hot-
driven rivets, but the variation between hot and cold-
diameter, is that which permits driving without interference;
maximum spacing is generally limited to about eight times the driven aluminum rivets is negligible.
4. Fatigue strength increases with rivet size.
thickness of the heaviest plate. In tension members, too small a
5. Fatigue strength of joints varying in alloy have the same
spacing may reduce the effective area of the members carrying
relation as strength of the basic alloy.
the stresses. In compression members, too great a spacing may
6. Butt-riveted ioints have greater fatigue strength than lap
allow buckling of the members between the rivets. Equations
joints. Simif&ly, a butt~joint, dou~le-splice~ plate has
for determining the pitch of rivets are listed in Table 8-8.
greater fatigue strength than a single-spliced plate.
RIVET AND JOINT STRENGTHS The efficiency of a riveted joint is the ratio of the strength of
There are many applications in which rivets under tensile the joint to the strength of the thinnest plate being joined. The
stress are satisfactory; however, specifications strictly prohib- strength of the joint is that at which failure can be expected in
iting the use of rivets in tension are usually justified. If a beam is bearing, shear, or tension and is determined by the following
attached to a column with an angle riveted to the web, the top equations:
rivets holding the angle to the column are in tension. The same
care should be exercised in the use of rivets in tension that is For shear strength:
used in selecting a safety factor for a structure. Attention should P. ❑ S,AN (6)
be paid to proper driving of rivets, because a marked change in
cross section between the head and the shank will cause where:
incipient weakness. A properly driven rivet, having a head of P, ❑ joint shear strength, lb (N)
adequate size, will not loosen or fail until the tensile stress is well S, = specified shear strength of rivet, psi (MPa)
in excess of the tensile yield because the tensile load is A = cross-sectional area of rivet, in. z (mm~)
counteracted by the tensile stress in the rivet. N = number of shear planes
Under repeated loading or reversal of stresses, a structure
may fail at a stress below its ultimate tensile strength when For tensile strength:
under static load. Such failures are due to fatigue and are caused Pu= Su (p -d)t (7)
by such discontinuities or stress raisers as holes in the plate (and
especially by cracks at the periphery of the hole), which are where:
more critical and generally larger than inconsistencies in the Pu ❑ joint tensile strength, lb (N)
rivet. Fatigue failures of riveted joints usually occur in the plate Su ❑ specified ultimate shear strength of the plate, psi
and rarely in the rivet. (M Pa)
p ❑ pitch (spacing) of rivets, in. (mm)
d = rivet hole diameter, in. (mm)
TABLE 8-8 t= plate thickness, in. (mm)
Pitch of Rivets for Various Types of Joints
For bearing strength:
Rows of rivets Shear Pitch F f’b ❑ &A, (8)
1 Single 0.644dz/t + d where:
1 Double 0.13dz/t+d
2 Single 1.288 d~/[+d Pb = joint bearing strength, lb (N)
2 Double 2.26dz/t + d Sh ❑ specified ultimate bearing strength of plate, psi (M Pa)
3 Single 1.93d~/t+d xl, = projected bearing area of rivet, in.2 (mm~)
3 Double 3.30dz/t+d In each of the above equations, it is assumed that the rivet is
Note: Distance between rows in staggered riveting of multiple- in pure shear. Rocking of a riveted frame and other secondary
riveted joints ❑ P/2 + d/4, approximately. Edge distance effects produce bending and tensile stresses in the rivets. The
(distance from the centerline of the hole to the edge of the plate) calculated load should be divided by a suitable safety factor to
should be not less than 1 1/ 2 times the hole diameter. compensate for these stresses. Generally, the factor of safety
* P = the center-to-center distance between adjacent rivets in should approximate those used for the compressive and tensile
one row; d ❑ the rivet diameter; f = the thickness of the plate. loads in the other structural members. Tensile failure in the
8-48
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
plate ofa riveted joint is resisted by the metal between the rivets. Aircraft practices. When fabricating aircraft, aluminum
If the pitch is too small, the plate will tear along the gage line rivets are often driven by placing the driving tool against the
when the joint is stressed. manufactured head and a bucking bar against the shank end of
the rivet. This system can be reversed as in structural rivet-
CLINCHING (SETTING) OF RIVETS ing, and the driving tool then consists of a hammer that is fitted
Clinching, setting, or driving of rivets, commonly called with a rivet set.
riveting, is done in several ways with a variety of equipment. For flathead or flat countersunk-head rivets, a flat set is
Riveting is done both hot and cold. However, because of the used. For brazier, round, or buttonhead rivets, a cupped set
speed and efficiency of modern tools and machines, as well as having the approximate curvature of the rivet head is used, In
the introduction of new rivet materials, the cold method has an emergency, a flat set can be used for other than flathead
replaced hot riveting for most industrial applications. rivets and will flatten the rivet head but will not weaken the head
provided no cracking occurs.
Quality of Clinch The cupped set should be slightly wider and shallower than
For solid rivets, there are a variety of conditions that should the head. If the set is not wide enough, the shank of the rivet will
be considered. Too thick a workpiece for the diameter of the be forced up into the head because the initial impact is not
rivet causes buckling. Use of the correct length of rivet shank is directly on the center of the head. This will result in damage to
important to form the desired upset head, If too long a length is the sheet or ringing of the head. A short, straight set is the most
used, buckling occurs; if too short a length is used, an efficient, but in many cases it is impossible to get the hammer
incomplete head will be formed. close to the work because of interference from the part or other
Hole diameter must also be correct. Too large a hole can members. Curved or offset rivet sets may be used in such cases,
cause buckling and /or underfilled holes, resulting in loose but they have a tendency to shear off the rivet head because the
joints. In staking joints (the same as for upsetting or spinning), impact is struck at an angle. As a result, curved or offset rivet
it is preferable to use the preformed head on the side of the sets should be used only when necessary.
thinner material of the joint; clinching then takes place against Because the shape and size of the bucking bar for a particular
the thicker material. Punched holes generally improve the job vary with the size of the rivet, the thickness of the material,
quality of the joint because the holes are perpendicular to the and the conditions under which driving is to take place, there
surface and have no heavy burrs. are many designs and sizes of bucking bars. If no interference
There are no universal quality standards for clinched rivet exists, a square, cold-rolled steel bar of the proper weight is
assemblies because requirements vary with different applica- employed. When riveting is not simple, bucks are designed to
tions. Acceptability is often determined simply by visual overcome the interference and still provide the inertia for
inspection and testing the tightness of the joint. Using a rivet proper upsetting. The right bucking bar for a specific application
having the proper shank length is necessary to obtain a full can be chosen only by experience and examination of the
uniform roll in the crimp. Other factors that can result in poor application or by actual tests, If the rivet is bent or the sheet is
clinching include improper hole diameters; inadequate rivet dimpled during the riveting process, the buck is too heavy.
support; worn, misaligned, or improperly designed tools; Because a flat or squash upset helps simplify design of the
improper rivet material or size; and flaws in the rivets. buck and does not require a special bucking bar for each rivet
diameter, this type of driven head is normally specified.
Methods of Clinching However, the flat driven head requires more driving pressure
Methods of clinching rivets can be divided into the following and longer rivets than the cone-point head. When high driving
three broad classifications: pressure and long rivets are not desirable, and the shape of the
bucking bar is not too complicated, the cone-point head should
1. Impacl. A succession of blows, including hand and
be used. The recommended shape and dimensions of the cone-
pneumatic hammer riveting.
point head are shown in Fig. 8-79, view a, The degree of upset
2. Compression. Squeeze riveting tools are available for
for this type of head is easily checked by measuring the diameter
either hand or power operation and in both portable and
of the upset, which should be maintained as close as possible to
stationary models.
1.5 times the nominal shank diameter. If the proper shank
3. Combination. Compression combined with rolling or
length is used and the above limitation maintained, the other
spinning.
head dimensions will be controlled automatically. If the
Impact riveting. This method, often called peening, is a dimensions are followed, several rivet sizes can be driven with
common way of producing heads on solid rivets. The method is the same buck. To help center the buck on the rivet shank, the
used frequently when the thickness or hardness of different skirt can be flared out slightly, but this limits it to use on only
parts in an assembly vary. one size rivet.
Compression (squeeze) riveting. Compression riveting is When a more rounded head is desired, a buttonhead upset
commonly used to fasten two or more parts where the rivet can be used. The dimensions of the driven buttonhead for rivets
holes are slightly mismatched. The compression tends to distort less than 1/ 2“ diam are shown in Fig. 8-79, view b, For rivets
the rivet body and fill the holes. 1/ 2“ and larger, a smaller buttonhead should be used (view c).
Combination riveting. Spin riveting is often used where a The pressures required to drive the buttonhead are about
better bearing surface for the rivet head is required. This double that of the conehead.
method has less tendency to distort the rivet body, which is an
advantage for assemblies where one or more of the parts must
be free to rotate. Possible limitations to the use of spin riveting Hole Preparation
include much slower production and higher tooling costs than While some rivets, previously discussed, can pierce their own
other riveting methods. holes, most rivet holes are either punched, drilled, or reamed
8-49
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
prior to riveting. Punched and drilled holes are made to finished tightly together atinter-vals with bolts, rivets, screws, or sheet
size in one operation. Reamed holes are punched or drilled holders, as shown in Fig. 8-80. The sheet holders are then
undersize and then reamed to finished size. Rivet holes are often removed as the riveting progresses along the line of rivets. When
drilled undersize to be used as pilot holes when locating the part rivets are used as sheet holders, the sheets are first riveted at
in an assembly jig. After the part is located and clamped in intervals and theintermediate holes are then riveted.
position, the pilot hole is drilled to the finished size. Dimpling/countersinking. Flush rivets, as shown in Fig.
Hole size. The diameter of a rivet hole is critical and 8-81, view a, are specified for riveting aircraft skin panels to
contributes much to the strength of the riveted joint. The rivet eliminate the drag created by other types of rivet heads. A
hole should be just large enough to afford easy insertion of the flat-headed rivet is used and driven so the top of the head is flush
rivet. If the hole is too large, bulging and separation of the with the skin surface after it is driven. The area around the rivet
assembly components, bent rivets, or eccentric upsets and loose hole is dimpled or countersunk to allow the rivet head to be
rivets will result. Rivet hole clearances vary from t).003” (0.08 located below the skin panel surface. The dimpling or
mm) forthin-gage stock to O.032’’(O.8l mm) fora l“(25mm) countersinking may be accomplished by any of the following
plate. Burrs or chips must be removed from the rivet hole or methods:
from the immediate vicinity of the joint to ensure a tight joint. 1. Predimpling or press countersinking with dies.
Holding sheets. If an operator works from one end of a line 2. Predimpling or press countersinking with a die and the rivet.
of rivets to the other, the aluminum sheets will creep and spread 3. Machine countersinking.
so the holes at the opposite end of the sheet will be out of 4. Combination machine countersinking and predimpling.
alignment. To prevent this creep, aluminum sheets are held 5. Combination machine countersinking and dimpling.
0.425 A
0.885 D
E&w-
0.638 A
q6&
T
0.5 D
0.725 D 0.4A
7 0.0625 D +8;4+4ZD
2D 0.375 D
1-
-t’+- -’i175’1- {30°~~0.425 A
4%
2 0,885 D
1 -l-J-
26°34’ 0.75 D
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8-79 Recommended proportions of rivet heads: (a) cone point, (b) button head for less than 1/2” diam rivets, and (c) button bead for 1/2” diam
riv=ts and larger.
(a) (b) (c)
NN=- Dimpling bar E
I-’-h”ie+h”ie+
(d) (e)
Fig. 8-81 Flush riveting: (a)typical joint;(b) countersunk joint in heavy

stock; (c) same as (b), but with dimpling; (d) predimpling; and (e)
Fig. 8-80 Holder for aligning holes in aluminum sheets during riveting. combined dimpling and riveting.
8-50
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
The method used depends on the thickness of the sheet, the caused by heat. For this reason, the work should be tight to
accessibility of the rivet holes, and the speed at which the prevent slippage and to prevent the rivets from squeezing out
operation can be done. between the parts of the joint.
Dimpling and predimpling are essentially the same in that Pneumatic hammers. Portable pneumatic hammers are used
both require a dimpling bar and employ either a pneumatic extensively for riveting. These tools operate with compressed
hammer (one-shot type) or squeezer. The pneumatic hammer is air that accelerates a mass and transfers force through a rivet,
usually employed as a portable tool if the part or assembly may the force stopping on impact with a bucking bar and forming a
be difficult to manipulate. The pneumatic hammer usually head on the rivet. They maybe of the one-shot, slow-hitting, or
makes one dimple at a time, whereas the squeezer maybe set to fast-hitting type. One-shot pneumatic hammers are the easiest
produce 8-10 dimples simultaneously. The difference between to control because the rivet is driven with a single blow.
these methods is that the predimple method uses a punch, as However, one-shot hammers cannot be used to rivet thin sheets
shown in Fig. 8-81, view d, while the dimple method employs because of the danger of damaging the sheet, and they are
the rivet itself to form the sheet, as shown in view e. limited as to size and alloy of rivet that can be driven. A
These two methods are limited by the gage of the sheets one-shot hammer can be operated by hand or mounted on a
being riveted. The limit is about 0.064 to 0.091“ ( 1.63 to 2.31 pedestal and operated mechanically. The slow-hitting hammer,
mm), depending on the diameter of the rivet and the alloy and which strikes from 900 to 2500 blows per minute, is most
temper of the material. For thick sheet not easily formed, the popular. With a little practice, it can be easily controlled to
material may be machine-countersunk as shown in Fig. 8-81, produce a sound rivet. The fast-hitting hammer is harder to
view b. When material of a gage too heavy to be dimpled is to be control and is used only to a limited extent. It strikes from 3000
joined to thin-gage material, machine countersinking may be to 5000 blows per minute.
combined with dimpling or predimpling of thin stock, as shown Squeeze riveters. The best control in riveting is obtained by
in view c. using a squeeze (compression-type) riveter. A squeeze riveter
differs from a pneumatic hammer in that the set and the buck
Portable Riveting Tools (called dollies) are integral parts, and the upset is produced by a
It is important that the correct shape and size of riveting tool slow squeezing action. After this type of riveter is set up, it is
be used and that excessive driving pressures be avoided. relatively easy to produce properly upset shanks with well-
Excessive pressure in driving may result in bulging of the edge centered heads. However, squeeze riveters are slower than
of the piece being riveted; buckling or other distortion, hammers and their use is limited by the structural design of the
particularly if thin material is used; and weakening or fracturing assembly. Because of the latter factor, squeeze riveters are used
of metal adjacent to the hole. Several types of portable riveting primarily for subassembly work.
tools are shown in Fig, 8-82. Squeeze riveters are either portable, semiportable, or
Rivet holes tend to get out of coincidence during the driving mounted and can be mechanically or pneumatically operated.
operation because of slippage, swelling of the metal, or warping Mounted squeezer tools can be set up in multiples (or gangs),
thus making it possible to set more than one rivet at a time.
Multiple squeeze-riveting is fast and efficient and produces
uniform upsets while holding work to a minimum. The only
limitation of multiple squeeze-riveting is the nature of the
assembly being riveted. The dolly sets, which are comparable
with the set and bucking bar used with the hammer, are made of
steel, and the same cupping dimensions are used.
Riveting hammer
Riveting Machines
Manual or automatic riveting machines, bench or floor-
mounted (see Fig. 8-83), use the same principle of operation as
portable riveting tools. The rivet is fed from the hopper to a
track that deposits it, shank down, in the center of the upper
jaws (see Fig. 8-84). As the cycle proceeds, a driver descends and
contacts the rivet head, forcing it downward past the point
where the jaws come to a stop. This action pushes the rivet
through the jaws and onto a spring-mounted plunger on the
Compression riveter with alligator yake
lower arm of the machine. With continued downward motion,
the plunger pin retracts and guides the rivet through the work
until it bottoms against the lower die and is clinched. When the
driver and the jaws retract, the plunger pushes the rivet and
work off the die.
The anvils used to form the clinch are expendable tools.
They vary in design with the type of rivet and the service
required of the assembly. To design an anvil to perform as
Compression riveter with C-type yake required, the following design criteria must be considered: (1)
diameter of rivet body; (2) type, diameter, and depth of hole in
the rivet; (3) thickness of the materials being assembled; (4) type
Fig. 8-82 Portable riveting tools. of clinch required; and (5) clearance of workpiece. Because each
8-51
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
Automatic riveting machine, floor model
Fig. 8-84 Driver, jaws, and anvil mounted on a riveting machine.
Bifurcated (split) rivets are usually set against a solid form

that bends back the prongs and presses them into the work to
provide a smooth clinch. If a washer or cap is employed, it is
held in a solid tip, and the tubular or bifurcated fastener is driven
through the work and the hole in the cap and clinched against
this member. Compression rivets are not set, but are pressed
together to forma tight fit. This is accomplished by feeding the
male half from the top arm of the riveting machine while
holding the bottom half against a flat anvil.
Safety requirements for the construction, care, and use of rivet
setting equipment are presented in ANSI Standard B154. 1.
Automatic Drilling and Riveting Machines

Automatic riveting machine, bench model
The high cost, low production rates, and inconsistent results
associated with manual riveting, especially for joining aluminum
components in the aircraft industry, has led to the extensive use
of automation in fastening. Machines are available that auto-
Fig. 8-83 Floor and bencb models of automatic riveting machines.
matically position and clamp the assembly, drill and/ or coun-
tersink the required holes, feed and insert the proper rivets,
different rivet style requires a particular anvil form to give the head the rivets by upsetting, and unclamp the assembly (see Fig.
desired clinch, it is recommended that the riveting machine 8-85), Industrial robots, some with computer vision as a sensory
manufacturer specify the proper anvil. feedback, are also being used for automated fastening.
Generally, semitubular rivets are roll set; full-tubular rivets Advantages. The automatic drilling and riveting process
are star set. Roll setting forms the rivet into a smooth roll clinch, permits faster production at lower cost. In many applications,
either against the work, against a washer, or in space in the case improvements in production rates of up to 10 times have been
of a pivot pin or small shaft. Star setting splits the end of the realized. Another important advantage is the improved quality
rivet into six or eight equal segments as the clinch is formed. of the joints produced, Hole diameters can be held to 0.001”
Star setting is often specified for clinching against soft materials, (0.03 mm) and countersunk depths maintained to a tolerance of
such as leather, wood, and fabric, when a larger diameter clinch 0.0005” (0.0 13 mm). Close control of the countersunk depths
is desired. often eliminates the need for shaving the rivet heads, and rigid
8-52
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
Clamp Drill and countersink

m2!
L 1
tpJ--jj?
=1=
Insert Utxet
Unclamp
Fig. 8-85 Sequence of operations for automatic riveting. (GEMCOR

Drivmatic Div. ) Fig. 8-86 Tooling components for automatic drilling and riveting.
clamping during drilling makes deburring unnecessary. These The drilling unit is then moved aside and, with the clamping
machines, with proper upper and lower tooling, will handle all force still applied, a riveting unit is moved into position. A rivet
standard type rivets and all materials capable of being squeezed. is automatically fed from one or more hoppers, down a track,
Controlled parameters of machine operation contribute to and into feed fingers that insert it into the hole. In this position,
high-order repeatability, with a rivet reject rate of less than I Yo. the rivet is hydraulically squeezed against the upper anvil to
Applications. In addition to extensive use by the commercial form the required head. Clamping pressure is then released, and
aircraft industry, automatic fastening is being applied in a the assembly is removed or repositioned for additional fastening.
growing number of other industries. Materials joined include The machines exert as much as 6000 lb (27 kN) of clamping
aluminum, titanium, and other metal alloys, as well as com- force and up to 50,000 lb (222 kN) of force for heading the
posite materials. The automatic machines are also being used rivets. Average cycle time is 31 / 2 seconds, and production rates
for the application of threaded fasteners, nut plates, and blind of more than 24 rivets per minute are attained. When required,
fasteners, in addition to rivets. the formed rivet heads are shaved flush on the same automatic
Applications include the assembly of helicopter tail sections, machine. For hot dimpling, a three-position tooling head is
cargo-bay doors for the space shuttle, dish-shaped antennas, used. Tooling at the first position has a built-in cartridge heater
and components for military vehicles. The technology is also and produces a male dimple profile. Drilling is performed at the
being used in the primary assembly line for the all-aluminum second position and upsetting at the third.
Hummer vehicle, which is now being produced to replace the Positioning systems. Methods of moving assemblies for
U.S. Army jeep. automatic drilling and riveting vary from simple manual means
Automatic drilling and riveting machines are also being used to sophisticated electronic controls. Manual positioning is used
for the application of slug rivets—low-cost, headless slugs of extensively for smaller and lighter assemblies, as well as those
aluminum alloy. The slugs are hydraulically squeezed from with access problems. These systems are generally equipped
both ends, forming leakproof interference fits. This technique with bearings and/ or rollers to minimize friction, and chains or
has eliminated the need for fuel tanks previously built into the straps and a sling arrangement are often used for vertical
wings of large aircraft. By making fuel storage integral with the movements.
wings (called wet wings), fuel-carrying capacity has been Semiautomatic positioning systems are generally equipped
increased and weight and complexity of the wings decreased. with hydraulic and/ or pneumatic cylinders, and electric motors
Drilling and riveting machines. Hydraulically powered to jog the assemblies into position. In positioning with computer
machines for automatic drilling and riveting consist essentially numerical control (CNC), a preprogrammed microprocessor
of a C-frame carrying the tooling and a positioning system for automatically energizes servomotors to accurately control
moving the assemblies to be fastened. Because of the wide positioning. A six-axis CNC positioning system is shown
variations in the size, shape, and weight of assemblies, as well as schematically in Fig. 8-87. The CNC units can also be used to
the types of fasteners, there are no standard or universal control cycling of the machine.
machines. Instead, a family of machines have been built, with Hole-location methods. Several methods are used to locate
throat depths ranging from 6 to 168” (152 to 4267 mm) and the holes for automatic drilling and riveting. In one method, a
throat heights to 111” (2819 mm). masking template containing the desired rivet hole pattern is
Tooling. The basic tooling for a machine is illustrated in Fig. placed on the assembly, sprayed, and then removed, leaving
8-86. With the workplaces to be joined firmly clamped in the dots on the assembly. One of the dots is then positioned in
machine, a drilling unit moves into place to produce the hole, alignment with a fiber-optic or laser light system and the
8-53
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
machine cycle is initiated. Then the procedure is repeated. always overlaps the center of rivet point N. A cycloidal
Another method of hole location is to provide a pilot pin in the movement guides the tool through the rosette pattern. The rivet
lower anvil that enters predrilled pilot holes in the assembly. material is spread radially outward and inward, with some
Accessory equipment. Various accessories are available for tangential overlapping, to form the required head.
use with automatic drilling and riveting machines. One is a Advantages of radial riveting are the same as those just
closed-loop servosystem for controlling drilling speed and feed. discussed for orbital riveting. However, radial riveting is said to
Speeds are variable from 100 to 6000 rpm and feed rates from 1 impart improved conductivity to the materials because of the
to 96 ipm (25 to 2438 mm/ rein). Another accessory is a system kneading action. As a result, it is used extensively in the
to automatically select the proper length rivet. With this system, product~n of electrical contact points.
the thickness of the assembly stack is measured, and encoders
send signals to a programmable controller that selects a proper
rivet from a number of vibratory feeder bowls.
Orbital Riveting
Orbital riveting (see Fig. 8-88) is a low-pressure, line-of-
contact (T), cold forming process. The riveting tool, mounted in
a rotating spindle, is inclined at a slight angle (3-6° ) so that the
tool axis intersects the centerline, P, of the spindle at the
working end of the tool. As the orbiting tool is fed toward the
work, material at the end of the rivet shank is incrementally
displaced to form the required head. Machines are available for
pneumatic or hydraulic operation and in bench, floor, and
opposed-head models. Modular heads that fit most machines
are also available with one or more spindles. Multispindle
systems with center distances ranging from 3/ 16 to 20” (5 to
508 mm) and multilevel assembly systems are being used.
An important advantage of orbital riveting is the consistently
high-quality results attained, with close tolerances and smooth
finishes. Because there is no impact between the tooling and the
workpiece, the process is quiet, Versatility is another advantage;
a wide range of metals and plastics can be formed in this way,
and many other forming operations, in addition to riveting, can
P
be done on these machines. The process requires less power and
force than most other riveting methods. Typical head shapes
and forming peens are illustrated in Fig. 8-89.
Radial Riveting
Radial riveting is similar to orbital riveting except that the
tools move in a planetary or rosette motion instead of being Fig. 8-88 Orbital riveting. ( VSI Automation Assembl})
mounted in rotating spindles. In the rosette forming pattern, R,
shown in Fig. 8-90, each loop of the rosette path is guided
through center Z. The longitudinal axis of the riveting tool
,...---..
Fig. 8-87 Six-axis CNC positioning system. (G.EMCOR Ds-ivmafic Fig. 8-89 Typical forming peens used in orbital riveting and heads
Div. ) produced. ( Weber Automatic Screwdrivers & Assembl,v Systems)
8-54
CHAPTER 8
RIVETS
Fig. 8-90 Radial riveting. (Brutkr Corp. ) I

Fig. 8-91 Handheld gun for electromagnetic riveting. (Maxwell
Electromagnetic Riveting hboratories inc. )
Electromag~etic riveting (EM-R) allows fast semi to fully

automatic, single-impact riveting with the advantages of built-
in repeatability and quality assurance. Systems used for electro-
magnetic riveting are capable of installing up to 20 rivets per
EMR Gun
minute. They can also install rivets made from various materials \
up to 3/ 4“ diam and allow rapid changes of conventional rivet \ / Material stack
dies to easily adapt to varying end uses. With EM R, rivets can
be installed to precision interference profiles for fluidtight and
fatigue-critical applications.
Quality characteristics of EMR inchrde high fatigue ratings,
low reject rates, good and uniform finished-rivet cosmetics, and
low structural distortion and damage probability. Rivet instal-
lation with manual EM R tools requires little operator training Ram
and creates comparatively low noise and minimal operator
fatigue. Electromagnetic riveting systems are relatively low in
cost and require a minimum of floor space and maintenance.
Manual EMR equipment consists of a power pack connected
to two semiportable, handheld rivet guns (see Fig. 8-91) by
special power transmission cables. The power pack contains the
-Ylfi.et
capacitor bank and each rivet gun contains a coil abutting
Fig. 8-92 Synchronized, dual-impact method of electromagnetic
against a copper-faced driving ram. The work cycle consists of riveting. (Maxwell Laboratories, Inc. )
charging the capacitor bank to a preset voltage level, followed
by a rapid discharge through the series-connected coils. Syn-
chronized by the current, the guns produce electromagnetic maximum stored-energy rating of 6500 J. The energy require-
forces on the rams, rapidly forming a rivet with equal and ment for clinching a 3/ 8“ diam aluminum rivet is 2600 J.
opposite forces (see Fig. 8-92). Handheld guns used are about 61 / 2“ ( 165 mm) diam by 23 1/ 2“
Because of the dynamic impact principle in the EMR (597 mm) long. Because each gun weighs 75 lb (34 kg), they are
process, rather than the static force application in hydraulic used with counterbalances for manual operation.
machines, EMR guns can be held by hand or incorporated in
fully automated truss-frame type structures with practically BLIND RIVETS/FASTENERS
unlimited throat depths. Computer-controlled sensing devices Blind rivets are mechanical fasteners having self-contained
prohibit firing unless the guns are precisely aligned. mechanical, chemical, or other features that form upsets on
Deformation energy applied in the process is 400 ft-lbf (542 their blind ends and expand their shanks to join parts of
J), with a deformation time of 5 x 10-4 second. The maximum assemblies. This design permits the fasteners to be installed in
charge voltage for the power pack is 6000 V, and the pack has a the holes of joints that are accessible from only one side.
8-55
CHAPTER 8
BLIND RIVETS
Advantages and Limitations from 3/32 to 1/4” and 2.4 to 6.3 mm, but special rivets have
In addition to their use in joints that are accessible from only been made with shank diameters to 3/4”. The major types of
one side, blind rivets are increasingly being applied where both blind rivets are pull-mandrel, drive-pin, threaded, and chem-
sides ofjoints are accessible. The reasons include lower installed ically expanded.
costs, faster and easier assembly, and/ or improved appearance. Pull-mandrel. Blind rivets of this type generally consist of a
Another important advantage of blind rivets is that the rivet body and a mandrel or, sometimes, a locking collar. In
operators have no negative effect on the consistently uniform setting, the rivet is inserted into holes in the parts to be joined,
and reliable tightening of the joint. the mandrel is gripped and pulled axially, and its head upsets
Blind rivets are suitable for fastening many materials, the rivet body to form a blind head, These rivets are further
including plastics, and they are resistant to vibration and classified into pull-through mandrel, break-mandrel, non-
tampering. These rivets are suitable for semiautomatic and break-mandrel, and flush-break, self-plugging multigrip types.
automatic assembly, with feed rates to 3000 per hour. In Pulf-through mandrel. In setting these rivets, the mandrel is
addition to fastening, the rivets can serve as pivot shafts, pulled completely through the rivet body, resulting in a hollow
spacers, electrical contacts, nut plates, and stops. Some blind rivet. Plugs can be inserted to seal the holes. Dimensional,
rivets have a mechanical lock between the mandrel and the mechanical, and performance requirements for inch sizes of
stem, providing high fatigue resistance. pull-through mandrel blind rivets are presented in lFI Standard
A possible limitation is that some blind rivets require special 117; metric sizes are covered in IFI Standard 520.
installation tools. Also, ample clearance is required for the pulling Break-mandrel. As shown in Fig. 8-93, a rivet of this type is
heads and setting tools used with some types of blind rivets. inserted into holes in the workplaces to be assembled, and the
setting tool is placed over the mandrel of the rivet. When the
Nomenclature tool is actuated, the tool jaws grip the mandrel and pull it into
The following glossary consists of selected terms commonly the rivet body, thus forming a secondary head. The mandrel
used with respect to blind rivets. then breaks at a predetermined point, leaving part of the
mandrel locked in the rivet body; the remainder of the mandrel
body The component of a blind rivet that does the fastening. is discarded. Specifications for break-mandrel blind rivets are
The starting rivet has a primary head and, when set, has a presented in IFI Standards 114 (inch sizes) and 505 (metric
secondary head. The cross section of the rivet body is usually sizes). National Aerospace Standards (NAS) 1400 and 1740,
round, and its outside diameter establishes the rivet size. and Military Specification MI L-R-7885 cover locked stem,
primary bead The original head on the rivet body. After flush-break versions.
setting, it is always located on the access side of the joint. Nonbreak-mandreI. During setting of this type rivet, the
secondary bead (blind head) The head formed on the blind mandrel is pulled into or against the rivet body, but does not
side of the joint as the result of pulling the mandrel or break. Such rivets require that the mandrels be dressed in a
driving the pin into the rivet body—a process known as subsequent operation.
upsetting. Flush-break, se~-plugging multigrip. These positive-locking,
breaker groove/notch A notched area on the shanks of some pull-mandrel blind rivets are suitable for use in joining the
mandrels defining the location at which the mandrel breaks component parts of assemblies having varying grip ranges and
under a predetermined tensile load. where structural integrity is a design requirement. Specifications
core The axially located hole in the rivet body. It may or may for these rivets are presented in lF1 Standard 134.
not extend the full length of the rivet body, depending on Drive-pin. A drive-pin blind rivet has a pin within the rivet
style. body, the pin projecting above the rivet head (see Fig. 8-94, view
end The part of the rivet body located at the extremity of the a). In setting (view b), the rivet is inserted into holes in the parts
shank opposite the primary (starting) head. It maybe closed, to be joined, and the pin is forced into the rivet body until the
open, or split. pin end is flush with the top of the primary head of the rivet.
grip range The minimum to maximum thickness of materials This action flares or spreads the end of the rivet body, thus
that can be joined properly with a blind rivet of a given forming the secondary (blind) head. Requirements for inch
length. sizes of drive-pin blind rivets are presented in lF1 Standard 123.
mandrel or pin The portion of a blind rivet that is preassembled
in the rivet body. During rivet setting, pulling or driving the
mandrel or pin forms the secondary (blind) head. The
mandrels can be smooth, serrated, or threaded.
shank The part of the rivet body extending from the underside
of the head to the extreme end. <— Rivet in workpiece
soft set A rivet that requires a mandrel tensile break load less
than standard.
standoff A type of setting in which the primary head of the rivet
=%--’”~~~$$”g
does not come in contact with the joint surface.
- Set rivet
Classification of Blind Rivets
Blind rivets can be made from any material that can be cold
formed. The metals most commonly used include steels,
stainless steels, aluminum alloys, brasses, bronzes, other copper
alloys, and titanium. Blind rivets are also available made from Fig. 8-93 Setting a blind rivet that bas a break-type pull-mandrel. (fWF’
plastics. The rivets are generally available with shank diameters Fas~eners Div., Emharr Faslener Group)
8-56
CHAPTER 8
BLIND RIVETS
Threaded. Threaded blind rivets have internally threaded Body Styles

rivet bodies. A rivet is threaded onto the mandrel of an Blind rivets are available with various body styles. These
installation tool and inserted into holes in the assembly styles include open, closed, and split ends; slotted shanks; and
components (see Fig. 8-95, view a). When the tool mandrel is special designs, such as soft-set rivets.
pulled or rotated, the walls of the rivet body are bulged outward Open-end rivets. After setting, open-end blind rivets re-
to forma blind head (view b). If upset by rotating, the mandrel semble conventional tubular rivets, discussed previously in this
may be left in the rivet body or replaced to provide sealing or section. However, unlike the tubular rivet, the mandrel head is
increased shear and tensile properties. retained within the blind head of the rivet (see Fig. 8-97). The
Figure 8-96 illustrates a compression-type blind fastener dimensions of some open-end blind rivets are presented in
consisting of a threaded machine screw, made from carbon or Table 8-9. Various combinations of different body and mandrel
stainless steel, which is mechanically joined to a slotted materials are available (see Table 8-10).
aluminum rivet sleeve. A neoprene composition washer provides Closed-end rivets. These rivets are made with cup-shaped
a positive seal. The fastener is inserted into a hole and installed closed ends that remain closed on the blind sides of the
with a power driver equipped with a holding sleeve. As the assemblies after setting. This design provides sealing, preventing
screw turns, the sleeve is pulled into four clamping tines that the passage of gases or liquids through or around the set rivets.
provide the holding power. These fasteners are available with Closed-end blind rivets provide 100% mandrel head retention,
clamping sleeves made from plastics to provide increased which can be important for electronic applications. Dimen-
corrosion resistance. sional, mechanical, and performance requirements for break-
Chemically expanded. Chemically expanded blind rivets, mandrel, closed-end blind rivets are presented in IFI Standards
often called explosive rivets, have hollowed ends filled with an 126 (inch sizes) and 509 (metric sizes).
explosive chemical. insetting, therivet isinserted into holesin
the assembly components and either heat or an electrical
current is applied to the rivet head.
Sealing washer
(0) (b) rew
Fig.8-94 Drive-pin blind rivet: (a) before setting and(b) after setting.
(Soufhco, Inc.)
Fig. 8-96 Compression-type blind fastener before (top view) and after
installation. ( Fabco Fastening Sys[ems, Townsend Div., Textron Inc. )
E!ll (a) (b)

Hole size
J\
)-u
Fully formed
secondary head
Fig.8-95 Threaded blind rivet: (a) before setting and(b) after setting.
(Aerospace and Dejense Div,, The BFGoodrich Co.) Fig. 8-97 Terminology for open-end blind rivets.
8-!57
CHAPTER 8
BLIND RIVETS
T-rivets. The so-called T-rivet (see Fig. 8-98) is one example semifilled types. All slotted-shank rivets feature a large blind
of a split-end rivet. In setting a T-rivet, a hardened steel mandrel side bearing surface and extended grip ranges (see Fig. 8-99).
cuts the end of the aluminum body into a trifurcated shape. Soft-set rivets. These rivets are identical in appearance to
Slotted-shank rivets. The shanks of these rivets have one or open-end rivets. However, they have a body made from a
more axial slots that extend from the undersides of the heads softer-than-standard aluminum alloy and a mandrel that
and terminate short of the open ends. The remaining portions of breaks at a lower tensile strength than standard mandrels.
the shanks are hollow cylinders, similar to open-end rivets. Soft-set rivets require only moderate setting pressures, which
They are available in types having strength characteristics are essential in fastening some of the more brittle plastics or
ranging from those of self-plugging structural types to soft-set, similar materials, as well as thin parts.
TABLE 8-9
Dimensions of Open-End Blind Rivets*
t-----’l
Nominal E R W, + 0.002, Rivet L M, N F max = Recommended

Diameter D H +0.004 max -0.001 No. *0.015 Nominal min L max plus: Grip Range
0.092 + 0,004 0.188 f 0,010 0,028 0.015 0.057 32 0.225 1 7/16 1.00 0.100 0,032-0.125
34 0.350 17/16 0.126-0.250
36 0.475 17/16 0.251-0.375
0.124+ 0,004 0.350t 0,012 0.036 0.015 0.076 41 0.188 I 3/8 1.00 0,120 0.032-0.062
42 0.250 13/8 0.063-0.125
43 0,313 17/16 0.126-0.187
44 0.375 1 1/2 0.188-0.250
45 0,438 19/16 0.251-0.312
46 0.500 15/8 0.313-0.375
48 0,625 13/4 0.376-0,500
410 0,750 17/8 0.501-0.625
0.155 + 0.004 0.312* 0.016 0.043 0.018 0.095 52 0.275 1 1/2 1.06 0.140 0.063-0.125
53 0.338 19/16 0.126-0,187
54 0.400 15/8 0.188-0.250
56 0.525 1 11/16 0.251-0.375
58 0,650 1 13/16 0.376-0.500
0. 186+ 0.005 0.375* 0.018 0.051 0.020 0.114 62 0.300 19/16 1.06 0.160 0.063-0.125
64 0.425 111/16 0.126-0,250
66 0.550 1 13/16 0.251-0.375
68 0,675 1 15/16 0.376-0.500
610 0.800 2 1/16 0.501-0.625
612 0.925 23/16 0.626-0.750
614 1.050 25/16 0.751-0.875
616 1.175 27/16 0.876-1.000
0.249 + 0.006 0.500 t 0.025 0.069 0.022 0.151 84 0.475 17/8 1.25 0.180 0.063-0,250
86 0.600 2 0.251-0.375
88 0.725 21/8 0.376-0.500
810 0.850 21/4 0.501-0.625
812 0.975 23/8 0.626-0.750
814 1.100 2 1/2 0.751-0.875
816 1.225 2 5/8 0.876-1.000
(POP Fasteners Div., Emhart Fastener Group)
8-58
CHAPTER 8
BLIND RIVETS
Head Styles
A variety of heads, both protruding and flush, are provided
on blind rivets. Common protruding heads are the dome and
m
large-flanged types. Countersunk heads are the most common
flush type.
Dome heads. These heads have a flange diameter equal to
twice the body diameter. This design generally provides suffi-
cient bearing surface to retain all but parts made from
extremely soft or brittle materials. drel
Retained mandrel
. ...>... . . ...’ I
4
Trifurcated
head
secondary
--DIL- Typical grips: 0.040-0,157”
or 0.098-0,354”
(1 .02-3 .99
(2,49-8.99
mm)
mm)
Fig. 8-98 T-rivet has a split end that is spread by a mandrel. (POP Fig. 8-99 Slotted-shank, semitilled core, multigrip rivet for assembling
Fasteners Div., Emhart Fastener Group) soft or brittle materials. (A vdel Engineered Assembl.v $wterns)
TABLE 8-10
Typical Strengths of Various Sizes of Open-End Blind Rivets
Having Bodies and Mandrels of Different Materials
Rivet
Material Diameter, Typical Ultimate Strengths, lb (N)
Body Mandrel in. Shear Tensile
Aluminum Aluminum 3/32 85 (378) 135 (600)
1/8 155 (689) 235 (1045)
5/32 225 (1001) 350 (1557)
3/16 315 (1401) 500 (2224)
1/4 460 (2046) 750 (3336)
Aluminum Steel 3/32 125 (556) 175 (778)
1/8 210 (934) 325 (1446)
5/32 340 (1512) 490 (2180)
3/16 445 (1979) 720 (3203)
1/4 890 (3959) 1200 (5338)
Copper Steel 3/32 N.A.
1/8 21!$56) 300 (1334)
5/32 N.A. N.A.
3/16 N.A. N.A.
1/4 N.A. N.A.
Steel Steel 3/32 150 (667) 250(1112)
1/8 295 (1312) 425 ( 1890)
5/32 410 (1824) 570 (2535)
3/16 590 (2624) 815 (3625)
1/4 1245 (5538) 1505 (6694)
Stainless steel Steel 3/32 230 (1023) 280 (1 245)*
Stainless steel Stainless steel 1/8 550 (2446) 700(3114)
5/32 900 (4003) 1130 (5026)
3/16 1100 (4893) 1375 (6116)
1/4 1700 (7562) 2100 (9341)*
(POP Fasteners Div., Emhart Fastener Group)
* IFI minimum values.
N. A.—not available.
8-59
CHAPTER 8
BLIND RIVETS
Large-flanged heads. These heads (see Fig. 8-100, view a) selection. Low-profile dome heads are appropriate for most
have twice the under-the-head bearing surface of comparable applications, large-flanged heads for increased bearing surfaces,
rivets with dome heads. They are designed for fastening parts and countersunk heads for flush surface requirements. Closed-
made from soft or brittle materials. end sealing or self-plugging, locked-mandrel rivets are used
Countersunk heads. Whenever flush surfaces are required, extensively for water or vapor tightness needs and whenever
countersunk-head blind rivets (see Fig. 8-100, view b) are often positive mandrel retention is required. Soft-set, controlled-
specified. These heads usually have a 120° included angle. expansion, pull-through or semifilled, slotted-shank rivets are
desirable to prevent damage to workpiece materials. T-rivets
Blind Rivet Selection and self-plugging, slotted-shank, multigrip rivets are often used
Many factors must be considered for the selection of a for high-strength fastening applications.
proper blind rivet for a specific application. The most important
factors include joint strength and thickness, rivet and workpiece Design Practices
materials, and hole size. Careful design is essential for successful fastening with blind
Joint strength. The tensile and shear values required for the rivets. Variables that must be considered include the con-
application should be determined first. These values will vary figuration and thickness of the joint, materials used, access for
with the rivet diameter and material. the tooling, rivet size and spacing, hole size, and the tightness
Joint thickness. The total thickness of the workpiece mate- attained in clinching. Care is necessary to avoid interferences
rials to be joined determines the length of rivet required. that prevent the tooling from placing the primary head flush
Insufficient rivet length will not allow the formation of a full against the workpiece (see Fig. 8-101).
secondary head on the blind side of the assembly, thus affecting When narrow channels must be assembled, ample tool
joint strength and mandrel head retention of the set rivet. clearance is essential (see Fig. 8-102). If this is impossible, blind
Materials. In general, the material from which the rivet is rivets should be set from the reverse side. Special nosepiece
made should have the same physical and mechanical properties extensions are available for setting tools to accommodate
as the materials to be fastened. Marked differences in the designs where the rivets must be set inside narrow channels or
materials may result in joint failure because of fatigue or counterbores. However, the use of such nosepiece extensions
galvanic corrosion. However, as previously mentioned, various frequently requires special rivets with longer mandrels. When
combinations of different rivet body and mandrel materials are drive rivets are used, a piece of bar stock can be placed against
often used (refer to Table 8-1 O). Blind rivets are also available the pin to allow the driving force to be transmitted through a
with a wide variety of finishes. narrow channel.
Hole size. The diameter of the hole in relation to rivet When assembling a soft material to a hard material, a
diameter is an important factor with respect to the success of backup washer is sometimes used, forming the secondary head
blind riveting. Too small a hole can cause difficulty in insertion against the backup washer. A better practice is to use a rivet
and can hinder rivet expansion in the materials to be fastened. having a large-flanged head and set the secondary head against
Too large a hole will reduce shear and tensile strengths of the the hard material. This same practice also applies when
joint, causing bulging or separation of the joint. It can also fastening thick materials to thin materials.
cause pull-through, a condition in which the mandrel break
point occurs above the primary head of the rivet, leaving a
jagged protrusion.
Other considerations. Head styles on the blind rivets,
previously discussed, can also bean important consideration in
Poor Good
i I
Fig. 8-101 Design to permit tooling to be placed flush against
workpiece.
(a) I I
(b) Poor Good Good
Fig. 8-100 Blind rivets with: (a) large-flanged head and (b) countersunk Fig. 8-102 In assembling narrow channels, blind rivets should be set
bead. from the reverse side or a wider channel used.
8-60
CHAPTER 8
BLIND RIVETS
Pivoting joints can be produced by providing a small sizes. Hand tools are useful for low-volume applications or
clearance between the primary head of the rivet and the surface where air is not readily available. Drive-pin blind rivets are
of the workpiece. This is easily accomplished by modifying the quickly installed with an ordinary hammer.
nosepiece of the setting tool. Blind rivets can be set in blind Pneumatic tools. These tools are operated solely by air, in
holes or slots (see Fig. 8-103) because of the expansion of the combination with a linkage or some other mechanical convert-
rivet body during clinching. For maximum joint strength, the ing device.
distance from the centerline of the rivet to the edge of the Pneumatic-hydraulic tools. These tools are usually air
workpiece material should not be less than twice the diameter of operated. The air enters a pressure chamber at a given pressure,
the rivet (see Fig. 8-104). forcing the hydraulic fluid into a pulling chamber, which
retracts and sets the rivet. Hydraulic tools have the highest
Blind Rivet Tooling rivet-setting capacity and are suitable for most blind rivets.
Tools for setting blind rivets generally consist of two basic Electric tools. These tools are generally used where threaded
components: a pulling head and gripping jaws. The rivet is mandrels or center screws are set by tightening.
placed into the workpiece or in some cases, into the tool. The
tool is then actuated, causing the pulling head to retract. Problems in Blind Riveting
Retraction of the head causes the gripping jaws, housed in a jaw
Problems that sometimes occur when blind riveting include
case that is based on the inclined plane principle, to move
the following:
forward. This action causes the teeth on the jaws to firmly grip
the mandrel. The mandrel, jaws, and pulling head then retract ● Mandrel protrusion—a condition in which the mandrel
as a unit, while the rivet body is held in position by pressure shank projects above the primary head after the rivet is
applied by a nosepiece. The mandrel enters the body of the rivet, set. This can be caused by oversized holes in the
forms the secondary head, and breaks at a predetermined point workpieces,
with a predetermined tensile load. Portable tools are available ● Partial pull-through—a condition in which the mandrel
for magazine loading of the rivets. head is pulled into the material being fastened, instead of
Most setting tools for blind rivets fall into three basic breaking off as it contacts the back of the workpiece. This
categories: hand, pneumatic, and pneumatic-hydraulic or may be caused by the workpiece being too soft for the
electric tools. rivet used.
Hand tools. These tools are manually operated and usually ● Premature break—refers to a mandrel that breaks prior
rely on a fulcrum principle or linkage to develop the required to setting the secondary head. The probable cause is the
mechanical advantage. Plier-type tools are limited in the size mandrel being too weak for the tensile load applied.
rivets they can set—up to a 3/ 16“ diam steel-steel combination ● Pull-through—a condition in which the mandrel head is
rivet. Scissor-type hand tools can set the entire range of rivet pulled entirely through the inside of the rivet body. The
mandrel head may be pulled entirely out of the rivet, may
protrude slightly, or may even slide freely through the full
length of the rivet body. Oversized holes in the workplaces
can cause this condition.
● Head popper—a term used to describe a mandrel head
falling out of a rivet body after placing. This is caused by
the rivet being too short in relation to the work thickness.
● Hi-break—a mandrel that breaks above the intended
I Acceptable Good
I break point, This can generally be avoided if the tool is
held in accurate alignment with respect to the centerline
of the hole into which the rivet is set.
Fig. 8-103 Designs for setting blind rivets in blind holes
or slots,
EYELETS
Eyelets are thin-walled tubular fasteners having a flange or
formed head on one end, Most are formed from metal strip, but
some are machined, and are set during assembly by forcing their
Two times
rivet diameter
small diameter ends against dies that cud or funnel the edges
and clinch the eyelets against the workplaces. The assembly of
r eyelets, called setting or eyeleting, requires access to both sides
of the parts to be assembled.
Eyelets differ from rivets in that their bores extend com-
pletely through the fasteners. Grommets, not discussed in this
section, are large eyelet-type fasteners designed for securing by
curling their tubular ends over formed washers to provide
strength in holes through resilient materials.
Applications
Eyeleting is used extensively in the metalworking industry as
Fig. 8-104 Distance from centerline of rivet to edge of material should a fastening method for the assembly of many different types of
be at least twice the rivet diameter. light-gage parts. Typical applications include the assembly of
8-61
CHAPTER 8
EYELETS
automotive components, electrical and electronic components Assembly Design

(including use as terminals), hardware, toys, paper products, In designing an assembly for fastening with eyelets, a
shoes, textiles, and garments. fundamental consideration is whether the assembly can be
inserted into the eyeleting machine. Stroke length and throat
Advantages depth of the machine determine the maximum size of the parts
Eyelets can be inserted at high rates of production, and the that can be inserted. Also, the eyelets must be accessible from
process is easily adaptable to automatic assembly. From an both sides of the assembly.
economic standpoint, eyelets are one of the lowest cost fasteners When using eyelets as fasteners, consideration must be given
available. They can be obtained in a wide variety of materials, to eyelet length, hole clearance, and eyelet spacing in designing
sizes, and styles. Also, they can be set by relatively unskilled labor. the assemblies.
Eyelet length. When selecting the proper eyelet length, there
Types of Eyelets is considerable variation in the allowance that should be made
Eyelets are available in many different sizes, materials, for setting the eyelet. This allowance varies with the eyelet
finishes, and styles. material, the material against which the eyelet is to be set, and
Sizes. Standard eyelets are usually available in barrel the type of set to be used. If the eyelet is too long, it will tend to
(tubular body section) diameters from 1/16 to 1/4” and in buckle when set; if too short, the strength of the grip will be
lengths from 1/16 to 7/ 16“, Both the diameters and the lengths reduced. For many applications, a safe clinch allowance is
are made in 1/32” increments. Nonstandard eyelets are made in 0.046-0.062” (1. 17-1.57 mm); for electronics work, *0.030”
a wide range of sizes. (0.76 mm) is often used. The best procedure is to contact the
Materials. Eyelets can be made from any formable metal. eyelet manufacturer for a recommendation.
The metals most commonly used include low-carbon steels, Hole clearance. The amount of clearance provided in holes
such as SAE 1006 or 1008; aluminum alloys, including 5050 and in which eyelets are to be inserted depends on several factors,
5052; zinc alloys; and brasses, bronzes, and other copper alloys, including eyelet size and the type of assembly. In general, the
as well as pure copper. Stainless steels, such as AISI Type 305, minimum hole size should be about 0.003 to 0.004” (0.08 to 0.10
are also used for making eyelets. mm) larger than the barrel diameter of the eyelet. Too small a
Finishes. Eyelets are supplied with a wide range of finishes. hole will create positioning problems during setting and will
Plated finishes that are common include zinc, cadmium, nickel, reduce the strength of the assembly.
tin, solder, copper, brass, and even silver and gold. The Eyelet spacing. The spacing between eyelets is not critical for
fasteners can also be painted, and most eyelet manufacturers most applications. With a single-spindle machine used to set
have the capability of color matching to samples. several eyelets separately, the eyelets can be spaced close
Head styles. Three basic head styles for eyelets are: rolled, enough so that the flanges almost contact each other.
flat, and funnel-flanged (see Fig. 8-105). A rolled flange offers
the maximum bearing surface for a tightly set eyelet and Eyelet Setting
provides a neat appearance. Flat-flange eyelets offer a low head Setting (clinching) of eyelets is done by tooling that upsets or
profile to ensure clearance for parts in close proximity to curls the barrel ends of the eyelets (see Fig. 8-106). Hardness of
assemblies, but the metal is subject to splitting in flat setting. material from which the assembly component is made is a
However, the flat flange is advantageous for use with soft critical consideration in eyelet setting. When setting an eyelet in
materials in which rolled flanges may cut the materials when set. an assembly consisting of both a hard and a soft material, the
Funnel-flange eyelets have been specially designed to meet the
needs of the electronics industry. They are made with a funnel
flange having an included angle of 90°, or in some few cases 60°,
which affords a good solder fillet between the underside of the
flange and the board. n
Eyelets are also available with many other standard and
special heads and configurations to suit specific application
requirements, Closed-end eyelets provide a blind hole to
exclude dirt and can also be used as spindles. Square-flanged \
eyelets are used in square, recessed holes or between tabs to Spindle
prevent rotation. Other styles include bell-flanged, square-
barrel, oval and oblong, and shoulder eyelets, as well as
Y 7
telescoping eyelets and neck washers. f
Rolled flange Flat flange Funnel flange

~~~
Dieholder
Fig. 8-105 Three basic head styles for eyelets. (POP Fasteners Div.,
Emhart Fastener Group) Fig. 8-106 Tooling for setting eyelets.
8-62
CHAPTER 8
EYELETS
clinch should be made on the harder material whenever ● Needle-point die (view h). This setting die has a sharp
possible. Figure 8-107 illustrates the following setting dies for point that is used to separate loosely woven fabrics.
producing various clinch configurations:
Eyeleting Machines
. Roll form die (view a). A medium-roll setting die is most - The bas~ operation of eyeleting machines is similar to that
common and is considered a standard. The anvil form of of riveting machines. Hand-fed machines are available in bench
this die is designed to provide a maximum roll diameter and floor models, with hand, foot, electric, or pneumatic power.
without splitting the eyelet. Close-roll dies provide rolls Setting tools used on the machines are made specifically for the
of smaller diameter and are used when space is a limiting particular eyelets to be used. Semiautomatic and automatic
factor. Wide-roll dies produce wider rolls but there is a machines are available with special positioning and feeding
greater tendency for the eyelets to split. devices for single or multiple settings. Automatic clamping
● Corrugated die (view b). This type of setting die has devices eliminate the need for punching material from the
serrations machined into the anvil. The result is a scored workplaces.
setting with the eyelet barrel cut into equal segments. On a typical semiautomatic machine, eyelets are placed in a
Corrugated setting provides greater holding power in hopper that contains a rotating hopper brush for orienting the
some types of fabrics. eyelets to be fed into a raceway. Feeding is done through a slot
. Bifurcating die (view c). This setting die segments the in the hopper, specially designed to allow each eyelet to enter
eyelet barrel to provide one or two posts for wire the raceway in one position. The eyelet then sits at the bottom of
wrapping. the raceway, held in position by spring-loaded fingers. The
● Spear-point die (view d). This setting die has three sharp raceway is held in an outboard position by a cam affixed to the
cutting edges to pierce materials such as closely woven main driveshaft. When the machine is actuated, the main shaft
fabrics, plastics, and rubber-like materials. rotates. This causes the raceway, by virtue of the cam design, to
. Hood die (view e). This setting die acts in conjunction position the eyelet at the centerline of the spindle. At the same
with the eyelet to punch through plastics, paper, and time, the spindle has begun to move downward, picking the
other thin materials. eyelet from the raceway and completing the clinching action.
. Receding-pilot die (viewj_). A spring-loaded pilot in this Many machines use a vibrating bowl to achieve orientation
die has a portion of the setting form machined into it. It is before the eyelets enter the raceway.
used to align holes and lead eyelets through the holes. Programmable and microprocessor controls and mechanical
. Prepunch die (view g), This type die is used on double- positioners are used to locate assemblies for setting. Several
stroke setting machines. On the first stroke, the die eyelets, as well as different length eyelets, can be set on a single
punches a hole in soft materials, and on the second stroke machine, and different style eyelets can be set with a change of
it receives and sets an eyelet. the tooling.
0I f!!
0
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (9) (h)
Fig. 8-107 Various setting dies for producing different clinch configurations. (POP Fasreners Div., Emharr Fastener Group)
RETAIIUING RINGS
Retaining rings, sometimes called snap rings, are fastening fastening. Some are designed to take up end play caused by
devices that provide shoulders and/ or bearing surfaces for accumulated tolerances or wear of the parts being retained.
locating or limiting the movement of parts on shafts or in bores Retaining rings are usually made from spring steel or other
or housings. They are designed to exert a radial clamping force. materials having good spring properties to allow deformation
For most applications, the rings provide a removable means of during assembly and a return to original ring shape for use.
8-63
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
ADVANTAGES and welded stops for positioning the hose connector sleeves,
Retaining rings provide a number of advantages over other resu]ting in a reduction in assembly costs of 50% per unit. For
fastening systems, including the following: tapping attachments (see Fig. 8-109), retaining rings have been
found to be 10 times more cost efficient than threaded fasteners
● Producl simplfication. With retaining rings, it is often to lock collet assemblies and other components in housings and
possible to reduce the number and complexity ofcom- to position and secure clutch bearings and sleeves.
ponents in an assembly. A single ring, used in conjunction For industrial pumps, self-locking retaining rings are used to
with a flat cover or face plate, for example, can replace an hold plastic rollers on shafts; the rings are pushed over the ends
expensive custom-designed cover plate and four or more of the shafts and no grooves or other machining operations are
screws, bolts, or other threaded fasteners. needed. In the original design, the shafts were drilled and
● Savings onparts and materials. Retaining rings can be tapped, and the rollers secured by washers and screws. Savings
used to eliminate machined shoulders, set collars, cotter with retaining rings amount to 74 cents per assembly.
pins and washers, threaded sleeves, and many other
bulkier and more expensive fastening devices. TYPES OF RETAINING RINGS
● Reductions in size and weight. In addition to being The three major types of retaining rings are:
smaller and lighter than the fasteners they replace,
retaining rings often can be used with shorter shafts and 1. Stamped, tapered-section retaining rings. These rings
thinner housings, with substantial savings on materials as have a tapered radial width that decreases symmetrically
well as size and weight. from their center sections to their free ends.
● Elimination of expensive machining. Retaining rings 2. Spiral-wound retaining rings. These rings have one or
often eliminate the need for drilling, tapping, threading, more turns of rectangular, rounded-edge material that is
facing, turning, and other costly machining operations. wound on edge to provide a continuous coil. Rings with a
Ring grooves can usually be cut simultaneously, at no single turn have a gap; those with two or more turns are of
extra cost, during shaft cutoff and chamfering or bore gapless design.
drilling operations. 3, Wire-formed (wire-wound or bent-wire) retaining rings.
● Faster asserrddv. Retainimz rinszs can be assembled These rings have a uniform cross-sectional area.
quickly and economically, e~en b; unskilled labor, with
pliers, applicators, dispensers, and other hand tools, or TAPERED-SECTION
with semiautomatic or automatic assembly equipment RETAINING RINGS
for high-volume mass production. There are more than 50 functionally different types of
tapered-section retaining rings manufactured. They are avail-
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS able in about 1200 standard inch and metric sizes for shafts and
Retaining rings are specified for a wide variety of consumer, bores from 0.040 to 10“ (1 to 250 mm) diam. Rings as large as
industrial, and military products. In one application for garden 40” (1000 mm) in diameter have been produced for special
hose reels (see Fig. 8-108], retaining rings have replaced formed applications.
Selection Factors
Engineers considering the use of retaining rings, either in
original product design or as replacements for other fastening
devices, should consider the following factors:
. Producr andringsize. Size becomes a reference point for
starting the selection process, but not every ring is
suitable for every product.
Fig. 8-108 Retaining ring replaces formed and welded stop for Fig. 8-109 Internal retaining ring locks collet assembly and other
positioning the connector sleeve on a garden hose reel. ( W’a[de$ components in housing of tapping attachment. ( Wa/des Kuhinoor,
IWrinoor, Inc. ) Inc.)
8-64
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
b Clearance dimensions. Clearance will affect the manner the bainite structure, elongation is increased an average of
in which rings can be assembled, either in an axial or 27.4%. This increased ductility permits the rings to deform
radial direction. It will also affect installation and instead of breaking under certain unexpected use conditions
removal of rings for field service or product maintenance. where operational problems cause very high stresses on localized
● Thrust load capacity. If the ring will be required to areas of the ring when loads suddenly exceed rated values. The
withstand substantial thrust loads or impacts, certain ability to elongate under load also is related to the rings’ ability
types can be considered while others must be eliminated. to absorb shock loads and to maintain longer life under many
● Feasibility of machining ring grooves. Most rings de- cyclic loading conditions. This is especially important because
signed to withstand high thrust loads are seated in of the relatively high levels of hardness specified for the rings.
grooves. If the grooving cannot be done economically or
if grooves are impractical for any reason, then self-
locking rings should be considered. Finishes
● Endplay lake-up. This capability is a critical factor when Unplated spring steel rings are generally supplied with an oil
an assembly includes parts with large tolerances or where dip finish or a black, corrosion-retardant phosphate coating.
components will be subject to wear that will cause Zinc plating with an optional bichromate passivation treatment
objectionable looseness or wobble. Bowed and beveled is available as a special finish when extra corrosion resistance is
rings, discussed subsequently in this section, should be needed. Beryllium copper and aluminum rings are usually
considered. Precision-ground, graded-thickness rings are supplied without additional finish; stainless steel rings are
also available. generally passivated.
● Environmental conditions. If the ring will be subjected to Mechanical plating is used by some ring manufacturers to
extreme temperatures or corrosive conditions, extra replace conventional electroplating for depositing zinc and
protection should be considered—either in the form of other corrosion-resistant finishes. The mechanical plating
special materials or finishes, process prevents hydrogen embrittlement that can lead to ring
● Assembly volume. The quantity of rings to be assembled failure. Mechanical plating also provides greater resistance to
per unit of time will determine the kind of assembly tools stress corrosion, again with the objective of avoiding ring
that can be used and also the ring types suitable for each. failure in extreme environmental operating conditions. Various
For the assembly of most rings, the manufacturing coating and plating processes, including mechanical plating, are
engineer will have a choice of hand tools, semiautomatic discussed in Volume 11I of this Handbook series.
tools, or high-speed automatic equipment, all discussed
later in this section.
Ring Types
Stamped, tapered-section retaining rings are classified in
Materials Used several ways, Internal rings are used to position and secure
Most stamped, tapered-section retaining rings are made of components in bores and housings; external rings hold parts on
carbon spring steel (SAE 1060-1090). Certain small sizes are shafts, pins, studs, and bosses. There are also rings for axial
fabricated only of beryllium copper (Alloy No. 25, CDA No. assembly, radial assembly and end play take-up. While most
172). Beryllium copper is also available for product applications rings are seated in accurately located grooves, self-locking rings
in which the retaining rings must resist galvanic corrosion and are available that do not require any groove or other prepa-
provide good stress-corrosion resistance. ratory machining.
Stainless steel (PH 15-7 Mo or equivalent) rings are also Several types of internal and external tapered-section re-
available and provide good corrosion resistance and tempera- taining rings are illustrated in Fig. 8-110. Other types not shown
ture resistance to 900° F (480° C). For lower temperature include beveled, double-beveled, interlocking, reinforced,
applications, rings of AISI Type 420 stainless steel maybe used heavy-duty, high-strength, and triangular. In addition, there
to 650° F (345° C). are many other special rings that have been developed for
Aluminum (Alclad 7075-T6) is another alternative material unusual fastening requirements.
often specified for corrosion resistance, light weight, and Axially assembled retaining rings. These rings are char-
resistance to many acidic chemicals. acterized by a tapered radial width that increases symmetrically
from the free ends to the center section. In contrast to uniform-
Heat Treatment section rings, which undergo oval deformation when they are
Austempering is used by most manufacturers to harden compressed for assembly in a bore or expanded for installation
retaining rings. This heat-treating process provides a number of over a shaft, tapered-section rings remain circular during
advantages over conventional quench-and-temper processes, assembly. The tapered-section rings also remain circular after
including increased toughness and impact strength and better release, which provides the maximum contact surface with the
fatigue resistance in cyclic loading—both at given levels of bottom of the groove and is important for achieving high static
hardness or ultimate tensile strengths. The austempering proc- and dynamic thrust load capacities. The lug design is another
ess, monitored by automatic instrumentation, requires reliable characteristic of axial rings; holes in the lugs permit pliers to
process timing to ensure complete transformation to the desired grasp the rings securely during assembly or disassembly.
bainite structure, thus avoiding brittleness caused by incomplete Lugs on inverted retaining rings form uniform circular
transformation and residual untempered martensite. Proper shoulders, concentric with bores or shafts, making them ideal
furnace atmospheres, carefully controlled, are required to for parts having large corner radii or chamfers. Heavyduty
prevent decarburization. rings resist high thrust and impact loads and eliminate the need
Austempering provides an average increase in tensile strength for spacer washers in bearing assemblies. Permanent-shoulder
of 4.34% and an increase in yield strength of 2.74970.Because of rings are available for small diameter shafts; when compressed
8-65
cHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
onc)) Internal
basic
Internal
bowed
Internal
self-locking
CM cl Internal
inverted
External
basic
External External External External External

bowed self-locking inverted E-ring E-ring
bowed
Fig. 8-110 Types of internal and external tapered-section retaining rings. (Indusfriai Refainirzg Ring Co. )
into grooves, their notches deform to close gaps, thus providing external rings). Internal-beveled rings are available in two types:
shoulders that cannot be dislodged. one having a single beveled edge and the other with a double-
Radially assembled retaining rings. In many product appli- beveled construction. The double-beveled rings eliminate the
cations, it is not feasible to assemble retaining rings in an axial need to orient the fasteners prior to assembly, thus ensuring
direction. Clearance dimensions or the need for easy access to correct installation during field service; however, these rings do
parts during field service or maintenance dictate the use of not have the load-bearing capability of conventional rings.
radially assembled rings that are installed at a 90° angle to the Beveled rings are installed in grooves having a corresponding
shaft—either directly in the plane of the groove or, in the case of 15° bevel on the load-bearing wall. When the ring is seated in
self-locking types, onto the shaft. the groove, it functions as a wedge between the retained part
Radial rings do not have lugs for the use of pliers. Instead, and the outer groove wall. If there is end play between the ring
they have a large gap between the free ends that permits the and the abutting part, the fastener’s spring action causes the
fasteners to be pushed over a shaft. Because they do not provide ring to seat more deeply in the groove, taking up the end play.
as much contact with the shaft as the axial external rings, most Self-locking retaining rings. As their name suggests, self-
radial rings offer somewhat lower thrust load capacity. Rings locking retaining rings do not require a groove or other
are available, however, that provide substantially greater preparatory machining. They exert a frictional hold against
gripping strength and load capacity than conventional E-rings axial displacement from either direction and are ideal for
and other radial types. These rings are thicker and have tapered- products in which the rings will be used merely as positioning
section bending arms that exert strong spring force when the and locking devices that are not subjected to substantial thrust
ring is installed. loads. In addition to eliminating the need for grooves, self-
Crescent-shaped rings form narrow, uniformly concentric locking rings provide another advantage: because they may be
shoulders and are used extensively for assemblies where positioned at any point inside a bore or on a shaft, they
clearance is limited. E-rings provide large shoulders on small automatically compensate for accumulated tolerances in the
diameter shafts and are often installed in deep grooves for retained parts.
added thrust capacity. Two-part, interlocking rings are bal- Self-locking rings are available in both circular push-on
anced to withstand high rotary speeds, heavy thrust loads, and types with prongs, which must be destroyed for removal, and in
relative motion between parts. axially and radially assembled versions that can be reused
End play take-up. In many assemblies, tolerances or wear in following disassembly. One type is installed in a radial direction
the retained parts can cause objectionable end play. Several on a shaft or pin and, during the initial assembly, cuts shallow
axially and radially installed rings have been developed to solve indentations on the shaft; the grooves increase the ring’s
this problem in different ways. holding power against axial displacement from both directions.
Bowed internal and external rings. These rings resemble the
basic axially assembled types, but are bowed around an axis Load Capacities
normal to the diameter bisecting the gap. The design enables the The maximum allowable thrust load capacity of a retaining
rings to function as springs as well as fasteners, taking up end ring assembled in a groove on a shaft or inside a bore is usually
play resiliently and dampening vibrations and oscillations. specified by the ring manufacturer for each type and size of ring.
Bowed E-rings and locking-prong rings are assembled radially In the case of one ring manufacturer, the values are given for
and provide the same resilient take-up. rings installed on hardened shafts or in hardened bores (Pr),
Beveled rings. These rings, available in both internal and rings assembled on soft shafts or in soft bores (Pg), and rings
external axial types, have a 15° bevel on the groove-engaging abutted by parts having the maximum specified corner radii or
edge (on the outer edge of internal rings and the inner edge of chamfers (Pig).
8-66
CHA PTER8
RETAINING RINGS
Standards the applicator jaws, when the ring is seated in a groove it

Metric dimensional specifications for many tapered-section remains in position when the applicator is withdrawn.
retaining rings are presented in two ANSI standards. Standard Semiautomatic tools. These portable tools combine an
B27.7M includes basic internal, basic external, and E-rings. applicator and dispenser in a single tool. They, too, are loaded
Standard B27.8M includes heavy-duty external rings, rein- with tape-wrapped cartridges and dispensed singly when the
forced E-rings, and C-type rings. trigger is activated.
Many inch sizes of tapered-section retaining rings also Automatic tools. These tools are intended for high-volume,
conform to the U.S. Department of Defense Military Speci- mass-production ring installations where the cost of the tools
fication MIL-R-21248B and Military Standards MS16624 will be amortized quickly by savings in assembly time. Such
through MS16634, MS90707 and 90708, MS3215 through tools make possible savings of 30-50% compared to costs for
MS3217, and MIL-STD 1515-A. ring assembly with pliers. One automatic air-driven tool is
loaded with tape-wrapped ring cartridges and suspended over
Ring Assembly the work. To install a ring, the operator places the workpiece in
A variety of tools can be used for fast and economical a nest, positions the tool over the workpiece, and squeezes the
assembly and disassembly of retaining rings. These tools trigger. An air-driven sleeve pushes the ring down over a
include pliers, applicators and dispensers, and semiautomatic tapered mandrel, spreading the fastener so that it can clear the
and automatic tools. shaft and seat it in the groove (see Fig. 8-113). When the ring
Pliers. These tools (see Fig. 8-111) are among the most reaches the groove and snaps into position, the operator
popular for axially assembled rings. They are designed to grasp releases the trigger. The sleeve is retracted automatically and
the rings securely by their lugs, compress internal types for the next ring in the stack is positioned for assembly. Custom-
insertion into bores or housings, or expand external types so designed automatic tools are available for a variety of ring types
they can be slipped over the ends of shafts or similar parts. and product applications.
Many pliers have adjustable stops that limit the travel of the
tips. On internal ring pliers, the stops can be set for automatic SPIRAL-WOUND RETAINING RINGS
alignment with the lug holes for faster assembly; on pliers for Spiral-wound retaining rings having two or more turns offer
external rings, the tips can be set to avoid accidental over- the advantage of providing a 360° retaining shoulder because
spreading of the rings. Most pliers are made with straight tips, they are of gapless design. These rings are also available with
but they are also available with 45 or 90° angle tips for assembly single turns; with this design they have gaps. Spiral-wound
where clearances are limited. retaining rings can be made without incurring tooling costs for
Ratchet pliers. These tools facilitate assembly and disas- applications requiring special sizes. Another advantage of
sembly of large rings that require substantial force to be spiral-wound retaining rings is that they can be easily installed
compressed or expanded. The ratchet locks the pliers at and removed without the need for special tooling. These
different stages of compression or expansion without the attributes provide greater flexibility for the designers of assem-
operator having to maintain constant pressure on the handles. blies incorporating-retaining rings:
The ratchet also serves as a safety device to prevent the ring
from springing loose accidentally.
Applicators and dispensers. These devices are designed for
Dispenser
use with radially assembled rings supplied in convenient tape-
wrapped cartridges, which are slipped over the spring rail of a
dispenser so the tape can be removed. An applicator is then used
to grasp the bottom ring in the stack and assemble it on a shaft,
pin, or similar part (see Fig. 8-112). Offset applicators are ideal
for assemblies having limited clearances. Because the ring’s
gripping power on the shaft is greater than the holding power of
Gripping the ring Extracting the ring
Assembly with
a straight applicator
Fig. 8-112 Cartridge, dispenser, and applicator for assembling retaining

Fig. 8-111 Retaining ring pliers. ( Wa/des Kohirroor, inc.) rings. ( Waldes Kohirroor, Inc. )
8-67
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
Ring Selection
Selecting the proper retaining ring for a specific application
requires careful evaluation of the following six factors:
Air-driven sleeve
1. Overall function of and requirements for the ring.
2. Type of thrust load (static or dynamic) and thrust
capacity of the ring and groove.
Retaining 3. Centrifugal forces and balance requirements.
ring ndrel
4. Tolerance take-up requirements.
5. Method of assembly and disassembly.
ft
6, Environment—maximum temperature and corrosive
conditions.
Over tapered mandrel...
Ring Materials and Finishes

Consideration of the selection factors will normally dictate
the type of material that should be used to make the ring. The
standard materials for spiral-wound retaining rings are SAE
1070 to 1090 carbon spring steels and AISI Type 302 stainless
steel; however, there are optional materials available such as
onto ;haft...
AISI Type 316 stainless steel, austenitic superalloy A286,
beryllium copper, and phosphor bronze.
Each type of material offers special benefits, depending on
the specific application. The 1070 to 1090 carbon spring steels
provide high strength at low cost. Type 302 stainless steel
withstands ordinary rusting; Type 316 is commonly used in the
food industry. Superalloy A-286 and Inconel X-750 are used
where high temperatures, to 900° F (480° C) for A-286 and
into groove 1200° F (650° C) for lnconel X-750, are encountered. Beryllium
copper is nonmagnetic; resists rusting and corrosion from
seawater, sea air, and most alkaline solutions; and has the
lowest resistivity of the materials used. Phosphor bronze is also
Fig. 8-113 Assembly of retaining rings with automatic tool, ( Wa/des nonmagnetic and is used for applications where this character-
Kohinoor, Inc. ) istic is a major consideration. Some specifications for these
materials are presented in Table 8-11.
Applications Some of the materials used for spiral-wound retaining rings
The use of spiral-wound retaining rings is widespread in are provided with special finishes. For example, the carbon
industries making everything from small electrical appliances to spring steels are available with phosphate coating or black
the space shuttle. While most applications are for the retention oxide coating. The stainless steels are available with an optional
of components of assemblies, there are many other uses, passivation cleaning process.
including the following:
Rings of Standard Design
● Vibration dampers. Spiral-wound, statically balanced
rings function well as dampening devices when balance of Standard, spiral-wound retaining rings, available in both
the assembly is critical. internal and external designs (see Fig. 8-1 14), have one or more
● Oil dams. Spiral-wound rings are used to form an oil turns of rectangular, rounded-edge material. Those with two or
reservoir for spline gears in mechanical couplings and more turns have no gaps and provide a 360° shoulder. Their
other applications. flexible cross sections allow easy assembly and disassembly
● Backup rings. Spiral-wound rings are used as backup without special tools. The laminated construction with two or
rings for packings in cylinders because of the 360° more turns permits high axial deflections under thrust loads
shoulders they provide. without overstressing the rings. Uniform wall thickness is an
● Oil or grease slingers. Spiral-wound rings have been advantage when radial clearances are critical.
employed successfully as slinger rings in many applica-
tions; however, if high rotary speeds are involved, it Special Designs
might be necessary to use a self-locking ring. The spiral-wound design of the rings lends itself to custom
● Spacer or shim stock. Spiral-wound rings are used as fitting for special applications, For example, overall ring
spacers or shims for positive tolerance take-up. thickness can be varied by changing the material thickness or by
● Loca/ion stops. Spiral-wound rings are used successfully increasing the number of turns. Different ring diameters, from
as location stops in a number of applications, but if 7/16 to 54” ( 11 to 1372 mm) and larger, are easily manufactured
impact loads are involved, care must be taken to use a to suit requirements, When the rings are made from a thin
properly designed ring. material, tabs, prongs, and other devices can be formed for
● Spring-loading components. Dished spiral-wound rings special assembly and disassembly needs. Reverse-wound rings
can function as spring components in assemblies to exert (wound in the opposite direction) are used for special applica-
a controlled load on other components, tions. For example, with a rotating assembly having a tendency
8-68
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
to unwind a ring out of its groove, the ring is wound so that the
direction of rotation tightens the ring to the groove bottom,
Ring Configurations
Spiral-wound retaining rings are offered in varying con-
Internal External
figurations to meet particular design needs. For instance,
standard, catalog-series rings differ from each other by the
number of laminations or turns of material, in addition to the
various material cross sections. Lightduty applications often
use rings having a one-turn design. Heavy-duty rings have an
I 1 increas~d matefial cross section ~nd a higher numbe~ of turns.
Fig. 8-114 Internal and external designs of standard, spiral-wound Special design configurations (see Fig. 8-1 15) include the
retaining rings. following:
Fig. 8-115 Various configurations of spiral-wound retaining rings,
TABLE 8-11
Specifications of Materials Used for Spiral-Wound Retaining Rings
Min Tensile Strength

(Max Work Stress Shear Allowable Working Modulus of Recommended
During Installation), Strength, Stress Under Load, Elasticity, Max Service
Material Thickness, in. (mm) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) psi (GPa) Temp, 0 F ~ C)
Carbon spring 0.0067-0,0148 (O.170-0,376) 269 ( 1855) 153 (1055) 242 (1669) 30x 106 250 (120)
steels, SAE 0,0150-0.0213 (0.3814.541) 255 (1758) 138 (951) 218 (1503) (207) 400 (205)
1070 to 1090 0,0215-0.0433 (0.546-1. 100) 221 (1524) 126 (869) 199 (1372) 400 (205)
0.0435 DhlS (] 105) 211 (1455) 120 (827) 190 (1310) 400 (205)
Stainless 0.0080-0.0160 (0.203-0.406) 210 (1448) 119 (820) 178 (1227) 28 X 106 400 (205)
steel, AIS1 0.0162-0.0230 (0.41 1-0.584) 210 (1448) 119 (820) 178 (1227) (193)
Type 302 0.0232-0.0480 (0.589-1.219) 200(1379) 114(786) 170(1172)
0.0482-0.0610 (1.224-1
.549) 185(1276) 105.5(727) 157(1082)
0.0612@lS ( ] .554) 175 (1207) 100 (689) 157 (1082)
Beryllium AH thicknesses 175 (1207) 100 (689) 149 ( 1027) 17.9 x 106 225 ( 105)
copper (123)
Phosphor 0.0100-0.0250 (0.254-0.635) 106(731) 60.5 (417) 90 (621) 14.5 x 106 225 (105)
bronze 0.02524.0500 (0.640-1.270) 95 (655) 54 (372) 80.6 (556) (loo)
0.0502 @JS (1 .275) 90 (621) 51.3 (354) 76.5 (527)
A-286 All thicknesses 200 (1379) 114 (786) 170(1172) 31 x 106 900 (480)
(Ramsey Piston Ring Div., TRW Automotive Products, Inc.)
8-69
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
1. Se~-locking rings. This ring design has a precision tab- Types of thrust loads. A static, uniformly applied load is
and-slot locking arrangement at each end of the ring. It is usually assumed. Dynamic and eccentric loads, however, are
typically used to withstand the high centrifugal forces frequently encountered. The success of retaining rings in
found in high-speed shaft applications and the effects of applications where shock or impact loads are encountered
vibration and shock or impact loads. depends, in addition to the factors that affect the static-thrust
2. Dished, resilient take-up rings. This type of ring over- capacity, on mass and velocity of the retained part as it strikes
comes objectionable end play created by the buildup of the ring. Applications involving impact loads require testing.
tolerances in ring thickness, groove locations, and retained Eccentric loading occurs many times in practice but is not
part tolerances. The dish in the ring may also be used to often anticipated, Eccentric loading can be caused by the
exert a controlled axial force or to function simply as a following:
spring member.
1. Face of the retained part not being machined parallel to
3. Balanced rinm. These rines are statically balanced for
the retaining ring.
high-speed a~plications by~ncorporating ~ series of slots
2. Cocking of the retained part by an external force applied
opposite the ring gap. If a balanced ring is to be used on a
to it at a distance from the retaining ring. Such a case is
shaft, it will normally have self-locking features.
commonly encountered when a retaining ring is used to
hold a large gear or hub on a splined shaft.
End Conditions and Crimping
3. Axial misalignment of mating-. uarts, as is often the case
Standard and special end conditions (see Fig. 8-1 16) are with mecha~lcai couplings. If eccentric loads are antic-
available for spiral-wound retaining rings; however, the purpose
ipated, the thickest possible ring in the deepest groove
of all end conditions is the same: to provide a method of
should be used.
removing the rings from the grooves. Material cross sections
sufficiently flexible to offset themselves naturally while in the Vibration. Vibration introduced by impact loading must
grooves are not crimped, but thicker material section rings are also be considered. If the frequency of the system coincides with
offset by crimping (see Fig. 8-117) when necessary. the resonant frequency of the retaining ring, the ring can fail. If
such vibration causes concern, the critical resonant frequency
Thrust Load Capacity of the retaining ring in the radial direction should be determined.
The most important criterion in determining which ring is Centrifugal capacity. Proper functioning of a retaining ring
best suited for a specific application is thrust load capacity. The depends on the ring remaining seated on the groove bottom.
retaining ring and groove must both be considered when However, centrifugal loading can overcome initial cling built
analyzing the thrust load capacity, because the capability of the into an external ring and cause it to lose its grip on the groove
assembly is only as strong as its weakest link. In designing a ring bottom. To avoid this, the allowable steady-state speed of a
for an application, it must be determined whether the groove or retaining ring should be determined.
the retaining ring is likely to fail first. Rotation between parts. The use of spiral-wound rings to
retain a rotating part should be limited to applications with low
thrust loads and with rotation in only one direction. External
rings should be wound in the direction of rotation of the
rotating part; internal rings should be wound against the
Standard end conditions Special end conditions direction of rotation of the rotating part. Failure to observe
Special notches on extra- these criteria will cause the ring to wind out of the groove.
+=z31z+ Internal notch

heavy
remaval
rings facilitate
by hook or pliers
Spiral-wound retaining rings are available with right-hand
windings as standard and left-hand windings as an option.
One-turn, uncrimped
External notch
1
Two-turn, uncrimped
Beveled end eases movement
if ring is ratating. Bevel
helps eliminate ring catching
1/
an camponent parts
[ [ 3
Two-turn, crimped
Slotted
5
i 11 4
Three-turn, crimped
Fig. 8-116 Standard and special end conditions for spiral-wound
retaining rings. (Ramsey Pis~on Ring Div., TRW Automotive products
Inc.) Fig. 8-117 Uncrimped and crimped, spiral-wound retaining rings.
8-70
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
Retaining Ring Failure be applied. Recommended maximum total radius or chamfer

When considering the retaining ring alone, the mode of specifications are intended to be used as guidelines by the
failure could result from shearing of the ring. Shear failure designer. They ensure the validity of published or calculated
occurs when: values of static thrust loads.
Retaining rings that are used where specific recommended
1. The ring is installed in a groove and loaded with a limits are exceeded will show a marked decrease in thrust load
retained part with both the ring and the part having capacity unless the groove depth, ring width, or compressive
compressive yield strength greater than 45ksi(310 MPa).
2. The load is applied through a retained part and groove,
both having sharp corners and line-to-line contact.
3. The ring is too thin in section compared to the ring
diameter.
Groove Failure
The most common type of groove failure is the yielding of
the groove material. This occurs when the thrust load, which (a) (b) (c)
applies its force through the retaining ring and onto the corner
of the groove, exceeds the compressive yield strength of the
groove (see Fig. 8-1 18). This yielding allows the ring to tilt and Fig. 8-118 Localized yielding under axial thrust load:(a) groove profile
come out of the groove without the ring overstressing (if the before loading, (b) yielding of both retained part and groove under
load, and (c) groove profile after loading beyond thrust capacity.
cross section of the ring is flexible enough), or tilt, take a
permanent set, and work its way out of the groove. Either way,
it is the result of the low compressive yield strength of the
groove with respect to the thrust load that causes the failure.
When dishing of the ring occurs due to the yielding of the --
Yield strengths of
groove material, it is a bending moment that occurs across the -20
n groove materials:
cross section of the ring that generates a maximum stress at the —
40,
1D of the ring. This stress is in the form of a tensile stress. If
exceeded beyond the yield point, the ring ID will grow in
30
diameter and become permanently dished in shape. To deter-
mine the thrust load capacity of a ring based on groove 69 ksi (476 MPa) -10
deformation, the allowable angle of ring deflection must first be 20

calculated; the thrust load, based on groove yield, can then be
10 /
determined.
Groove design and machining. A properly designed and
machined groove is just as important to the overall capability of n
the assembly as is the retaining ring. The walls of the grooves “0 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 in,
I I I 1 I I
should be perpendicular to the shaft or bore diameter; the
o 0.25 0,50 0.75 1,00 1.25 mm
grooves should have square corners on the top edge and radii at
the bottom, within the tolerances specified by the manufacturer. Total permanent deformation
Test data indicates that ultimate thrust capacity is greatly

affected when these conditions do not exist, for both static and
dynamic-type loading. Fig. 8-119 Effect of groove material on the thrust capacity of retaining
Groove location. In most applications, grooves are located rings. (Ramsey Piszon Ring Div., TRW Automotive Products inc. )
near the end of a shaft or housing bore to facilitate installation
and removal of the rings. If the groove is located too close to the
end of the shaft or bore, it may shear.
Groove material. There are a number of ways to increase the
thrust load capacity of a particular retaining ring application.
Changing the workpiece material into which the grooves are cut !I !I
is one method. The effect of groove yield strength on thrust
capacity for a typical application is illustrated in Fig. 8-119. Mcrximum groove
chamfer or radius
Safety Factors
A safety factor of two is generally used for thrust load
Maximum retained
calculations where the load is applied through a retained part
and groove with both having sharp corners and where minimum
side clearance between the retained part and the shaft or bore
Maximum total radius
exists. In applications where the summation of the maximum
or chamfer
chamfer (or radius) on the retained part, the maximum chamfer
(or radius) on the groove, and the maximum side clearance of
the retained part (see Fig. 8-1 20) are within the values recom-
mended by the ring manufacturer, a safety factor of four should Fig. 8-120 Maximum total radius or chamfer.
8-71
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
yield strength of the groove material is increased. Figure 8-121 approved by the U.S. Department of Defense and is for use by
shows how the thrust load capacity is directly proportional to the departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The
the groove depth. The effect of various chamfers on the thrust specification lists two types, with two classes under each type, as
capacity is illustrated in Fig. 8-122. Effects of excessively large follows:
chamfers or radii can be minimized by inserting a spacer
Type I—External
between the retained parts and the retaining rings, however, the
Medium-duty external series, identified as Class 1
spacers must be strong enough not to dish under load.
Heavy-duty external series, identified as Class 2
Type II—Internal
Applicable Standards Medium-duty internal series, identified as Class 1
Dimensional specifications for many general purpose, uni- Heavy-duty internal series, identified as Class 2
form cross section, spiral retaining rings are presented in ANSI
Standard B27,6. Military Specification MIL-R-27426 covers Ring Installation
the procurement requirements for uniform cross-sectional,
Because of the cross-sectional flexibility of spiral-wound
spiral-wound retaining rings, This specification has been
rings, they may be installed manually by spreading the turns,
inserting one end in the groove, and spiraling the remainder of
the ring until the last turn snaps into the groove, When normal
care is exercised and the recommended dimensions for the
housing bore or shaft are maintained, this manual method is
55 satisfactory for low to medium assembly rates and can also be
/
g acceptable for some high-volume applications.
/
~ 45 ,20 For higher production requirements, the most commonly
c 0.063” (1.60 mm) x 45 “/ ‘
0 chamfer
used method for installing rings is the semiautomatic method.
3 35 2 This procedure requires a sleeve with a tapered bore or a
-c // -15
m’ tapered plug and mating plungers. Variations of the tapered
./~’ o
~ 25 . ~ /
0 sleeve or plug are sometimes necessary to overcome special
//” -lo a installation problems. For example, a modified tool form is
//”
15
necessary when a retaining ring must be installed over or
..~” .0 0.095” (2.41 mm) x 45° chamfer .5 through splines, threads, or polished surfaces. This modification
is usually in the form of a thimble extension (see Fig. 8-1 23) that
5.
0;050 0.0540.0580.062 0.0660.0700.0740.078 0.082 in. covers and protects the critical area while the ring passes over it.
These installation fixtures must be designed within limitations
1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10mm
to avoid excessive stress when expanding or collapsing the ring
Groove depth during installation. Overstressed rings, unless adequate com-
pensation has been made, will not grip the groove bottom and a
decrease in thrust capacity will result. For applications where
Fig. 8-121 Relationship of groove depth to thrust load at which ring there are extremely high volumes involved, the use of completely
failed when loaded through retained parts having chamfers shown. automatic installation tooling may be warranted.
Yield strength of groove material is 69 ksi (476 MPa~ yield strength of
retained part material is 100 ksi (689 MPa). ( Ramsey Piston Ring Div.,
TRW Automotive Products Inc. )
50 Internal
2“ (51 mm) rings installed in
groove material hoving a -20
~ 40- yield strength of 100 ksi { <harp corner-
~ ( -—
(690 MPa) z
-15 ~.j
!! 30
/ 0.028” (0.71 mm)
2 ; Thimble extension
x 45” chamfer
%. 20 / ‘ 0.48”(i.22 mm -10 5
-Q , x 45° chomfer) *
,/’ External /
/
$ 10 / -5
x -t— s
+ 0.0?2=(1.83 mm)
x 45° qhamfer
0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050in. —-—-
I 1 I 1 L 1
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25mm
Totol permanent deformation
Fig. 8-122 Effect of chamfer size on thrust capacity of spiral-wound

retaining rings. (Ramsey Piston Ring Div., TRW Automotive Products Fig. 8-123 Use of thimble extension to protect finished surfaces and
Inc.) threads during assembly of retaining rings with sleeve and plunger.
8-72
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
Inspecting the Installation the remainder of the ring. Some of the special end configur-
Once installed, the ring should be inspected for proper ations available on rings are designed to permit easy removal
seating against the groove bottom. Foreign matter in the with pliers.
groove, overstressing during installation, or improper machin-
ing of the grooves can prevent the ring from functioning WIRE-FORMED RETAINING RINGS
properly. Sometimes, visual inspection is sufficient; however, in Wire-formed retaining rings, also called wire-wound or
more critical assemblies, gaging is recommended. Figure 8-124 bent-wire rings, are split rings formed and cut from spring wire
shows typical go and not-go gages used for inspecting internal of uniform cross-sectional size and shape. The grain flow
and external ring assemblies. follows the contours of these rings for equalized distribution of
stresses. The rings can be formed to ensure full peripheral
Ring Disassembly contact on shafts or in housings.
A ring can be removed by simply inserting a screwdriver to
lift one end of the ring from the groove and then spiraling out Materials and Finishes
Spring steel, SAE 1060, is the most common material used
for making wire-formed retaining rings, but steels ranging from
Internal SAE 1010 to 1095 are employed for some rings. Harnesses
range from RC42 to 53, and tensile strengths range from 192 to
Gage
280 ksi (1324 to 1931 MPa). Wire-formed rings are also
Retained part
available made from stainless steel, bronze, brass, beryllium
copper, and aluminum alloys.
Corrosion inhibition is achieved several ways, the standard
being an oil-based rust preventive for carbon steel rings.
This diameter equal to Cadmium and zinc plating and other finishes are also available.
7 minimum groave diameter Some ring manufacturers offer mechanically applied finishes.
minus two times maximum
Retaining
=
r,ing radial wall
Ring Sizes and Types
Standard, wire-formed retaining rings are made in sizes
External ,Gage Retaining ring ranging from 1/ 8 to 30” (3.2 to 762 mm) diam, with larger sizes
available by special order. The rings are made in a variety of
cross-sectional shapes (see Fig. 8-125), with rectangular, square,
or round being the most popular, depending on the ring
function and requirements. Round-section rings, used in
rounded grooves, have less load-bearing capacity than rec-
tangular or square-section rings. Tapered-section rings help to
take up end play caused by tolerances on ring thicknesses,
groove locations, and the retained components.
This diameter Rectangular-section rings generally have thicknesses ranging
maximum gro
from 2 to 590 of their diameters and widths that are 2-3 times
plus two times maximum \
radial wall
Retained part their thicknesses. The grooves for accommodating rectangular-
section rings must have minimum widths of 1.15 times the ring
Fig. 8-124 Typical go and not-go gages used to inspect internal and thicknesses. Some standard gap profiles made by one ring
external ring assemblies. manufacturer are illustrated ii Fig: 8-126. - -
Izzzl @ izi dd!ili!i

I
Rectangular Round Square Step Double Taper
bevel
Chamfer Round edge

flat
Tongue
BEE
Radius
corner
Square
edge
M;ll
edge
Fig. 8-125 Cross-sectional shapes of wire-formed retaining rings. (Engineered Fasreners Div., fimn Corp. )
8-73
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
External gaps Internal gaps
(“?Y\Hlrl
Standard
applled
range
gap far most external,
shaft rings. Available
and in rectangular,
axially
in full size
round, square, or
Available gap on internal,
rings. Rectangular section
axially
only
applied
special sections
II Standard gap on internal,

axially
anly
applied
Standard gap for same external, axially

applled shaft rings and grooved bearings,
Available in full size ranae and in all
standard ar special sections
Standard gap on internal, axially applied rings.

Available in all standard and special sections
(“’7-H
Standard gap on external, radially applied
rings. Available in rectangular section only
PI
II Standard gap on internal,
axially
only
applied
Standard gap an external, radially applied

rings, available in full size range and in all
standard sections p-~ ,
f..y ,
Standard gap on internally notched rings.

Optianai gap on internal, axially applied
rings from 1.750 ta 10.000” (44.45 to 254 mm)
Standard gap on externally notched rings diam, rectangular section only
Optional external/internal gaps
(Pi’will (T’’YWI
Optional gap for external
rings, Available
and internal,
from approximately
(19 to 254 mm) dicrm, rectangular
0.750
axially
section only
applied
to 10,000”
Optional gap on external
rings. Rectangular
and
and square
internal, axially
section only
applied
Optional gap for external and internal, axially applied

rings. Available fram approximately 0.750 to 10,000”
(19 to 254 mm) diam, rectangular section only
Fig. 8-126 Standard gap profiles for wire-formed retaining rings. (Engineered Fasteners Div.. Eufon Corp.)
8-74
CHAPTER 8
RETAINING RINGS
External rings. These rings are designed to go over shafts, Plier-type hand tools are often desirable for assembling or
outer races of bearings, and similar parts and to snap into removing external rings when the grooves are not near the ends
grooves, exerting radial tension toward the ring centers. They of the shafts or to keep the shafts from being scored by the rings.
are generally assembled axially to hold parts on shafts. External Where the ring sections are thick compared to their diameters,
clip rings are open-style rings for radial assembly to shafts, stop-action pliers are available to prevent the possibility of ring
which is easier than axial assembly. External closed rings are overexpansion. Pliers with offset bases are made for appli-
full-diameter rings having gaps smaller than the wire thick- cations where the grooves are concealed by the parts that are
nesses. Closed rings are assembled axially over the ends of to be retained.
shafts; radii or chamfers on the shaft ends facilitate assembly. Internal rings. Some of the same basic tools used for the
Internal rings. These rings are designed to enter housings or assembly and disassembly of external rings can also be used for
bores and snap into grooves, exerting radial tension outward internal rings. To use a tapered bushing and plunger, the
from the ring centers. Internal rings are assembled axially to bushing is tapered to the ID of the housing and made with a
retain parts; they are available to snap into the outer races of locating shoulder that centers over the housing (see Fig. 8-127).
bearings to overcome thrust loads in either direction. A slight chamfer on the housing bore helps guide the ring and
compensates for slight hole misalignment. As the ring is pressed
Thrust Capabilities into the tapered bushing, it compresses to the bore diameter and
Failure of retaining ring assemblies is generally the result of then snaps into the groove. The plunger can be operated by
groove deformation, the most common cause, or ring shear. hand or mechanically.
Continued overstressing causes rings to enlarge in diameter, Contracting-type pliers are also used for the assembly and
become dished, and extrude out of their grooves. Ring shear removal of internal rings. A spiral assembly method can be used
can result from the retained components and the grooves with rings having certain gap profiles. One end of the ring is
having excessively high compressive yield strengths; sharp, inserted in the groove and installation is completed by spirally
unradiused corners of the retained components and the grooves prying the remainder of the ring into place. Removal is
being in line-to-line contact; and the thickness-to-diameter accomplished by disengaging one end of the-ring with a pointed
ratio of the ring being too high (ring material too thin). The tool and then prying out the remainder of the ring.
amounts of thrust loads that various rings will absorb are
specified by the ring manufacturers.
Ring Assembly and Disassembly

For reduced costs, and easiest assembly and disassembly,
Assembly plunger
rings having the smallest cross-sectional area that meets thrust
ft-
requirements should be used. Internally notched rings allow the Tapered
use of standard, round-point, contracting pliers for assembling assembly Ring
and removing. Also, the segments of internally notched rings bushing
adjacent to the gap ends have preformed radii that permit the Locating
Slight chamfer ,
rings to be assembled more easily and reduce the possibility of shoulder
Snap ring groove
scoring the housing or bore.
External rings. The use of a tapered plug and bushing Zl&
provides a fast method of forcing external rings axially into
grooves and can be adapted to mechanized assembly. When
shaft ends are rounded or chamfered, hollow-sleeve plungers Fig. 8-127 Tapered bushing and plunger method of assembling internal
can be used in place of the tapered plug and bushing. rings, (Engineered Fasfeners Div., Eizton Corp. )
PINS
Pins provide a simple and low-cost method of mechanical drilled or cored holes. However, some press-fit pins require
fastening. They are available in straight-cylindrical or tapered varying degrees of hole preparation for proper insertion.
designs, with or without heads, and generally rely on elastic Application methods vary from the simple use of hammers to
compression for their gripping power. Applications of pins are automated assembly machines for high-volume requirements.
common in industrial machines and in commercial products. A wide variety of standard types and sizes of pins are
Pins are used as locking devices, locating elements, pivots, available, and special designs are made for specific applications.
and bearing faces. They often secure the positions of two or Major classifications of pin types are:
more parts relative to each other. Applications are primarily for
shear loading where there is not a high amount of end loading. ● Machine pins, including straight-cylindrical, dowel,
Most pins are hardened for maximum strength and permanent tapered, clevis, cotter, and wire pins.
assembly, but some are used soft so that they will shear before . Radial locking pins, including grooved, knurled, and
the assembly or mechanism is damaged. spring pins.
An advantage of pins, in addition to their low cost and ● Quick-release pins, such as push-pull and positive lock-
effectiveness, is that many of them can be inserted in simple ing types.
8-75
CHAPTER 8
PINS
STRAIGHT PINS pins are generally made from AISI 1211 steel or cold-drawn
Solid, straight-cylindrical pins are usually cut from wire or AISI 1212 or 1213 steel.
bar stock and have unground surfaces. They are available in The basic diameter of a tapered pin is the diameter at its large
chamfered or square-end designs. Square-end straight pins can end. The diameter at the small end equals the basic diameter
have the corners on both ends broken with small radii. minus 0.02083 times the pin length. A series of numbered pin sizes
Straight pins are generally made from cold-drawn, low or have been standardized. The sizes range from No. 7/0 (0.0625”
high-carbon steel wire, rod, or bar. High-carbon steels are diam at the large end) to No. 14(1.5210” diam at the large end).
generally heat treated. Pins are also available made from Lengths vary from 1/4 to 13“. Dimensional and general data for
stainless steels, brasses, and other metals, Standard straight the pins is presented in ANSI Standard B 18.8.2.
pins have nominal diameters ranging from 1/16 to 1”. Dimen- Threaded tapered pins are available for use with tapered
sional and general data for inch-size straight pins is presented in sleeves. They can align oversized holes and are used extensively
ANSI Standard B 18.8.2. Metric-size pins are also available. for pressworking dies. The threaded portions allow the pins to be
removed from the sleeves, and pullers are then used to remove
DOWEL PINS the sleeves.
Dowel pins are precision, straight-cylindrical pins available
in hardened and ground types and in unhardened and ground CLEVIS PINS
types. They are used extensively in the production of machines, Clevis pins are solid pins having cylindrical heads at one end
tools, dies, jigs, and fixtures to retain parts in fixed positions or and a drilled hole for a cotter pin at the other end (see Fig.
to preserve alignments. Dimensional and general data for dowel 8-128). They are commonly used as pivots in many mechanisms
pins is presented in ANSI Standard B 18.8.2. Military Standards and for use with clevices and rod-end eyes in industrial
MS-16555 and MS-16556 also pertain to dowel pins. applications.
Basic diameters of standard clevis pins range from 3/ 16 to
Hardened and Ground Machine Dowel Pins 1”. The pins are generally made from AISI 1010 to 1020 or 1211
These pins are available in standard and oversize series, steel, left soft or case hardened. Dimensional specifications for
ranging from 1/ 16 to 1” diam and 3/ 16 to 6“ long, as well as in standard clevis pins are presented in ANSI Standard B18.8. 1.
metric sizes. Standard inch-size pins, intended for initial
installations, have basic diameters 0.0002” more than their COTTER PINS
nominal diameters. Oversize pins, intended for replacement Cotter (split) pins are double-bodied pins formed from half-
use, have basic diameters 0.001” more than nominal diameters. round wire. A loop at one end of each pin provides a head and
Both series are made from carbon or alloy steels. various point styles are available (see Fig. 8-129). They are used
The pins are ground or ground and lapped to within in clevis pins and other pinned assemblies. The pins are driven
&O.0001” of the required basic diameters and to produce a
roundness within 0.0001” about their longitudinal axes. One
end of each pin is chamfered (4- 16° ), and the other end is
crowned for press fitting into a drilled and reamed hole.
fl~, @
Hardened and Ground Production Dowel Pins
These pins are similar to the standard-size series of hardened
and ground machine dowel pins. Differences include that
standard inch sizes only range from 1/ 16 to 3/ 8“ diam, with
lengths from 3/16 to 3“; the corners at both ends of the pins are Fig. 8-128 Clevis pins
rounded; and the pins are made from a carbon steel that is case
hardened to produce a minimum surface hardness of RC58.
These pins are generally employed for volume production
applications, using automated installation equipment.
Unhardened Ground Dowel Pins

These pins are often used where strength, shock, and wear
&(Q I
‘e
resistance requirements do not warrant the additional cost of
hardened pins. Standard inch sizes range from 1/16 to 1” diam, B-9
with lengths from 1/4 to 4“. They are generally produced by Standard Mitered Beveled
grinding the OD of commercial wire or rod to size. Corners at

both ends of the pins are chamfered. The pins are usually made --
from carbon steel or brass. Hammer lock Chisel
TAPERED (TAPER) PINS

Tapered pins, commonly called taper pins, inserted by a B=
drive fit, are often used to position parts or to transmit low Mitered Square
torque forces. They have a taper of 1/ 4“ per foot, measured on Extended prong
the diameter, and both ends are crowned with a spherical
radius, Tapered pins are available in commercial and precision
classes, with the precision pins having closer tolerances. The Fig. 8-129 Cotter pins and various point styles.b
8-76
CHAPTER 8
PINS
into holes, the loop heads limiting travel, and their legs are split manufactured to the following military specifications: MS-
for locking. Cotter pins have been standardized into 18 sizes 35671 through MS-35679, MS-51605, MS-51606, and DOD-P-
with nominal sizes (basic pin diameters) ranging from 1/32 to 63464. Grooved drive studs having various head styles (see Fig.
3/4. They are generally made from AISl 1015 steel but are also 8-1 32) are also available.
available in brass, bronze, stainless steel, and aluminum.
Dimensional and general data for cotter pins is presented in KNURLED PINS
ANSI Standard B18.8.1. Knurled pins are similar to grooved pins in that there are
serrations around the nominal diameter of the pin that, when
WIRE PINS compressed, result in radial holding forces that retain the
Formed spring-wire pins or clips are of two-legged design, fastener in place. However, whereas a grooved pin has only six
similar to cotter pins. However, unlike a cotter pin, only one leg raised portions, knurled pins have many smaller raised sections
of a wire pin is inserted in the hole, and the pin holds itself in around the nominal diameter. A knurled section may either be a
place by elastic compression. straight, helical, or diamond configuration. Examples of these
different types of knurls are shown in Fig. 8-133.
GROOVED PINS
Grooved pins are solid, unground, straight-cylindrical pins
having three longitudinal grooves equally spaced around their
peripheries. No metal is removed during manufacture of the
pins. Instead, the grooves are formed by a swaging operation in
which three tools penetrate the nominal diameter of the pin to a
predetermined depth. Metal displaced by the tools forms a
raised portion or flute along each side of each groove.
The crests of the formed flutes produce an expanded
diameter, shown as DX in Fig. 8-130. Amount of expansion
varies with the size of the pin and the material from which it is
made, but the expanded diameter can be precisely controlled. I
Holes into which grooved pins are to be inserted are drilled
Fig. 8-131 Various configurations of grooved pins.
slightly larger than the nominal diameters of the pins, but never
smaller. When the expanded portions of a pin are compressed in
a hole, the displaced metal is forced back into the grooves, thus
developing radial holding forces. The locking action is a
function of the expanded diameter and the effective length of
engagement.
Various configurations of grooved pins are illustrated in Fig.
8-131. Standard inch sizes cover the range from 1/16 to 1/ 2“
diam, with lengths from l/8 to 4 1/ 2“. The pins are generally
Round Flat Flat
made from cold-drawn, low-carbon steel wire or rod that can be countersunk
surface hardened if required. Pins are also available made from
alloy steels, stainless steels, and copper alloys. Alloy steel pins
Triiii
are sometimes through hardened to increase their shear
strengths. Dimensional specifications for grooved pins are
presented in ANS1 Standard B 18.8.2. The pins are also
Truss Shoulder
Section A-A
Fig. 8-132 Grooved drive studs having various head styles. (Groov-Pin
Corp.)
I
I
r
A
.— ---
Fig. 8-130 Grooved pin having a nominal diameter, D, and an

expanded diameter, Dx. ( Driv-Lok, Inc. ) Fig. 8-133 A few of the many knurled pins available.
8-77
CHAPTER 8
PINS
There are no standard diameters and lengths for knurled

pins. Most are manufactured to customer design specifications
that give the length of the knurl, the number of teeth around the
body of the pin, the amount of expansion required for the
specific application, and the type of lead-in configuration
desired. The pins are made from a variety of materials, hard or
soft, with hardened, high-carbon steel being common. Knurled
pins are used extensively for setting in die castings and plastic
moldings and for securing relatively thin cross sections.
KNURLED DRIVE STUDS

Knurled (ribbed), hardened studs (see Fig. 8-134) are
designed for applications in materials subject to plastic de-
formation. Such materials include cold and hot-rolledsteels,
zinc die castings, and sand or die castings made from aluminum
or magnesium alloys. They are recommended to ensure secure
fastening in applications subject to vibration.
The two sets of longitudinal ribs on these studs are offset one
from the other by one-half pitch. The lower set of ribs, first
engaged during insertion, forces the hole wall material into the
valleys between ribs. The flow of displaced material is then
deflected to follow the offset path when the upper ribbed section Fig. 8-134 Knurled drive stud. Arrows indicate flow of workpiece
engages and the stud is securely locked in the work material. material. (Groov-Pin Corp. )
BARBED PINS
Barbed pins and studs (see Fig. 8-135) provide positive
fastening for plastics, wood, and other soft materials. Standard
pins are available in diameters of 3/ 16, l/4,5/ 16, and 3/ 8“, with
lengths from 1 to 2“ in I /4” increments. Pins with barbs at both
ends provide holding power in both directions. The pins and
studs are made from low-carbon steel, aluminum, and brass.
Sets of three barbs are located at 120° positions around the
peripheries of the pins and studs. The impressed barbs displace
a predetermined amount of material, with the crests of the barbs
creating an expanded diameter for locking.
+
SPRING PINS
Spring pins are made in slotted (split) tubular and coiled
(spirally wrapped) designs. Pins of both designs have smaller ?
cross-sectional areas than solid pins of the same diameter, Enlarged view Pin with Pin with Barbed
sometimes resulting in lower shear strengths. However, some of barbs barbs at barbs at stud
heat-treated spring pins have higher shear strengths than low- one end both ends
carbon solid pins. Also, spring pins provide good shock and
vibration absorption, and stresses are distributed equally. Also,
their inherent springiness makes insertion in holes easier. Fig. 8-135 Pins barbed at one and botb ends, and a barbed stud.
(Driv-LOk, Inc.)
When manufactured, spring pins are made oversized with
respect to the diameters of the holes in which they will be
inserted. When inserted, the pins are compressed, resulting in Standard finishes for spring pins consist of application of a
radial forces against the hole walls to retain the pins in the light oil, phosphate coating, or cadmium or zinc plating.
desired positions. Standard slotted pins are available in basic Dimensional and general data for spring pins is presented in
diameters (nominal sizes) ranging from l/16 through 1/ 2“, with ANSI Standard B 18.8.2. The pins are also made according to
lengths from 1/ 8 to 6“. The outer peripheries of spring pins Military Specifications MS-16562, MS-1 71401, and MS-9047.
deviate somewhat from true roundness in their free states
because of the way they are made. Slotted Tubular Pins
Standard slotted pins are made from either an AISI 1070 to Slotted tubular types of spring pins (see Fig. 8-136) are
1095 carbon steel or an AISI Type 420 corrosion-resistant steel. generally manufactured from flat strips of metal by a progressive
Special metals include AISI 6 150H alloy steel, AISI Types 302 roll forming technique. The strip metal is first run through a
and 410 corrosion-resistant steels, and beryllium copper. For coining operation that forms the chamfers, and then a series of
high-carbon steels, the hardness range is usually RC46-53, and rolls form the pins into cylindrical configurations. After
for corrosion-resistant steels, RC43-52. Both ends of all pins are forming, the pins are broken off (not cut), deburred, and then
chamfered to facilitate installation. heat treated to a spring temper.
8-78
CHAPTER 8
PINS
Coiled Pins Push-Pull Pins

With spirally coiled or wrapped pins, sometimes called The shanks of these pins contain detents consisting of
spiral-wrapped pins, compression during insertion starts at the buttons or balls backed by resilient plugs or springs (see Fig.
outer edges and moves through the coils to the centers of the 8-138). When the pins are inserted into holes, the buttons or
pins. This action provides continued flexibility after insertion balls exert a locking action. In pin withdrawal, the buttons or
and eliminates possible damage to the holes. When pressure on balls are automatically depressed.
the pin is relieved, as happens in shock and vibration loading,
the pin action reverses. Positive-Locking Pins
Coiled pins are made in three classes (see Fig. 8-137) to suit Several designs of positive-locking pins are available. One
various requirements. Heavy-duty pins provide the highest design uses a plunger-actuated mechanism. When the plunger is
shear strengths, but with some reduction in shock-absorbing moved in one direction, a locking element projects from the pin;
capability. Standard-duty pins provide an optimum combina- movement in the other direction retracts the locking element. A
tion of shear strength and shock absorption. Light-duty pins are double-acting, ball-lock, positive-acting pin is illustrated in Fig.
designed specifically for applications requiring minimum radial 8-139. Release is achieved by pulling or pushing the handle.
forces to prevent cracking brittle materials or those with thin Another design uses a caromed core in the pin to expand a
cross sections. ramped sleeve against the hole bore.
QUICK-RELEASE PINS
Special-purpose, quick-release pins are used where rapid I
assembly and disassembly are required. Two major types of
quick-release pins are push-pull and positive locking.
Fig. 8-138 Push-pull detent pin for quick-release locating. (Carr Lme
Mjg. co.)
n
Fig. 8-136 Slotted tubular type of spring pin.
@@@
Heavy-duty Standard-duty light-duty
u
Fig. 8-137 Three classes of spirally coiled spring pins. (.Spiro/ Fig. 8-139 Double-acting, hall-lock, positive-acting pin. (Carr lane
International) Mjg. co. )
WASHERS
Washers are simple fastener components, often consisting of they also provide surfaces for uniform torque control in
cylindrical slugs of metal with holes in their centers. They are tightening bolt-nut assemblies. Other uses for washers include
available in numerous types and sizes, and proper selection can compensating for oversize bolt holes, adjusting for proper grip
be critical to the successful and economical operation of many length, providing spring tension, protecting assembly surfaces,
assemblies. sealing the assembly, and providing electrical connections. In
Washers serve many functions, depending on the specific some cases, washers serve as insulators or corrosion barriers.
application. A primary use is to serve as seats under bolt heads Major types of washers include flat (plain), spring, and
and nuts to distribute stresses and loads. In such applications special-purpose. They are available in many sizes and are made
8-79
CHAPTER 8
WASHERS
from a variety of materials, including steel, stainless steel, brass, SPRING WASHERS
copper, bronze, aluminum, lead, zinc, and nonmetallic such as A spring washer is a single fastener component that replaces
plastics and paper. For some applications, washers are plated or a separate spring and washer, thus reducing costs and space
coated to help resist corrosion. requirements and decreasing assembly weight. Applications
include minimizing vibration in mechanically fastened joints,
FLAT (PLAIN) WASHERS compensating for wear or expansion, and helping to keep
Flat (plain) washers are circular or square, relatively thin mating parts together. Various spring washers can withstand a
components having central holes that fit around bolts or screws wide range of pressures, but they have limited deflections; larger
and under heads or nuts (see Fig. 8-140) to provide bearing deflections can be obtained by stacking them. The possibility of
surfaces. These washers are made from steel, brass, copper, hydrogen embrittlement in hardened spring washers can be
silicon bronze, stainless steel, and nonmetallic materials. minimized by proper plating and baking after plating. Major
Dimensional specifications for flat (plain) washers are types of spring washers include cylindrically curved, waveform,
presented in ANS1 Standard B 18.22 for inch sizes and Standard conical design, Belleville, toothed lockwashers, and helical
B 18.22M for metric sizes. Two types of washers are covered in spring lockwashers.
the B 18.22.1 standard; Type A washers have more liberal
tolerances and are suitable for most assemblies, and Type B Cylindrically Curved
washers have closer tolerances and are available in narrow, Cylindrically curved spring washers (see Fig. 8-142) are used
regular, and wide series. Metric washers (ANSI Standard extensively for applications involving light loads and repetitive
B 18.22M) are available in soft or hardened steel, with ODS from motion cycles and for those requiring flexibility. These washers
4 to 110 mm and thicknesses from 0.70 to 8.50 mm. have an almost linear spring rate throughout their deflection
ranges, but both maximum height and maximum deflection are
Beveled Washers generally limited to less than half their ODS. Also, because the
Beveled washers are flat, square, or circular components washers expand, sufficient space must be provided for the
having a taper between opposite bearing surfaces. Dimensional expansion.
specifications for these washers are presented in ANSI Standard
B 18.23.1 for inch sizes and Standard B. 18.23.2M for metric sizes. Waveform
Waveform spring washers (see Fig. 8-143) are used as
Open Washers cushion springs, spacers between parts mounted on shafts, and
Open washers, also called horseshoe or C-washers, are flat, to compensate for end play. They are efficient for static loads,
circular components having slots with widths equal to the hole small working ranges, and where axial space is limited. Spring
diameters that extend from the holes to the peripheries of the
washers (see Fig. 8-14 1). This design permits installation or
+
removal of the washer from the shank of a fastener without
Thickness
removing the fastener from the assembly.
..=
Y%
IQitL
+ —-— ID
OD Thickness
@
L-1 OD
Overall
height
Fig. 8-142 Cylindrically curved spring washer.

J’ L
Fig. 8-140 Flat (plain) washer having an ID that fits around a bolt or
screw.
Thickness
+
Overall
ID
@ height
t
p—o.—+
Fig. 8-141 Open-type flat washer, also called a horseshoe or C-washer. Fig. 8-143 Wave-type spring washer.
8-80
CHAPTER 8
WASHERS
rates are approximately linear until the washers are almost Toothed Lockwashers
flattened. Maximum deflection is about one-fourth of the Toothed lockwashers, available with external, internal, and
washer OD. external and internal teeth (see Fig. 8-145), are popular types of
Waveform washers generally have three, four, or six waves, spring washers. They combine high holding capacity with small
and wave height is usually twice the amount of deflection. overall thicknesses. Such washers are used extensively to lock
Washers with more waves allow a reduction in thickness for a fasteners, such as bolts and nuts, to the component parts of
given load, but decrease the allowable deflection. Space must be assemblies or to increase the friction between fasteners and
provided to compensate for some radial expansion when these assemblies.
washers are compressed; however, they expand less than Dimensional specifications for toothed lockwashers are
cylindrically curved washers. presented in ANSI Standard B 18.21.1 for inch sizes and Standard
B 18.2 1.2M for metric sizes. Two styles of washers are included in
Conical Design the standards, Types A and B, with both styles providing a
Standard conical-shaped washers (see Fig. 8-144) are formed substantial amount of spring action. Their teeth (actually twisted
with a slight dish, and their edges are sheared parallel to their or bent prongs or projections) bite into the fastener and work
centerlines. They provide stronger spring action than other surfaces being secured to provide a locking action.
types of washers, but give less deflection. As a result, they are
used extensively as compression springs for high loads in Helical Spring Lockwashers
limited spaces. Both the material thickness to rim width ratio Helical spring lockwashers (see Fig. 8-146) are used for one
and the cone height to rim width ratio should not exceed 1:10. or more of the following purposes:
Belleville Washers 1. To provide increased bolt tension per unit of applied

Belleville spring washers are similar in shape to conical torque, thus ensuring tighter assemblies.
washers, but they are made to more precise dimensional 2. To provide hardened bearing surfaces for more uniform
tolerances. In 1867, Julien Belleville of Paris obtained a United torque control.
States patent on this type of washer; they provide greater spring 3. To provide uniform load distribution.
action with load-bearing strengths comparable to conical 4. To provide protection against looseness resulting from
washers of the same size. The load-deflection curve of Belleville vibration and corrosion.
washers can be linear or nonlinear, depending on the height-to- Dimensional specifications for helical spring lockwashers
thickness ratio. are presented in ANSI Standard B 18.21.1 for inch sizes and
Standard B 18.21 .2M for metric sizes. Most washer sections are
slightly trapezoidal in shape with the thickness at the inner
Thickness
periphery greater than the thickness at the outer periphery.
‘%Q_
Rim width =
—.—
OD - ID
2
I Mean section thic@ess
ti
Overall
height I \. Section width
l–.-–o++ !h
I Enlarged section
I
Fig. 8-144 Conical-type of spring washer. Fig. 8-146 Helical spring Iockwasher.
OD
ID Thickness Thickness
-it-
~hicknes @ ~
] ‘–
External teeth Internal teeth External and

internal teeth
Fig. 8-145 Types of toothed Iockwashers.
8-81
CHAPTER 8
WASHERS
However, some washers are stamped from sheet metal, resulting of their peripheries for greater spring movement and more
in either rectangular or square cross sections; the washers are uniform pressure distribution. Finishing washers, available in
coiled so their free height is about equal to twice the thickness of raised and flush types, are designed to accommodate the heads
the washer sections. of flat or oval-head screws and provide additional bearing area
Many special helical spring lockwashers are available, some on the material being fastened. Fairing washers provide flush
of which are shown in Fig. 8-147. View a shows a lockwasher surfaces when used with flathead screws on aluminum aircraft
designed for use with fasteners on soft materials such as wood, skins to spread pressures over a large area and eliminate
rubber, plastics, fiber compositions, or soft sheet metal. The localized strains. Sealing washers are made of soft materials
free end of this washer imbeds itself in the bearing surface to that are sometimes bonded to metallic washers. Other types
prevent rotation during tightening. The other end is turned include countersunk, formed bevel, spherical lug, recess spindle,
upward to engage with the bearing face of the fastener to and bearing retainer washers.
prevent loosening. View b shows a positive nontangling type
designed to resist backoff. Double-coil washers (view c) provide
a greater reactive range.
Hi-collar helical spring lockwashers (Fig. 8-147, view d) are
designed for use with socket-head capscrew applications. They
are advantageous in areas where space is limited and the ‘hick”ess’kz.
screwheads are hidden or recessed. Wide bearing washers (view
e), sometimes used in place of flat washers, are designed for
spring tension, load distribution, and for use on castings with
uneven surfaces and large clearance holes. With ribbed-type
Iockwashers (viewj), the rib on the inner periphery, when under
compression, wedges itself into the adjacent nut thread. This
increases thread friction between the nut and bolt and brings
about a locking effect, while the compression of the helical
washer develops bolt tension.
OTHER WASHER TYPES

Many other washers are available to suit specific require- spring washer
ments. Typical examples are slotted Belleville, cup, and flanged
cup washers illustrated in Fig. 8-148. Some washers are
specially designed to provide more or less deflection, unusual
locking arrangements, increased surface contact, or for other ID
reasons. Some spring washers are spherically curved to provide
an extra stiffening effect, resulting in slightly higher spring rates
than comparable conical washers.
Other modifications of spring washers include providing
+
two flat contact areas to eliminate surface scoring and scalloping
Thickness
Cup washer
(o) (b) (c)
I
Flanged cup
--11--
washer
Thickness
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 8-148 Slotted Belleville, cup, and flanged cup washers. (H. K.
Fig. 8-147 Special helical spring Iockwashers. A4etalcraft J4fg. Corp.)
8-82
CHAPTER 8
STITCHING AND STAPLING
NDUSTRIAL STITCHING Am D STAPLING

Stitching and stapling are similar processes in that they both stitched nonmetallic materials are sheet cork, leather, sheet
use U-shaped fasteners for product assembly. They differ, asbestos, fiberboard, standard and tempered pressed wood,
however, in how the fasteners are made and applied. Stitches sponge and solid rubber, phenolics and other plastics, solid
are formed on machines that also apply them, while staples are wood, and plywood.
individually preformed and applied from strips, generally with The thickness of materials that can be stitched depends on
portable pneumatic tools. several factors, the most important of which is the kind of
WIRE STITCHING
Wire stitching is a fastening method in which U-shaped
stitches are formed from a coil of steel wire by a machine that
also applies the stitch to the materials being joined together.
When the method is used to fasten together two or more pieces
of metal, or to fasten one or more pieces of metal to nonmetallic
board
materials, it is referred to as metal stitching.
The use of wire stitching (or metal stitching) is especially
indicated when one or more of the following prevail:
1. When it is necessary to join together dissimilar metals or
nonmetallic materials to metals.
2. When high-speed fastening is required. (a)
3. When elimination of predrilled or prepunched holes is
desired. Stitches
4. When an encircling fastener is required.

5. When it is desirable to fasten together coated materials,
such as those that have been galvanized, with a minimum
amount of disturbance to the coating.
Applications
*
Stitching is used for a wide variety of applications in many
different industries. The process is used extensively in the (b)
graphic arts field for binding pamphlets, magazines, and books.

Another major use is in the production of corrugated boxes. In
the electronics industry, stitches are used to form soldering
terminals, jumpers, or other type connections.
There are many applications of stitching for joining two or
more metals, or metals to nonmetallic materials. Typical
applications include joining door hinges to frames, assembling
washer and dryer drums, applying metal hinges to plastic
housings, mounting rubber gaskets onto plastic or metal
surfaces, and joining lining material to metal for brake
assemblies.
Several applications of stitching are shown in Fig. 8-149.
View a illustrates the use of stitches to attach the bottoms and
tops of steel springs to pieces of fiberboard to form mattress
frameworks. In view b, stitches are used to secure steel belting to ‘\ \_
an eyebolt of a mounting assembly for TV antennas. &
(c)
Metal stitching facilitated the redesign of a line of industrial
floor sweepers (see Fig. 8-149, view c). Rows of bristles are placed /Aluminum
on top of a steel strip and then a second steel strip is added and
4
held in place with a hand clamp. Eight or nine stitches are then
placed along the outer edge of the assembly. Rubber feet are
attached to aluminum ladder legs (see view d) on metal stitching
machines. The wire stitches are driven through three layers of \’
material: rubber, aluminum, and rubber.
Rubber
Materials Fastened (d)

The most frequently stitched metals are flat-rolled and
extruded aluminum, hot and cold-rolled steel, stainless steel,
soft sheet brass, and sheet copper. Among the most frequently Fig. 8-149 Typical applications of wire stitching.
8-83
CHAPTER 8
material. Metals and nonmetallic materials that are commonly dimension listed in the metal-to-nonmetal column (left side) of
stitched together, along with their recommended maximum the table; the total thickness should not exceed the 1/ 2“ ( 13 mm)
stitchable thicknesses, are shown in Table 8-12. It should be dimension for the sponge rubber, as shown in the metal-to-
noted that while these thicknesses occasionally can be surpassed, nonmetal column (right side).
there are times when it is impossible to stitch the maximum
thickness because of work hardening in the metal after a Types of Stitches
forming Operation. The condition of the stitching machine, the A stitch consists of a crown and two legs as shown in Fig.
type of wire used, and the shape of the part are also deter- 8-150, view a. While the leg length, L, can be varied within the
mining factors. capacity of the stitching machine, the C dimension remains
For example, if 3003 aluminum is to be stitched with a constant and can be changed only by replacement of a number
loop-type clinch to cold-rolled steel, the designer must check to of parts. With the exception of the unclinched stitch, the stitches
see that the total thickness of the aluminum does not exceed the become a distinctive type only after they are clinched. The
0.093” (2,36 mm) dimension for soft aluminum, as listed in the standard loop clinch is used to fasten both metallic and
metal-to-metal column (left side) of Table 8-12. The total nonmetallic materials to sheet-metal combinations; the bypass
thickness of the cold-rolled steel should not exceed 0.050” (1 .27 loop is especially adapted for attaching rods, small tubes, and
mm), as shown in the metal-to-metal column (right side). springs to flat sections. The outside loop is used when it is
Likewise, if half-hard aluminum is to be stitched to sponge desirable to bury the stitch ends in nonmetallic materials.
rubber, the designer must check to see that the total thickness of The various types of stitches are the result of five basic
the half-hard aluminum does not exceed the 0.080” (2.03 mm) loop-type clincher profiles (see Fig. 8-1 51) that are available on
TABLE 8-12
Recommended Maximum Thicknesses for Assembly by Metal Stitching
Metal-to-Metal Thickness Metal-to-Nonmetal Thickness

Can be stitched
Thickness to one metal Thickness Can be stitched
of one piece of this of one to any of
metal piece, thickness, metal piece, these thicknesses,
Metals in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Aluminum:
Soft: 3003,5052,6061, 0.093 (2.36) 0.093 (2.36) 0.125 (3.18)
Alclad 2024-0,2014-T,
and 7075-T
Half-hard: 3003 and 5052 0.064 (1 .63) 0.064 (1.63) 0.080 (2.03)
Hard: 6061 -T, Alclad 0.040 (1.02) 0.040 (1.02) 0.064(1.63)
2014-T, and 7075-T 1/2 (13) sheet cork
3/8 (9.5) leather
Extrusions 0.062 (1 .57) 0.062 (1.57) 0.093 (2.36) 1/4 (6.4) sheet asbestos
Steel: l/2(13 )fiber
Cold-rolled (1010) 0.050 (1 .27) 0,050 ( 1.27)* 0.078 (1 .98) 1/2 (13) sponge rubber
1/4 (6.4) solid rubber
Hot-rolled 0.050 (1 .27) 0.037 (0.94)* 0.062 (1.57) 1/8 (3.2) phenolics**
0.037 (0.94) 3/16 (4.8) plastics
Galvanized sheet 0.037 (0.94)” 0,050 (1.27)
3/8
,.. (9.5) standard Masonite
Stainless steel, Type 302: 1/4 (6.4) tempered Masonite
Full-hard 0.010 (0.25) 0.010 (0.25) 0.020 (0.51) 3/8 (9.5) woodt
Half-hard 0.012 (0.30) 0.012 (0.30) 0.025 (0.64)
Quarter-hard 0.015 (0.38) 0.015 (0.38) 0.030 (0.76)

Annealed 0.020 (0.51) 0,020 (0<51) 0.040 (1 .02)
Sheet brass, soft 0.030 (0.76) 0,030 (0.76) 0.050 (1.27)
Sheet copper 0.035 (0,89) 0.035 (0.89) 0.064 (1 ,63)

(Acme Packaging, Div. of Interlake, Inc.)
* RB50 or softer.
** Must be able to penetrate without cracking.
T Grain structure may cause legs to wander in greater thicknesses.
8-84
CHAPTER 8
standard stitching machines. When it is desired to clinch on the clinch in nonmetallic materials. The bypass profile (view d) is
metal side, both the teardrop profile (view a) and the two- used primarily to obtain the narrow 1/4” (6.4 mm) crown cross
groove profile with one end closed (view b) are used. The latter section and is also used for bypass stitching in which the legs are
profile is available in depths of 0.062 and 0.094” (1.57 and 2.39 wrapped around bars and tubing up to l/4’’ diam.
mm). Both the two-groove open profile (view c) and the four- Of particular importance to the designer are the shapes and
groove open profile (view d) are used in metal and nonmetal sizes of the clincher blocks in which the clincher profiles are
combinations when it is desired to embed the standard-loop located, as well as the shapes and sizes of the clincher arms or
holders on which the blocks are mounted. Because of the many
types and sizes available, it is recommended that machine
manufacturers be contacted for specific information.
Stitch Strength
Stitch strengthvaries with the tensile strength of the wire
used, the type of material in which it is located, the placement of
the stitch in relation to the direction of shear, and the thickness
of the material. Stitches can be applied to the workplaces either
perpendicular, parallel, or diagonal to the line of pull.
Perpendicular and diagonal stitches have higher shear strength
than do parallel stitches.
(a) Unclinched stitch Stitch Spacing

The stitch placements illustrated in Fig. 8-152 are in general
l-d accordance with the limitations of standard stitching machines

due to the space required by the stitch-forming and clincher
I (11 I mm)
mechanisms. However, the maximum number of stitches are
rarely required, and the placements shown can be altered for
special applications. Usually the number of stitches used is the
same as the number of fasteners they are intended to replace.
(b) Standard loop Stitching Wire Sizes

Stitching wire most commonly used in metal stitching
applications is high-carbon steel. Many sizes of low-carbon
steel wire are also used for industrial stitching applications.
(c) Bypass 100p
+pl/m-
(22.4 mm) min 0, 19;’ (4.8 mm) min

*
Parallel stitch
(d) Outside loop
+m)min .JA\\\\\
4
Fig. 8-150 Nomenclature and types of wire stitches,
0“’’”
“’8
‘m)
‘:b%ws%’%
0.19(-i.B mm)mlnf~_~_
lzzz
PamrmyH9
(a)
BilumIccDJEl
(b) (c) (e)
‘“l 0,55”
(14 mm) min
Diagonal stitch
45”
Fig, 8-152 Recommended minimum stitch spacing hased on maximum

Fig. 8-151 Wire-stitch clincher profiles. holding capacity.
8-85
CHAPTER 8
Tables 8-13 and 8-14 give the wire sizes and properties of low Stitching Machines
and high-carbon steel wires, respectively. Metal stitching wire is There are many models of stitching machines available, two
available in different grades having various tensile strengths to of which are shown in Fig. 8-153. View a is a machine with a
penetrate materials of different hardness and thickness. The straight, solid arm; the machine in view b has a deep throat
more difficult the material is to penetrate, the higher the tensile (distance from the stitching point to the vertical frame of the
strength required. machine). Machines are made with different throat depths and
have straight, overhung, gooseneck, or other style arms to suit
specific requirements. Compact stitching machines for bench or
TABLE 8-13
portable operation are aIso avaiIable.
Sizes and Properties of Low-Carbon Steel Stitching Wire
All stitching machines feed accurate lengths of wire directly
from a coil, cut and form the wire into U-shaped stitches, and
Gage No.* Diameter, in. (mm) Tolerance. in. (mm)
then drive the stitches through the materials to be joined. The
17 0.0540 ( 1.372) AO.0015 (0.038) operating speeds range up to 300 stitches per minute.
18 0.0475 (1.206) Stitching machines are self-contained units consisting of a
19 0.0410 (1.041) motor, clutch-brake, driveshaft, and stitching head. The head is
mounted on the machine frame and a switching device, such as a
20 0.0348 (0.884) *0.00 10 (0.025)
foot treadle, is provided to control the clutch-brake unit. Wire
21 0.0317 (0.805)
drawn from a coil is passed through straightening rollers and
22 0.0286 (0.726)
fed to a cutoff die and knife. The adjustable cutoff unit shears
23 0.0258 (0.655)
the wire to required lengths.
24 0.0230 (0.584)
A mandrel or anvil having a spring-actuated gripper holds
25 0.0204 (0.518)
the wire during cutoff and positions the cutoff lengths under
26 0.0181 (0.460) AO.0007 (0.018) formers. The formers bend each wire length over the mandrel to
27 0.0173 (0.439) produce a U-shaped stitch and guide and support the stitch as it
28 0.0162 (0.41 1) is driven into the work material. A driver, mounted between the
29 0.0150 (0.381) formers, exerts pressure on the crown of the stitch to force it
30 0.0140 (0.356) through the work material. Air jets are generally provided to
eject slugs of material pushed out by the legs of the stitch.
(American Wire Products Assn.)
Assembly components to be joined are placed over a
Specifications: Tensile strengths— 120-150 ksi (827-1034 MPa).
clincher, mounted on an arm or bracket under the formers. The
Ductility—The wire shall withstand a kink test in which a
clincher turns the legs of the stitch back against the assembly
length of wire is formed into a loop and the loop tightened until
after they have penetrated the work material. Different types of
the resultant opening is no larger than the diameter of the wire.
clinchers commonly used are illustrated in Fig. 8-151.
The loop is then opened until the ends are at right angles
without fracturing. Finishes—Galvanized, tinned, liquor, or
bright finishes. INDUSTRIAL STAPLING
* Washburn and Moen, which is the same as the U.S. Steel Conventional U-shaped staples, cohered into convenient,
Wire Gage system. easy-to-handle strips, are becoming increasingly popular for
industry to use in product fastening applications. Staples are
available made from wire ranging from 0.026 to 0.072” (0.66 to
TABLE 8-14 1.83 mm) diamand 1/8 to 21 /2” (3.2to 63.5 mm) long. Staples
Sizes and Properties of High-Carbon Steel Stitching Wire are normally available made from aluminum, bronze, Monel,
stainless steel, and low, medium, and high-carbon steel wire,
Gage No. * Wire Diameter, in. (mm), fO.00 10” (0.025 mm) with a galvanized, tin, or liquor protective finish. They are also
17 0.0540 (1.372) available with their crowns painted to blend with the materials
18 0.0475 ( 1.206) with which they are to be used.
19 0.0410 (1.041) Staples are also available in many different crown sizes and
20 0.0348 (0.884) types, and with various leg lengths and types of points. For
example, one manufacturer offers staples with 20 different
Grade Tensile Strength, ksi (MPa)
crown sizes and wire cross sections. Each size is made for
230 220-249 (1517-1717) optimum performance for different fastening applications.
260 250-289 (1724-1993)
290 290-319 (1999-2199j Staple Points
330 320-360 (2206-2482)
Some of the more common staple points used for industrial
(American Wire Products Assn. ) fastening are illustrated in Fig. 8-154.
Specifications: Ductility—The finished wire shall withstand a Chisel point. The points on the legs of these staples have an
kink test in which a length of wire is formed into a loop and the equal chisel-type cut from both sides, resulting in a straight-in
loop tightened until the resultant opening is no larger than the action when the staples are driven. Although the chisel point
diameter of the wire. The loop is then opened until the ends are does not provide as much holding power in soft wood as does
at right angles without fracturing. Finishes—Tinned, galvanized, the divergent point, it is a good all-purpose point and is
liquor, or bright. recommended for many applications. The chisel point staple is
* Washburn and Moen, which is the same as the U.S. Steel the correct one to use when a clinching anvil is employed to
Wire Gage system. form and clinch over the staple.
8-86
CHAPTER 8
Fig. 8-153 Two types of stitching machines: (a) with straight, solid arm and (b) with deep throat.
Chisel inside-bevel point. The points on the legs have a chisel

edge cut from the inside out. Staples with these points are used
for going through soft materials against a steel plate, so that legs
automatically outside-clinch when striking the steel plate.
Chisel outside-bevel point. The points on the legs have a
chisel edge cut from the outside in. Staples with these points are
also used for going through soft materials against a steel plate,
so that the legs automatically inside-clinch when striking the
.m
- Nnl
steel plate.
Chisel outside.
Chisel point
bevel point
Divergent point. This is a sawtooth cut, with the direction of
the cut on each leg being in opposite directions. When the staple
is driven into wood, each leg follows the cut of its point,
resulting in a twisting or diverging action. This is a good point
for shorter staples driven into soft wood; it drives well and holds
well. This point is not recommended for long staples or for
driving into hard wood because the diverging action of the legs
becomes too extreme.
Chisel inside-
bevel point Divergent point Tooling Used
Staples used by industry for fastening applications are
normally applied with pneumatic portable tools. The size of the
Fig. 8-154 Common types ofstaple points. tool is proportional to the size of the staple to be driven.
8-87
CHAPTER 8
Because stapling tools are relatively small in size, they are easy effectively pierce through two thicknesses of mild cold-rolled
to work with and easy to mount side by side in a fixtured steel equal to the diameter of the wire used to make the staple.
arrangement. For example, a staple made from 0.062” ( 1.57 mm) diam steel
Most pneumatic stapling tools are made for conventional wire will pierce through two thicknesses of 0,032” (0.81 mm)
single-fire operation; each time the trigger is pulled, a staple is cold-rolled steel.
driven. When the trigger is released, the next staple in the strip is Buckling problems. When the total thickness or hardness of
advanced into position to be driven on the next trigger pull. the materials to be stapled together exceeds the column strength
Tools are also available for auto-fire operation. With an of the staple, the staple will buckle. Staple buckling, however,
auto-fire tool, when the trigger is pulled, the tool will continue can easily be overcome. This is accomplished by providing two
to automatically drive staples until the trigger is released. The clearance holes in the part made from the thicker or harder
tool has a speed control adjustment to regulate the rate at which material, thus allowing the staple legs to pass freely through the
staples are being driven. The tool also has an auto-fire lockout part. The only resistance remaining for the staple is as it pierces
to permit conventional single-fire operation. and passes through the second part. A pilot hole must also be
Auto-fire tools are frequently used in applications where provided in the part with the clearance holes for registering a
many staples have to be driven close together in any easy-to- locating pin on the tool. This will ensure that the staple legs will
follow pattern, such as in upholstering work. Auto-fire tools line up with the two clearance holes.
with operating speeds of up to 600 staples per minute are Automotive applications. Stapling is used extensively in the
quite common. automotive industry. Most applications involve joining parts
Using mounted stapling tools with a remote control firing made from dissimilar metals or metal parts to nonmetal parts.
system, such as a foot switch, parts can be assembled at high Figure 8-155 illustrates two typical applications: View a is the
production rates. These tools permit a complex staple fastening attachment of 0.020 (0.51 mm) thick aluminum door trim to a
pattern to be completed in one split-second operation. plastic door panel; view b is the attachment of carpet to a 0.032”
Small stapling tools that drive staples up to 9/ 16“ ( 14.3 mm) (0.8 1 mm) thick steel rear seat support.
long can be nested together to provide staples on 1 5/ 8“ (41.3
mm) centers. Larger tools that drive staples up to 1 1/ 2“ (38
mm) long require a spacing of 2 1/ 2 (63.5 mm) centers.
When tools are to be used in mounted applications, the tool
staple capacity per loading and the time required to load staples
become important factors to consider. Tools can be made with
extended magazines for increased staple capacity. Some auto-
matic tools hold up to 4000 staples at one loading.
Stapling Applications
There are many applications for joining materials together
where staples are the lowest cost fastener to use. However, there
(a)
are two situations where staples should not be used: (I) when
repetitive, fast, and easy removal of the fastener is required, and
(2) when the shear and tension force requirements of the
assembly exceeds the strength of the wire.
Selection factors. Staple crown size, type of wire, style of
point, and leg length are all critical factors to be considered in
selecting the correct staple for a given application. Staples are (b)
typically used in a clinched configuration going through two or
more thicknesses of materials.
When piercing through metals or hard materials, such as Fig. 8-155 Two automotive applications of stapling: (a) attaching
plastics or wood, material thickness and hardness are critical aluminum door trim to plastic panel and (b) attaching carpet to steel
factors to consider. A general rule is that a steel staple will seat support. (Duo-Fast Corp. )
SHRINK AND EXPANSION FITS

A shrink fit is composed of two normally interfering parts in effective in assembling parts whose materials have different
which the interference has been eliminated during assembly by properties or corrosion resistance, such as a steel shell over an
dimensional change in one or both of the parts by heating one aluminum or copper liner. It can sometimes permit a rather
part only or by heating one part and cooling the other. An weak, low-cost material to be used in a prestressed condition
expansion fit is one that is achieved by cooling only the male or and thus replace a more costly high-strength material.
internal member of an assembly. This discussion embraces both
concepts under the term shrinkfits. ADVANTAGES
Because of its high joint strength, the shrink fit is useful in The advantages of expansion fits over ordinary press fitting
heavy construction where high holding power is required. It is are the greater allowances possible with nitrogen cooling and
8-88
CHAPTER 8
freedom from longitudinal scratches on the work by press REQUIREMENTS FOR SHRINK FITTING
fitting. Subzero temperatures can facilitate removal of some Basic requirements for making successful shrink fittings
assembled parts. In the case of large bushings, a tight-fitting, include the following:
cup-type container filled with a subzero convection fluid can be
inserted, and the bushing will be able to be fairly easily removed 1. Parts should be properly designed:
after shrinking. a. Adequate interference should be used to ensure
Cooling of an internal member of an assembly provides, in satisfactory strength of finished assembly.
the case of liquid nitrogen, a 390° F (215° C) differential from b. Allowable working stresses must not be exceeded
room temperature. Such a differential obtained by heating the (shrinkage stresses are usually additive to the working
external member would bring its temperature to 460° F (240° C). stresses).
This can be disadvantageous for most aluminum alloys and c. A check must be made by calculation to see that the
certain steels, particularly where the parts are massive, whereas parts can be readily assembled in the shrunken or
subzero refrigeration does not distort, warp, or otherwise have expanded state with the selected interference.
an effect on the parts. d. In general, a surface finish of high quality should be
Cooling below the dew point, however, causes condensation specified.
and moisture trapped in the joint may cause subsequent e. Corners or edges should be chamfered, and generous
corrosion. Also, cooling below 32° F (0° C) may cause icing, fillets should be specified.
which can cause a dimensional change, a different fit, and a bad 2. Parts must be machined accurately and carefully in-
joint. If these problems are significant, as with precision bearing spected visually and dimensionally. Variations in inter-
fits, a low-humidity environment should be used. ference can occur due to noncylindricality of the con-
tacting surfaces.
3. All parts should be cleaned and thoroughly dried prior to
METHODS OF CHANGING DIMENSIONS heating or cooling and assembly.
Dimensional change can be obtained by heating the hub or 4. After parts have been removed from the heating or
cooling the shaft, or by combining the two methods. The cooling medium, assembly should proceed rapidly.
optimum method is dependent on a large number of factors, 5. The operator must prevent sticking due to misalignment
some of which are: of parts.
1. Dimensional change required to ensure success in 6. Careful planning of each step of the process is necessary
assembly. to ensure success in making the final assembly. It is
2. Effect of shrinking process on physical properties of suggested that the assembly procedure be rehearsed prior
parts. to actual assembly.
3. Effect of shrinking process on surface condition of parts. Uneven temperature changes after bringing two parts to-
4. Susceptibility of the parts to be damaged in any other gether often causes uneven initial contact. This may result in
way by the method being considered. relative motion between the parts, uneven stress distribution,
5. Size and shape of parts. and unacceptable stress concentrations. Rings that have to be
6. Quantity of assemblies. seated against shoulders on shafts may become unseated
7. Available equipment. because of these problems; contact pressure should be used to
8. Availability of materials required. seat the rings against the shaft shoulders, but care must be taken
9. Relative cost, because of the heat-sink effect of the pressing tool.
Sources of Heat PRESSURES AND STRESSES

The sources of heat that may be used in heating the hub IN SHRINKAGE FITS
include: When two members have been assembled, radial pressure set
1. Hot water, brine, oil, or molten metal baths. up at their adjacent surfaces causes the two parts to be held
2. Steam. firmly together. The radial pressure thus created is proportional
3. Air-gas or oxygen-gas hand torches. to the amount of interference utilized and to the modulus of
4. Oil, gas, or electric furnaces (controlled atmosphere may elasticity of the material of each member. It is also dependent on
be utilized to protect parts). the size of the outer member with respect to the inner member
5. Electric resistance heaters. and whether the inner member is hollow or solid.
6. Electric induction heaters. If the hub and hollow shaft are fabricated from the same
material, the radial pressure, P, exerted between the hub and
Heat guns, similar to hair dryers, are often used to quickly the shaft (see Fig. 8-156) can be calculated by the equation:
heat small parts such as bearing races. The parts should be
placed on insulated surfaces that do not conduct heat. 2 _ al)(cl - bl)
~=~A ‘b
(9)
2b3(c2 - a2)
Cooling Methods
The methods that may be used in cooling the shaft are: where:
1. Immersion in liquids cooled by ice, dry ice (solid carbon P = radial pressure, psi (Pa)
dioxide), or refrigeration. E = modulus of elasticity, psi (Pa)
2. Cooling in refrigerator. A ❑ interference ❑ outside radius minus the inside radius at
3. Packing in dry ice. ambient temperature, in. (mm)
4. Immersion in liquid air or liquid nitrogen. a = inside radius of shaft or inner cylinder, in. (mm)
8-89
CHAPTER 8
The maximum tensile stress, S, max, occurs at the bore of the

hub and is calculated by the equation:
Q.? + bz)
S, max = (14)
~ CornDressive ~2 - b~
The maximum radial stress, S, max, in the hub occurs at this

same location and can be calculated by the equation:
S, max = -P (15)
The effective stress, S, max, at this point using the Tresca
criteria (maximum shear stress) is calculated by the equation:
& m~~ . 2PC2 (16)

C] - bz
The maximum compressive stress, SC max, occurs at the

bore of the cylinder because of the restrictive effort of the hub.
For thick cylinders, the compressive stress at the bore of the
Fig. 8-156 Stresses in shrink and expansion fits. inner cylinder is calculated by the equation:
2Pb2
b = nominal outside radius of shaft or inner cylinder, S< max = — (17)
bz - a2
in. (mm)
c = outside radius of hub, in. (mm) For example, if a steel hub 10 (254 mm) long, 16” (406.4
mm) OD, and 12” (304.8 mm) ID is to be shrunk on a hollow
If the inner member is solid, such as in the case of shrinking a
steel cylinder or shaft 12.010” (305.05 mm) OD and 8“ (203.2
gear onto a shaft or pressing a pin into a cylindrical member, the
mm) ID, the radial pressure exerted between the two members,
inside shaft radius or inner cylinder(a) is set to zero and Eq. (9)
the maximum tangential tensile stress, St max, occurring in the
becomes:
hub, and the maximum tangential compressive stress, SCmax,
.,.2-h2 . occurring in the hollow shaft can be calculated from the
(lo) following:
a= 4“(lo].6mm)
If the hollow shaft and hub are fabricated from different
b ❑ 6“ (152.4 mm)
materials, the radial pressure can be calculated as follows:
c❑ 8“ (203.2 mm)
A= 6.005’’-6.000’” = 0.005” (O,13 mm)
Therefore, from Eq. (9):

~, 29,000,000X 0.005(36 - 16)(64 - 36) ❑ 3916 psi (27 MPa),
where: 2X216X (64- 16) radial pressure
E. ❑ modulus of elasticity for outer member, psi (Pa) from Eq. (14):
Ei = modulus of elasticity for inner member, psi (Pa)
3916 (64 + 36) = 13,986 psi (96 MPa),
PO = Po!sson’s ratio for outer member St max ❑
Pi = Po]sson’s ratio for inner member 64-36 maximum tensile stress in hub
On occasion, a large plate maybe shrunk on a hollow shaft. from Eq. (16):
A plate is considered large when the smallest dimension from
2X3916X64 _ 17,902 psi (123 MPa),
the centerline to an edge of the plate, c, divided by the outside S. max ❑
64-36 maximum effective stress in hub

diameter of the shaft, b, is greater than 7 (c/b> 7). When this
operation is performed, c is assumed to approach infinity. and from Eq. (17):
If both members are fabricated from the same material, Eq.
(9) becomes: S, max. 2 X 3916X 36.14,098 psi (97 MPa),
,
36-16 maximum compressive stress in
hollow shaft
(12)
The allowable stress is normally the yield strength of the
If both members are fabricated from different materials, the material divided by a factor of safety. For ductile materials such
radial pressure can be calculated by the equation: as most steels and aluminum, the effective stress is:
p. A S, max S &
(13) (18)
b2 + ~~ N
-%l+p o)++ (—-
bz - ~2 ‘i )
Eo 1 where:
As a result of the radial pressure, circumferential tensile S, ❑ yield strength, psi (Pa)
stresses and radial compressive stresses are set up in the hub. N = factor of safety
8-90
CHAPTER 8
For brittle materials such as cast iron, the maximum stress element method is a powerful computer tool for analyzing the
theory is normally used and the tangential stress can be stresses. When using the finite element method, a statically
approximated by: equivalent loading is applied using thermal strains. Because the
thermal loading of the finite element model is equivalent to the
S, max S 2 (19) shrink-fit model, stresses and deformations predicted by the
N finite element model converge to the actual shrink-fit values.
In tbe case of a shaft, the maximum tangential stress occurs Analyzing the stresses using finite element methods can be
at the inside diameter. At this point, the radial stress is zero and performed using any of the commercially available finite
the tangential stress and the effective stress have the same element computer programs. In areas where high stress gradients
magnitude. For this case, the tangential stress can be calcu- occur, eight-node quadrilateral elements are recommended.
lated by:
DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
S,max=-? (20)
& _a2 DUE TO TEMPERATURE CHANGES
The approximate size change, per unit of length or diameter,
The effective stress is: occurring when parts are heated or cooled may be determined
2Pa1 from the curves in Fig. 8-157. When using these curves to
Se max = S, max = — (21)
b2 - a2 determine size change for a given material on heating or
cooling, simply start at the temperature specified, follow across
For nonsymmetrical geometries, the stress analysis methods horizontally to the material in question, then follow the vertical
previously discussed cannot be used. In those cases, the finite lines to read the size change. The size change per inch or
Expansion, in, /in. (mm/mm) of length or diameter
o +0.002 +0,004 +0.006 +0.008

700
350
600
300
500
250
400 200
300 150
100
L
o 200
50
100
-50
-1oo
-1oo
-200
-150
-300 -200
-400
-0.004 -0.002 0
Contraction, in. /in.

(mm/mm) of length or diameter
Fig. 8-157 Dimensional changes due to temperature changes.
8-91
CHAPTER 8
millimeter, multiplied by the length or diameter of the part, T, ❑ ambient temperature, 0 F ~ C)

gives the actual size change of the part. T? = temperature to which parts are to be heated or cooled,
For those materials not covered by the curves in Fig. 8-157 OF~C)
and for those engineers desiring to make their own calculations, d, ❑ diameter at temperature TI, in. (mm)
Eqs. (22) through (24) maybe used. The following symbols are d~ = diameter at temperature T2, in. (mm)
used in those equations: K ❑ required size change due to temperature change, in.
(mm). When part is cooled: K ❑ dl - dz; when part is
& ❑ coefficient of linear thermal expansion, in. / in. /O F heated: K ❑ d~ - dl.
(m/ m/0 C). The coefficients for some materials are T ❑ temperature change required or affected (T= TI - T2).
given in Table 8-15. Note that when the parts are cooled from room
TABLE 8-15
Physical Properties of Some Common Materials for Shrink Fitting
Modulus of
Tensile Yield Elasticity, in Tension Coefficient of
Strength, Strength, or Compression Poisson’s Thermal Expansion
Material ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) psi x 106 (GPa) Ratio pin./ in./° F(pm/OC)C)
Aluminum, forged:
2014-T6 70 (483) 30 (207) 10.3 (710) 0.33 11.5 -13.6 (20.7-24.5)
20 17-T6 and 2025-T6 55 (379) 30 (207) 10.3 (710) 0.33 11.5 -13.6 (20.7-24.5)
Brass, red:
cast 40 (276) 15 (103) 14 (965) 10.4 (18.7)
hard 69 (476) 55 (379) 14 (965)
Brass, yellow, hard 65 (448) 50 (345) 14 (965) 11.3 (20.3)
Bronze (90% CU-10% Zn):
hard 52 (359) 47.5 (328) 17(1172)
annealed 37.5 (259) 11.5 (79) 17(1172)
Copper (99.9%):
annealed 31.5 (217) 10 (69) 16(1103) 9.3 (16.7)
hard 43.5 (300) 40 (276) 16(1103) 9.3 (16.7)
Inconel, cold drawn and
annealed 90 (621) 35 (241) 31 (2137) 0.29 6.7 (12)
Invar, forged 65-85 (448-586) 40-60 (276414) 21.4(1475) 0.31
Iron:
cast 30 (207) 17.7-20.4 (1220-1407) 6.7-7.5 (12-13.5)
wrought 47 (324) 30 (;;7) 29 (1999)
Magnesium:
AM-C575 46(3 17) 26 (179) 6.5 (448) 0.34 14 (25.2)
AM-C585 48 (331) 38 (262) 6,5 (448) 0.34 14 (25.2)
Monel, cold drawn and
annealed 80 (552) 25 (172) 25.5 (1758) 0.32
Monel K, cold drawn and
annealed 100 (689) 50 (345) 26 (1793) 0.32 7.4 (13.3)
Sintered tungsten carbide, 6T0
cobalt (Carboloy grade 44A) .— —- 95 (6550)” 0.26
Stainless steel, AISI Type:
310 80 (552) 35 (241) 29 (1999) 9.7 (17.5)
410 65 (448) 35 (241) 28 (1931) 6.5 (1 1.7)
Steel.SAE:
1020, cold drawn and annealed 63 (434) 38 (262) 29 (1999) 0.29 6.7 (12)
1050, hot rolled and annealed 98 (676) 47 (324) 29 (1999) 0.29 6,7 (12)
1095 84 (579) 33 (228) 29 (1999) 0.29 6.7 (12)
* Composite value shown; individual values for Young’s modulus in compression and tension differ.
8-92
CHAPTER 8
temperature, T2 becomes a minus quantity. Therefore, It has also been shown that the holding power of shrink fits is
T= Tl -(-TJ)= T1 + TJ related not only to radial pressures, but also to the surface finish
For heating, of mating parts and, in some cases, to the age of the shrink fit.
Comparative tests were made with ground shafts and bores vs.
dz=dl +&(T2 - T])di (22) ground shafts and machined bores. Ground surfaces were 10-12
pin, (0.25-0.30 pm), machined surfaces were 60-125 pin. (1 .52-
For cooling,
3.18 pm). Two general observations were:
dJ= dl -&(T1 - Tl)d] (23)
1. With interferences above 0.003 in./ in. (mm/mm), the
For example, assume a ring 10” (254 mm) ID of a material added holding power per unit increase in interference was
having linear coefficient of expansion equal to 0.000007 greatly reduced. This could suggest an optimum inter-
in. / in. /O F (4 pm/ m/O C). It is required to heat this ring from ference value that would provide maximum holding
room temperature, 68° F (20° C), to 500° F (260° C) to make a power.
shrink assembly. By Eq. (13), the inside diameter, dz, of this 2. The finer the finish on the mating surfaces, the greater the
ring, when heated, is: holding power for a given interference. This increase was
on the order of 15-25Y0.
dz= 10+ 0.000007 (500 - 68) 10 ❑ 10.03024” (254.7681 mm)
It is required to make a 10” (254 mm) diam shaft of the same SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
material as in the preceding problem. To assemble this shaft, it To avoid the hazards that accompany the use of heat or cold,
was decided to cool the shaft to -300° F (-184° C). By Eq. (14), the operator or engineer should understand the nature of
the outside diameter, dz, of this shaft, when cooled, is: materials frequently used in making shrinkage fits. Some
dz ❑ 10-0.000007 [68 - (-300)] 10= 9.974 (253.34 mm) important safety precautions are:
The temperature change to effect a given size change is given by

1. When employing methods utilizing heat, the operator
the following equation:
should be protected by heat-resistant gloves, shields, and
protective clothing.
2. When cooling with inflammable solutions, such as alcohol
cooled by dry ice, the following precautions should be
For example, assume a 10” (254 mm) diam piece is to be taken:
heated or cooled to effect a size change of 0.010” (0.25 mm). a. Alcohol is not to be ignited.
Using the same material as in the examples for Eqs. (13) and b. Smoking should not be permitted.
(14), where: c. Fire extinguishers should be provided.
d. Operator should not inhale gas rising from the surface
E = 0.000007 in./ in./O F
of alcohol.
0.010 e. Operator should be fully clothed and wear goggles
T= = 143 0F(620C)
0.000007 x 10 and heat-resistant gloves.
3. When liquid air or liquid nitrogen (98%) is used for
Table 8-15 lists physical properties of some common materials cooling, the remaining liquid becomes increasingly rich
that may be encountered in making shrink fits. in liquid oxygen. The latter promotes combustion and
explosions when in contact with combustible materials.
STRENGTH OF SHRINK-FIT ASSEMBLIES These facts impose the following safety precautions:
According to Faupel,7 the forces that a shrink-fit assembly a. Containers for liquid air or liquid nitrogen must be
can withstand without relative movement or separation of the made of noncombustible materials and must be as free
parts are: as possible from dust, dirt, grease, oil, and other
For axial holding power: impurities.
b. Parts must be thoroughly clean prior to cooling.
F= 2Lbp~f (25) c. Operators should be completely clothed, shirt collar
For torsional holding power: must be buttoned, shirt sleeves should overlap cuffs or
gloves, and trouser legs should cover the tops of shoes
T= 2Lb~p# (26) to prevent liquid from coming in contact with the
where: body or being caught in clothing.
d. Smoking should not be permitted.
F= axial force, lb (N)
e. Combustible materials should not be permitted in the
L ❑ length of fit, in. (mm)
vicinity.
b = interface radius or outside radius of inner component
of two-shell shrink-fit assembly, in. (mm) P Unevaporated residue of liquid should be disposed of
properly.
pf ❑ shrink-fit pressure, psi (Pa)
Liquid air or liquid nitrogen containers must not be
~= coefficient of f~iction between shell and liner stoppered. Evaporating gases must be permitted to
~ ❑ torsional coefficient of friction
escape without restriction.
T= torque, in.-lb (N. m)
Liquid nitrogen used for cooling may boil violently
Average values for coefficients of friction,~, for use in Eqs. ( 16) when parts are immersed; escaping gases and splashing
and (17), are listed in Table 8-16. Torsional coefficients of liquids could burn the skin. Also, breathing the gases
friction,~, must usually be determined by experiment. should be avoided.
8-93
CHAPTER 8
INJECTED METAL ASSEMBLY
TABLE 8-16
Average Coefficients of Friction for Shrink-Fit Assemblies
Assembled with
Cr-Ni Cr
Alloys Steels cast
Al Mg Cu (18-8 to SAE (5- Iron
Materials Alloys Alloys Alloys 18-12) Steels 27%) (pure)
Aluminum alloys 0.9 0.8 0.7 0,6 0.6 0.6 0.2
Magnesium alloys —- 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2
Copper alloys --- 0.6 0,5 0.5 0.5 0.3
Cr-Ni alloys (18-8 to 18-12) --- =: --- 0,4 0.4 0,4 0.2
SAE steels -. --- --- --- 0.4 0,4 0,2
Cr steels (5-27% Cr) --- --- --- --- --- 0,4 0.2
Cast iron (pure) -- --- --- ... -- --- 0,3
(Linde Div., Union Carbide Corp.)

Injected metal assembly (1MA) is a parts assembly process parts. Reductions in the diameters and types of stock required,
created by injecting molten metal into a die cavity to form a hub as well as the amount of machining needed, for shafts also
or other shaped joint. Surface contact is 1009’o between the reduces costs.
components forming the assembly and the joint. The joint is Relaxed tolerances. More liberal tolerances can be specified
achieved by the injection under pressure of the molten metal. for the locations and diameters of holes in the parts to be
During the rapid solidification and cooling of the molten metal, assembled, thus reducing the cost to manufacture them,
it shrinks minutely, permanently locking the components without affecting the accuracy and repeatability of the assem-
together. The joint, if properly designed, is stronger than the blies. This is permissible because the pressurized molten metal
parts being joined. fills all voids and compensates for inaccuracies.
Reduced preprocessing costs. Preassembly cleaning or
THE PROCESS chemical preparation of the metal surfaces is not required. This
The molten metal injection process is basically simple. Once is possible because the joints are mechanically locked rather
the components to be assembled are located within the assembly than joined by adhesion between the metal surfaces.
tool, the operating head containing the tool is advanced by a Low cost of the process. Except for the molten metal
moving mechanism onto an injection nozzle. Molten metal injection machine and tooling, no other special equipment, such
injection occurs through the actuation of an injection unit by as ovens, jigs, and presses, is required. Also, alloys injected in
means of an external pneumatic cylinder that pumps the metal the process are low in cost. Machines needed for the process can
through the nozzle into the tool. The tool contains the cavity be incorporated into production lines, thus reducing material
that forms the hub or joint and the components being assembled. handling costs. While the components to be assembled are
Injecting molten metal into a die cavity holding premanu- usually loaded and unloaded manually, the process can be
factured parts, to assemble such parts accurately and securely, completely automated, eliminating the need for any manual
is not a new process. It originated in the United States more operations. Operators can be quickly trained to achieve high
than a century ago with a nationally known clockmaker. Little production rates.
used until the mid-1 940s, the concept has since grown in Reduced inspection costs. Assembly tools in the injection
development and application. machines are often used as checking fixtures, thus minimizing
or eliminating the need for postprocess inspection. This is
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS possible because the assembly tool locates and holds the parts
Primary advantages of assembly by injecting molten metal by their functional surfaces.
are cost savings, improved product quality, and the versatility Reduced postprocessing costs. Because injected metal as-
of the process. Up to 80% savings in assembly costs have been sembIy leaves no sprues, gates, runners, or flash, subsequent
reported by users of the process, trimming and cleaning operations are not required. Other
secondary operations are rarely needed.
Cost Savings
Reducedpart requirements. Parts of an assembly can often Improved Product Quality
be eliminated by combining several components—injecting and Overall consistency and repeatability of assemblies made
forming them as an integral part of the hub or joint. Cams, with the injected metal process are excellent, Rejects and the
ratchets, pinions, keys, spacers, shims, and other parts are not need for rework are minimal. The process is clean and odorless,
required for many injected metal assemblies. Cost savings result and assemblies are ready for any subsequent processing required
by eliminating the need to manufacture, stock, and handle such or installation into end products.
8-94
CHAPTER 8
Versatility certified as to the percentage of various metals forming the

Flexibility permitted in the design of assemblies is a major alloy. There is a strong possibility that one of the new zinc-
advantage of the injected metal process. Dissimilar materials aluminum alloys will soon be a media candidate for use with the
can be easily joined, mainly because of the rapid dissipation of injected metal process.
heat through the water-cooled tooling. Materials joined by the
process include most metals, plastics, elastomers, ceramics, STRENGTH OF ASSEMBLIES
glass, and even paper products. Zinc has an undeserved reputation of being one of the weaker
metals. This is a common misconception that has been disproved
Limitations in a number of applications. Many engineers seem somewhat
One possible limitation to use of the injected metal process is surprised at the strength of zinc joints produced by I MA.
that thejoints are permanent. Disassembly cannot beaccom- Injected metal joints are solid metal, usually zinc, but
plished without destroying the injected metal hubs. Another occasionally lead alloy. The cost difference between these two
Iimitationto the process is the production of assemblies for metals is within a few cents per pound. Zinc, being the stronger,
high-load applications where locking configurations must be is used for the majority of applications. Molten zinc has
designed into the parts. excellent fluidity, making it easy to inject into thin cross
sections and intricate shapes. This property permits freedom of
DESIGNING PARTS FOR design combined with a tensile strength of up to 41 ksi (283
INJECTED METAL ASSEMBLY M Pa), which in most cases gives a joint that is stronger than the
The proper design of a shaft for injected metal assembly original parts. In torque tests conducted on the shaft-gear
generally requires the provision of a knurl on the shaft where it assembly shown in Fig. 8-158, with diameters of the steel shafts
meets the other part or parts to be assembled to it. If the other ranging from 0.062 to 0.625” (1.57 to 15.88 mm), knurl lengths
part or parts have a hole into which a shaft or similar item is to of 0.062-0.250” ( 1.57-6.35 mm), and zinc hub lengths of 0.120-
be assembled, the hole should incorporate undercuts, ridges, 0.250” (3.05-6.35 mm), the shafts fractured before the breaking
grooves, keys, or lugs into which the molten metal shrinks when torques of the joints could be measured.
solidified, thus forming a permanent mechanical lock (see Fig. A hub and clutch plate to be assembled by lMA was required
8-158). The shrinkage is directed toward the theoretical center to withstand a torque of 108 ft-lbf ( 146 N. m), In torque tests
of the injected hub and is at 90° to the load lines of force using a steel shaft, the injected metal hub showed no sign of
developed by the assembly. failure when the shaft sheared at 160 ft-lbf (214 N. m).
With press-fit and most other assembly processes, the Test data on the strength of injected metal joints is difficult to
strength of the joint is dependent on component precision, such compile because of the variety of material combinations to be
as interference for press fits or the proper clearance for silver joined, as well as the many joint sizes and shapes. However, many
soldering or brazing. With IMA, the injected molten metal destructive tests have confirmed that zinc alloy joints can be
flows into the void between the components, completely filling designed to be stronger than the components being assembled.
it and the cavity. This permits and compensates for inaccuracies
in hole diameters and alignments. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
The modern use of this assembly method was started in
METALS INJECTED Canada by a small toolmaking company. This company was
The metals that can be injected by IMA are restricted to asked by an electrical equipment manufacturer to investigate
those used in hot-chamber die casting operations, discussed in the possibility of providing an improved and faster method of
Volume 11, Forming, of this Handbook series. Zinc and lead assembling the disc and shaft of a watt-hour meter used in the
alloys are most commonly used for injected metal assembly majority of houses in North America. The first injected metal
operations. These alloys are inexpensive and easily obtainable assembly machine was the solution to this production re-
from most metal suppliers. Zinc alloys No. 3 and No. 5 are quirement. High accuracy in concentricity, perpendicularity,
recommended and receive alloy certification from the supplier. and assembly balance eliminated several time-consuming oper-
Lead alloy, or type metal as it is commonly called, is also ations, such as shaft straightening and dimensional checking.
Some time later, a standard gear and shaft were used to produce
several different gear and shaft assemblies in the meter’s gear
train (see Fig. 8-159), with substantial cost savings.
Cable Terminations
Zinc alloy terminations are being injected onto the ends of
wires and cables. Because of the rapid heat conduction from
molded zinc, plastic-covered wires and cables can be safely
terminated without damage to the plastic. The terminations are
as strong as those produced by swaging and provide substantial
savings in both time and cost.
Virtually any shape of termination can be die cast in zinc
alloy. When a higher load-bearing cable is required, the end is
upset or “birdcaged” (see Fig. 8-160) so that the molten metal
Fig. 8-158 Assembly of a gear to a shaft by injecting molten metal can flow between the strands of the cable, filling the voids and
between the components. As tbe metal cools, it shrinks onto tbe knurl in crevices. The shrinkage of the injected alloy contracts onto the
tbe shaft and into the keys in the bore of the gear. (Fisher Gauge .Lrd.) wire forming a positive lock. Pull tests show that a birdcaged
8-95
CHAPTER 8
cable will fail before the termination pulls off the cable or mandrel. Assemblies can be handled immediately after ejection
is damaged. from the tool. Assembly costs have been greatly reduced due to
high production rates, the low cost of the zinc alloy, and
Abrasive Points elimination of the curing time involved in the previous cement-
When assembling abrasive points (small grinding wheels), ing method.
the abrasive material and the steel mandrel are held in the
required relationship in the assembly tooling during injection. Riveting
The molten zinc alloy enters the voids between the abrasive Another useful variation of injected metal assembly is its use
material and the knurled mandrel ends. The zinc alloy pene- to “rivet” similar or dissimilar materials by injecting molten zinc
trates the grains and solidifies, thus securing the abrasive to the alloy into what would normally be rivet holes. The rivet heads
are formed by a cavity within the tooling that holds the parts in
their correct relationship. An advantage over conventional
riveting is that the rivet holes do not need to be accurate or even
in alignment. Compensation for misaligned holes can be made
even if they vary in size or shape (see Fig. 8-161).
Holes can be accommodated that are offset, oversize, or
undersize up to one quarter of their maximum cross section.
Virtually all materials that can be conventionally riveted can be
I , joined by this method. Very brittle or soft materials are good
applications. No secondary operations or repositioning after
Components for assembly is required; parts are held in the tooling by their
Inlected metal
j conventional staked
/ functional surfaces rather than by having their end positioning
assembly
/ dictated by the accuracy of hole location and size.
/
L P.—
Electric Motor Rotors

-k’
Injected metal assembly is particularly efficient when two or
more components need to be assembled into one complete
I
subassembly, as is the case with the rotors of small induction or
Reduction of shaft stock size
stepper motors. One nominal size of center hole can accom-
modate several shaft diameters. An annular gap between the
rotor and shaft of 0.030” (0.76 mm) or more is filled by the
injected molten metal. This eliminates the stocking or
manufacture of different rotors for each size shaft.
Inlected metal
termination
“Birdcage”
Fig. 8-160 Cable will fail before tbe termination separates from the
cable. (Fisher Gauge Lfd. )
Components for Iniected meta I Similar or different

conventional staked liquid rivet materials
\ /
Pinion stock
required
Misaligned holes
Fig. 8-159 A standard gear and shaft are used to produce several
different assemblies, resulting insubstantial cost savings. (Fisher Gauge Fig. 8-161 Injected metal assembly can serve as a rivet. Rivet holes do
Ltd.) not require accurate size, shape, or alignment. (Fisher Gauge Ltd. )
8-96
CHAPTER 8
Different rotor versions can be assembled in the same Fully automatic equipment is generally used to produce a
tooling by using easily interchanged inserts. Shrink fitting, specific assembly because changeover to produce a different
pressing, and cementing are no longer necessary. Almost any assembly can be expensive both in capital cost and lost
shape hubcanbe formed during injection. Variations in rotor production time. Also, parts feeding units can only handle
heights pose no problem and previously required shims or limited variations of assembly components. However, there is a
spacers are no longer needed. A spring or air-loaded bushing in trend toward the increased use of fully automated equipment.
the mold contacts the end of the rotor to compensate for any Production rates of up to 1200 assemblies per hour are possible
height variance. with automatic operation.
Locking Tubes to Plates

A conventional method of securing a tube to a plate
normally requires a bushing with precise diameters and tight
tolerances on the diameter of the hole in the plate. With the
IMA method, close tolerances are not necessary because the
injected molten metal forms a ring. As the ring cools, it shrinks
into premade grooves in the tube and into peripheral holes in
the plate (see Fig. 8-162). This permanently locks the two
components together, and no secondary operations are
necessary.
EQUIPMENT USED
A typicalmachine used for injected metal assembly is shown in
Fig. 8-163. Assembly tooling is mounted at the front of an
operating head that rocks forward onto an injection nozzle. Locking g;ooves
Molten metal in the holding pot is injected under pressure
through the nozzle and into the tooling, which holds the parts to
be assembled. Machines are usually air operated, but on rare Fig. 8-162 In assembling a tube to a plate, the injected metal forms a
occasions hydraulic power is used. Equipment is available for ring, thus eliminating the need for close tolerance components. (Fisher
completely manual, semiautomatic, or fully automatic operation. Gauge Ltd. )
Manual Operation
On manually operated machines, the components to be
assembled are usually loaded manually, and the completed Voltmeter
assemblies are also removed by hand. Manual operation is Temperature controller

common when joining delicate and accurate assemblies. How-
ever, partial automation, in which difficult-to-feed components
are manually loaded and easy-to-feed parts are automatically
loaded, is ideal for some applications. ‘n:::!l;~tiiswi+c”e’
Depending on the specific application, manually operated Operating head \ \ II
machines have production rates of up to 600 assemblies per \o /73d\ \ - !1
hour. Production rates vary with the complexity of the
assembly, the number of components in the assembly, the need
for orientation of functional surfaces in the tooling, and the
degree of automation utilized.
Semiautomatic Operation Air h&es

‘y
On semiautomaticmachines for injected metal assembly, the Flow control q ~ illl I I valve
timing of each machine function is precisely controlled by valves T
u
electronic programmer units. With these machines, the opera-
ting heads incorporating the assembly tooling can be changed in
about 10 minutes, while an appropriate electronic control panel
is plugged in for programming.
::;:a,/J—t_-_u
terminal strips
Automatic Operation
Fully automatic machines are equipped with programmable
logic controllers. Parts feeders, pick-and-place units, industrial
robots, or other automated equipment are used to load
components into the tooling, unload the completed assemblies,
and transfer them to a conveyor. Also, spherical replenishment Fig. 8-163 Typical machine used for injected metal assembly. Tooling
ingots of the alloy used are automatically fed into the melting is mounted on tbe front of an operating head that rocks forward onto an
pot when the level in the pot reaches a preset depth. injection nozzle. (Fisher Gauge Lfd. )
8-97
CHAPTER 8
TYPICAL TOOLING machine, the air pressure required is between 80 and 100 psi
Tooling for injected metal assembly is made from AIS1 Type (550 and 690 kPa). The maximum air requirement is 2 cfm (57
M2 high-speed steel to close tolerances. The tooling consists L/rein). This results in an injection pressure at the nozzle of
essentially of a die made in two parts: a fixed die and a movable about 4000 psi (27.6 MPa).
die (see Fig. 8-164). A hemispherical nozzle seat is lapped into If a mounted point is being assembled (a small grinding
the fixed die, and a tapered sprue hole leads from the seat to the wheel on a mandrel), the pressure needed at the nozzle is about
cavity, Provision for water cooling is furnished in tooling used half that normally required. Reducing valves control the
with zinc alloy as the assembly medium; no water cooling is pressure required for each machine function, which varies with
needed when lead is used. different assembly applications. Recommended pressure and
Die cavities are lapped longitudinally to a smooth finish of 8 timing charts are supplied by the machine manufacturer for
pin. (0.20 pm) and the diameters of sealing surfaces are different assemblies.
maintained to tolerances within 0.0005” (0.013 mm). Provision For machines using zinc alloy as the assembly medium, a gas
is generally made for the tool to be rotated to shear the sprue, torch is required to maintain thermal equilibrium as the nozzle
and the die cavity must be circular to accommodate this contacts the cold tooling at each injection cycle. Cooling water at
rotation. If this is not possible, the fixed die plate must be the rate of 0.5 gpm (2 L/rein) is also needed on these machines,
designed to rotate. and drains are required to dispose of the warmed water.
Die halves are located by means of rings. The tooling is
provided with a “parts-in-place” safety switch to prevent the SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
injection of molten metal if the parts to be assembled are not Operatorsof lMA machines should wear protective clothing
correctly located in the die. such as safety shoes or boots, safety glasses, and a smock or
When zinc is used as the assembly medium, a fine spray of apron. Every effort has been made by the manufacturer of these
lubricant may be applied as a parting agent after each assembly machines to provide protection for the operator and other
has been ejected from the tooling. High-quality spindle oil is personnel in the vicinity of the machine against injury from
used to lubricate moving parts of the tooling. Wear in the die accidental contact with molten metal or from the machine’s
cavity is almost nonexistent, but components such as core and moving parts. Covers for the metal holding pot not only protect
ejection pins do wear and must be replaced periodically by personnel, but prevent such materials as lead from contami-
oversized pins. The pin sleeves must also be resized and honed. nating a zinc-charged pot and especially serve to keep out water,
which could cause a severe metal eruption. Guards and shields
OPERATING PARAMETERS protect personnel against pinch points on the machine.
Melting or metal holding pots on injected metal assembly A number of electrical interlocks are incorporated into the
machines are heated by replaceable electrical elements, the assembly machines. These include the following:
wattage of the elements depending on the capacities of the ● A parts-in-place switch that prevents the machine from
machines. Temperature controllers monitor the operation of cycling should the parts to be assembled not be in the
the heating elements. The optimum operating temperature for correct attitude in the tooling or even not be present.
zinc alloys is 825° F (440° C) and for lead alloys, 700° F (370° C). ● A die-lock switch that prevents the machine from cycling
The IMA machines are usually pneumatically operated and if the die is not correctly closed and locked.
clean, dry air is required. On a standard semiautomatic ● An operating-head advance switch that prevents metal
inject-ion sho~ld the injection nozzle tip n& be in correct
engagement with the hemispherical seat in the assembly
tooling.
J-
(i *:,,,,~ References
‘.
Locating
E, 1. “Glossary
2.
(New
A, E, Simmons,
for Fastener
of Terms
York: American
Jr.,
for Mechanical
Society
High Technology
Applications, SME
Fasteners,
of Mechanical
Coatings
Technical
” ANSI
Engineers).
Mede
Paper
B18.12
Practical
AD83-865
housing actuator
=,.,, Gear \ (Dearborn, Ml: Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1983).
“Glossary of Terms for Mechanical Fasteners,” /oc. cit.
:: Ibid.
hi
~~Fixed die
I +ushing 5, Ibid.
6, Ibid.
— 7 H. J. Faupel, “Designing for Shrink Fits,” Machine Design
(January 1954). - -
‘“d I
u
Y--rwK+i$
~oca+\g
‘%:’
Movable
die LQ=M
Bibliography
cavity
Bohm, Rudolf. “Selecting Spring Washers,’’ Machirre Design (July
ring
12, 1 973).
Dallas, B. “The Evolution of Torque Control.” Manufactur-
Daniel
ing Engineering(September 1976), pp. 32-33,
Fig. 8-164 Typical tool used to assemble a gear to a shaft with injected Dorflinger, Max F. “Guidelines for Selecting Locknuts. ” Festener
metal. (Fisher Gauge Ltd. ) Technology (December 1982), pp. 32-33.
8-98
CHAPTER 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Finkelston, R, J,, and Wallace, P. W. Advances in High-Perfor-

mance Mechanical SAE Techn ica I Paper 800451,
Fastening.
Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1980,
Fitzpatrick. Peter R.. and Barto. John J.. Jr, “The Anatomv of a
Robotic”Drilling and Riveting System~” Robotics Today ~June
1984), pp. 75-79.
H, K. Metalcraft Manufacturing Corm The Design of Smincr
Washars. Lodi, NJ: 1983. -
Johnston, Donald L. Past, Present, Future Production Riveting.
SME Technical Paper MF84-474. Dearborn, Ml: Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, 1984,
Long-Lok Fasteners Corp. What Evary Engineer Should Know
About Self-Locking Fasteners. Lancaster, TX.
Movich, Richard C, Robotic Drilling and Riveting Using Computer
Vision. SMETechnical PaperMS80-712. Dearborn, Ml: Society
of Manufacturing Engineers, 1980.
Neu, Horst W. Successful A utomatic Riveting Program Manage-
ment. SME Technical Paper AD83-869. Dearborn, Ml: Society
of Manufacturing Engineers, 1983.
Parmley, Robert O. Standard Handbook of Fastening and Joining.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1977.
Saurer, Charles H. Automatic Fastening—Aerospace Sty/e. SME
Technical Paper AD83-866. Dearborn, Ml: Society of Manu-
facturing Engineers, 1983,
Treer, Kenneth R. AutomatadAssemb/y. Dearborn, Ml: Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, 1979.
Vasilash, Gary. “Fasteners: Finding the Right Fit and Keeping It. ”
Manufacturing Engineering (October 1979), pp. 59-64.
8-99

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LANCED OR SHEAR-FORMED TABS

Embb (a) (b) (c) (d)

the slots should be revised whenever possible to allow use of

EXTRUDED HOLES I (c)

Fig. 8-8 Tabbed bayonet locks for temporary joints,

around the hole. The hole is then called an extruded, flanged,

● Jacket or longitudinal seams. Straight seams for the

1. Matching beads (formed inward or outward). Dimpling

Advantages of threaded fasteners include their commercial

Platings and Coatings and oxide) coatings, anodizing, electroplating, mechanical

When possible corrosion in service is not a critical problem,

coating. When additional corrosion resistance is required for s

Low or --- 1j 4 through 3/47 55 (379)** 74 (510)

SAE Grade Designation

1/4-20 0.0318 1050 1900 1750 2350 2700 3800 3800

Fine-thread series (UNF):

Screwdrivers Methods of Preloading

Rotary corner wrench

Power screwdrivers and wrenches

Arbitrary values for the torque coefficient, C (for noncritical

discussed briefly in the remainder of this section.

Estimates indicate there is a torque variation of *35’% with this

Fastener Loosening and Failure

BOLTS AND STUDS

Round-head, ribbed-neck bolts. These bolts, formerly desig-

Other Bolt Types

under the heads, triangular or rectangular keys in the heads, or

brass. Type C wingnuts are cast from a zinc alloy.

also available in J and U-types that snap over the edges of

‘a Fillister slotted head

Drive types. The drive configuration determines how much

points are used without spotting holes in the shafts and

Truss-head screw and Fillister-head screw Round-head screw and

Fig. 8-38 Various screw and washer assemblies.~

For sheet metal For sheet metal up For heavy gage

Fig. 8-39 Common types of tapping screws.

Fig. 8-40 Types of thread-forming tapping screws. (Southern.$cre~) Type U (metallic

SCREW THREAD INSERTS

SCREW THREAD INSERTS

! Solid bushing inserts

Mold-in and press-in inserts

SCREW THREAD INSERTS

SCREW THREAD INSERTS

Fig. 8-48 Method of installing solid bushing inserts: (a) rotating to

SCREW THREAD INSERTS

Fig. 8-49 Installation of key-locked solid busbing insert. (Speciahy

One-piece Two-piece Three-piece

SCREW THREAD INSERTS

CAPTIVE THREADED FASTENERS

CAPTIVE THREADED FASTENERS

These nuts have lugs, embossments, or annular rings to I

Fig. 8-53 Caged nut.

Floating rivet type

Fig. 8-54 Push-in type, panel-retained fastener. (Fa$teners Div., TRW

screw. When the fastener is pushed into a hole in a panel, the

self-clinching fasteners, Some automated presses are specifically protrusion

designed to feed these fasteners into punched or drilled holes Threads

CAPTIVE THREADED FASTENERS

Fig. 8-59 Nut retainer.

Bolt-Nut Combination also be exercised to prevent hydrogen embrittlement, especially

1. Provide a mounting hole of proper size for each