IB Physics: K.A.

Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Simple harmonic oscillations

A basic equation in SHM is that relating speed to displacement: v 2 =  2 (A2 − x 2 ) which can also be
rewritten as

v2 x2
+ =1
 2 A2 A2

This is the equation of an ellipse if we plot v versus x:

v

A
x

The equation of the area S of this ellipse is S =  ( A)A =  A2 and so is proportional to the total energy
1 2 E
of the motion, E = m 2 A2 . Thus, the area is S = . Hence, for damped motion where the total
2 m
energy decreases the graph of v versus x looks like:
v

Question: In the SHM of a mass-spring system the mass is doubled while the amplitude stays the same.
What happens t the total energy of the system?
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

1
The total energy is E = m 2 A2 . It is tempting to state that the energy doubles, but we are ignoring the
2
k
change in . For the mass-spring system  2 = . Hence the energy does not change.
m

1
We could get this result faster by using instead E = kA2 from which it is immediately clear that the
2
energy does not change.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
A wave travels through a medium. How do the medium particles move?

This is a common question in exams appearing practically every time.

Consider first a transverse wave travelling to the right. The graph of displacement versus position is
shown. A medium particle P has been marked. Since the wave is transverse the medium particles will
travel at right angles to the direction of energy transfer, i.e. up or down in this case. P can only move
along the dotted line shown below.

y cm
6

0 xm
1 2 3 4

4 P

So where is P in the next instant of time? The easiest way to answer the question is to “copy and paste”
the original graph of displacement versus time shifted forward a little bit (forward because the wave is
going to the right). This is shown with a dashed curve. The new position of P is where the dotted green
line intersects the new dotted curve. The new position is the red dot.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

y cm
6

0 xm
1 2 3 4

4 P

These questions can be extended to ask about the direction of velocity of medium particles. In this
example particle P moved upward. Hence at the time the original graph was taken the direction of
velocity of P was up.

Check yourself: for the transverse wave travelling to the left find the position of P, Q and R in the next
instant of time.
y cm
6

4
P
2
Q
0 xm
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

4
R

We now go to longitudinal waves. This is more complicated. Since the wave is longitudinal, medium
particles can only move in the direction of energy transfer or opposite to it. I.e. right or left in the case of
a wave travelling to the right or left.

The diagram shows how the displacement varies with distance for a longitudinal wave travelling to the
right. Positive displacements mean motion to the right. Point P is a point in the medium. The diagram
shows the equilibrium position of this particle (at x = 2 m). This is where this particle would be if there
were no wave in the medium. But now we have a wave and according to the graph the displacement of
P is about – 3.2 cm. In other words, the actual position of P at this instant is 3.2 cm to the left of x = 2 m.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

y cm
6

2
P
0 xm
1 2 3 4 5

Figure 1

An instant later the wave has moved forward (dashed line).

y cm
6

2
P
0 xm
1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2

We see that displacement of P is now less negative: it is – 1.7 cm. So P moved from a position of –3.2
cm to the left of x = 2 m to a position of –1.7 cm to the left of x = 2 m. This means it moved to the right.

equilibrium position, no wave

3.2 cm
position when wave is the solid line, Figure 1

1.7 cm
position when wave is the dotted line, Figure 2
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Alternatively, draw the vector showing the change in displacement (green vector). It points towards the
positive displacements: P moved to the right.
y cm
6

2
P
0 xm
1 2 3 4 5

6
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Longitudinal waves

It is very important to make students understand the interpretation of displacement graphs for
longitudinal waves.

Imagine a solid rod. The dots in the diagram below represent the equilibrium positions of 9 molecules in
the solid when no wave travels through the rod. The molecules vibrate a bit about these positions
because the rod is at some finite temperature but let us ignore this for the moment.

x cm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Now suppose that a longitudinal wave travels through this rod (for example by hitting one end of the
rod with a hammer in a direction along the length of the rod)

At some instant of time the displacement of the wave varies with distance according to the graph below.
y mm

x cm
2 4 6 8

What are the positions of the 9 molecules at this instant?

The wave is longitudinal so the molecules will be displaced in the direction of energy transfer or
opposite to it, i.e. right or left in this case. We take positive displacements to mean motion to the right.
(This is a convention and you must always check the convention of the problem you are given.)
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

The molecules will be displaced from their equilibrium positions (to the right or left) by an amount given
by the displacement graph above. Thus the molecules at x = 0, 4 cm and 8 cm stay in the same place
because the displacement at these points is zero. The molecules at x = 1 cm, 2 cm and 3 cm move to the
right and those at x = 5 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm to the left.

As time goes by, each molecule executes simple harmonic oscillations about their equilibrium positions
with the same amplitude (5 mm) and a frequency equal to that of the wave.

Check yourself: A longitudinal wave travels through a medium directed to the right. The graph shows
the displacement of medium particles versus distance at an instant of time. The equilibrium position of
particle P is at x = 1.50 m. (Positive displacements to mean motion to the right.) Where is the particle at
this instant?
y cm
6

2
P
0 xm
1 2 3 4 5

The displacement of P is about 2.8 cm so its position is 2.8 cm to the right of the equilibrium position.
I.e. it is at x = 1.528 m.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Reflection of a longitudinal wave from an open end.

A common query from students is how does a longitudinal wave in a pipe that is open, get reflected
from the open end.

It is relatively easy to explain reflection from a closed end: molecules incident on the closed end exert a
force on the closed end (waves carry momentum!) and by Newton’s third law the closed end exerts an
opposite force to the molecules creating the reflected wave. But what about the open end?

In this course we represent waves by graphs of displacement versus distance or time. However, this is
not the only way. We can also represent the wave in terms of the pressure in the pipe as a function of
distance or time. As the wave travels inside the pipe, the pressure in the pipe oscillates to values above
and below atmospheric pressure, the pressure of air outside the pipe. Here we plot the difference in
pressure in the pipe minus atmospheric. Suppose the displacement versus distance graph is the
following and notice the formation of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R). The pressure graph is then
the second graph (the zero of pressure corresponds to atmospheric pressure).
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Displacement graph

R C R C R

Pressure graph

Notice that displacement peaks and troughs correspond to atmospheric pressure. Now, at an open end
we have a displacement antinode and hence zero in the pressure difference. How can the pressure
difference be zero at all times at the open end? The answer is by having a reflected pressure wave which
differs from the incident pressure wave by a phase of π so that we always get a pressure node there
when the incident and reflected waves superpose. (The reflected displacement wave does not suffer a
phase change which is why we get a displacement antinode there.)

This is a formal/mathematical way of explaining the reflection. But what actually causes the reflected
wave? Well, if the pressure wave arriving at the open end has a pressure below atmospheric, air from
the outside will push air into the pipe causing the reflected wave. If the pressure arriving at the open
end is above atmospheric the outside air will be pushed away from the pipe and so by Newton’s third
law the air in the pipe will again be pushed back into the pipe again causing the reflected wave.

The argument above is a general argument that can be used for reflection in general. How do we explain
the inversion of a pulse upon reflection from a fixed end? Newton’s third law again does the job but
here is another way. Shown is a pulse approaching a fixed end. We know the point of the string attached
to the fixed end must remain motionless (a node). How can we achieve that? We can do so by
considering an imaginary pulse to the right of the fixed end that travels to the left. We then ask, what
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

should the shape of this pulse be for the end point to stay fixed? The answer is shown in the second
diagram. The real pulse disappears behind the fixed end and the imaginary dotted pulse enters the real
world to the left of the fixed end as the reflected wave. The superposition of the two pulses ensures that
the end point stays fixed.

This is an abstract but very powerful and elegant way of thinking about reflection.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Standing waves or interference

Two microwave sources are placed a distance D apart, facing each other. A microwave detector is placed
a distance x from the left source.

x
D

The path from the left source has length x and that from the right source a length (D − x) .

The path difference is then (D − x) − x = D − 2x .

We will have constructive interference when the path difference is an integral multiple of the
D − n
wavelength: D − 2x = n and so at positions given by x = . Two consecutive positions where
2
D − n D − (n + 1) 
maxima occur are then separated by a distance x = − = . This is exactly what we
2 2 2
would deduce if we assumed that the region between the sources were filled by standing waves:
maxima (antinodes) are separated by half a wavelength.

Example: Assume D = 60 cm and  = 4.0 cm . What is the minimum non-zero value of x at which a
maximum is observed?

D − n 60 − 4n
We know that at maxima, x = = . For n = 14 we get the smallest x value which is x = 2.0
2 2
cm.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Standing waves

Suppose we look at standing waves on a string of length L with both ends fixed. The allowed
wavelengths are

2L
n = n = 1,2,3,...
n

The corresponding frequencies are then

cn
fn = n = 1,2,3,...
2L

c(n + 1) cn c
So the difference of 2 consecutive harmonics is fn+1 − fn = − = which happens to be the
2L 2L 2L
frequency of the first harmonic.

Example: Two consecutive harmonics on a string with both ends fixed have frequencies 240 Hz and 300
Hz. What is the frequency of the second harmonic?

The first harmonic has frequency 60 Hz so the second has frequency 120 Hz.

(You can answer this question by noting that all higher harmonics have frequencies which are multiples
of the first harmonic frequency. Thus, we find the greatest common factor of 240 and 300. It is 60 Hz
and so this is the first harmonic frequency. Why do we find the greatest common factor? 30 is also a
factor. Choosing 30 Hz as the first harmonic frequency would make the 240 Hz wave the 8th harmonic
and the 300 Hz wave the 10th harmonic. They two harmonics would then not be consecutive as the
question requires.)

For a pipe of length L with one closed and one open end the corresponding result is:

4L cn
n = n = 1,3,5,... with frequencies fn = n = 1,3,5,... .
n 4L

c(n + 2) cn c
The difference of 2 consecutive harmonics is fn+2 − fn = − = which happens to be double
4L 4L 2L
the frequency of the first harmonic.

Example: Two consecutive harmonics in a pipe with one open and one closed end have frequencies 400
Hz and 560 Hz. Which is the harmonic with frequency 400 Hz?
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

400
The difference in frequencies is 160 Hz and so the first harmonic has frequency 80 Hz. Then, = 5 so
80
the 400 Hz harmonic is the fifth harmonic.

(You can answer this question by noting that all higher harmonics have frequencies which are odd
multiples of the first harmonic frequency. Thus, we find the greatest odd common factor of 400 and
560. It is 80 Hz and so this is the first harmonic frequency.)
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Simple harmonic oscillations

The spring has spring constant k = 162 N m-1. The string is cut. Write down the equation giving the
displacement of the 0.50 kg mass as a function of time.

0.50 kg

0.30 kg

8.0
Before the string is cut the tension in the spring is 8.0 N and so the extension is x = = 4.94 cm . The
162
5.0
new equilibrium position has the spring extended by x = = 3.09 cm . The displacement at t = 0 when
162
the string is cut is then x = 4.94 − 3.09 = 1.85 cm . This will be the amplitude of oscillations x0.

x = x0 sin(t +  )
v =  x0 cos(t +  )
a = − 2 x0 sin(t +  )

3
At t = 0, x = –1.85 cm: this means that −1.85 = 1.85sin(0 +  ) . I.e. sin = −1   = . The angular
2
k 162 3
frequency is given by  = = = 18 s −1 . So we expect x = 1.85sin(18t + ) . We can check f this
m 0.50 2
3
makes sense. The velocity at t = 0 is v =  x0 cos(0 + ) = 0 as it should be. The acceleration at t = 0 is
2
3
a = − 2 x0 sin(0 + ) = + 2 x0 = 182  1.85  10 −2 = 6.0 m s −2 . This is as it should be because right after
2
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

after the string is cut the tension in the spring is still 8.0 N and so the net force on the mass is 8.0 – 5.0 =
3.0
3.0 N. The initial acceleration is then a = = 6.0 m s −2 .
0.50

3
Hence the answer to the problem is x = 1.85sin(18t + ).
2
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
The Huygens principle

The diagram shows 3 planar wavefronts moving to the right. We know that in the absence of obstacles,
apertures and changes in medium the next wavefront will be another planar wavefront, shown as the
dotted line.

But how do we know that? Is there a way to deduce the shape of the next wavefront? In 1678 the great
Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens provided a partial answer.

The diagram shows a single point on a wavefront. Huygens argued that this point acts as a source of a
secondary, spherical wavefront, called a wavelet, of the same wavelength and speed as the original
wavefront. The wavelet is assumed to be emitted only in the forward direction. The Huygens principle
states that every point on the wavefront acts as a source of wavelets. The diagram shows the
construction for 6 points.

wavelet
source of •
wavelet

The new wavefront is assumed to the surface that is tangent to all the wavelets.

If the original wavefront is spherical, the Huygens construction shows that the next wavefront is also
spherical.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Consider now the problem of refraction. Point P on the wavefront in medium 1 has reached the
boundary of the two media and it will emit its wavelet in the second medium where the wave is slower.
Hence the wavelength will be smaller than the wavelength in medium 1. This results in this construction:

medium 1
1
θ1
P Q
2 θ2

medium 2

1 2 sin1 1 sin1 1 f c1
From the figure above, sin1 = and sin2 = which leads to = or = = i.e. we
PQ PQ sin2 2 sin2 2 f c2
get Snell’s law of refraction:

sin1 sin2
=
c1 c2

This construction also gives the right answer for reflected wavefronts so it also explains reflection.

We have implicitly used the Huygens construction when we talked about single slit diffraction. Each
point on the wavefront going through the slit acts a source of secondary wavelets which interfere some
distance away.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

This shows, for example, that if the aperture is very small, i.e. almost like a mathematical point, then we
have extreme diffraction: only one point on the incident wavefront emits wavelets and they are all
spherical. And, similarly, when the aperture is very large, little diffraction takes place with wavefronts
curving only at the edges

  b   b

lots of diffraction little diffraction

But the details of diffraction cannot be understood solely in terms of the Huygens construction. For
example, Huygens assumes that along a wavelet the intensity of the wave is the same and this is
problematic when discussing interference. An improved principle, the Huygens-Fresnel construction,
gets most of the details right.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Single slit diffraction

Light diffracts going through the slit:

We concentrate on the rays leaving the top and middle of the slit:

b
path difference
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

b b
The two rays shown have a path difference of sin   , since  is very small.
2 2

Now consider another pair of rays whose origins are just below the origins of the first 2:

same path difference

These have the same path difference. Considering similar pairs we see that if each pair has a path

difference of all pairs will result in destructive interference on the screen far away. The first minimum
2
is thus obtained when

b 
=
2 2

i.e. at


=
b

The central maximum is obtained from rays that diffract as follows:

IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Each pair shown in the same colour has zero path difference so they all interfere constructively.

The one slit diffraction intensity pattern is given by this graph:

I


The first minimum occurs at  = as shown above.
b

If the slit size b is doubled, the angle at which the first minimum appears is halved. Going to the very
first diagram in this note we see that the number of rays through the slit will also double. Each ray
contributes an amplitude A at the central maximum and so the total amplitude is NA. The intensity at
the central point is proportional to the amplitude squared and so with double the slit width, N is
doubled and so the intensity at the central point will increase by a factor of 4:
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

I
4

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

°
3 2 1 1 2 3

The blue curve corresponds to a slit width that is double that of the red curve. This is worth exploring. If
we double the slit width, double the energy goes through. So why is the central maximum intensity 4
times as large? We can calculate the area under each curve which is proportional to the energy
deposited on the screen. The blue curve is higher but it is also narrower. Doing the integrals, we find
that the area under the blue curve is double that under the red curve despite the fact that the central
peak of the blue curve is 4 times higher than the red peak. Conservation of energy holds. What is
happening is what always happens in interference: energy is redistributed on the screen. Lots of energy
near the central peak, less energy far away. (A curiosity: it turns out that the central peak contains about
90% of the total energy deposited on the screen.)

Notice that as the slit width b becomes larger and larger (compared to the wavelength), the angular
position θ of the first minimum gets smaller and smaller: the diffraction pattern gets narrower and
narrower. Notice also that if we do not use the small angle approximation the condition for the first
minimum is b sin =  . From this formula we can clearly see there is a lot of diffraction when   b : in

this case sin =  1 and so there is no angle at which the first minimum is observed. This means that
b
the diffraction pattern has become so wide that we don’t see any minima. In the other extreme case,

  b , i.e. b large, sin =  0 . This means that the light is concentrated only at the position  = 0 ,
b
i.e. the light goes straight through without being deviated.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

In these graphs the intensity at the central maximum is normalized to 1.


I I0 b= or  = 5b
1.0 5
The diffraction pattern is very wide. We have
0.8
massive diffraction. No minima are observed. The
wave has spread everywhere.
0.6

0.4

0.2

°
30 20 10 10 20 30
I I0
1.0 b=
The diffraction pattern is very wide. We have
0.8 massive diffraction. Minima are observed at large
angles. The wave has spread almost everywhere.
0.6

0.4

0.2

°
30 20 10 10 20 30
I I0
b
b = 5 or  =
1.0

5
0.8
We have lots of diffraction including diffraction
minima.
0.6

0.4

0.2

°
30 20 10 10 20 30
I I0
b
b = 50 or  =
1.0

50
0.8
The diffraction pattern is quite narrow. We have
very limited diffraction. The light essentially goes
0.6
straight through the slit without spreading.
0.4

0.2

°
30 20 10 10 20 30
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
Refraction and the problem of least time

You are on sand at position A. A position B is in water. You want to get from A to B by running part of
the way on sand and then swimming the rest of the way in water. Your speed on sand is c1 and that in
water is a lower speed c2. This is related to refraction. The path you follow is the path followed by a ray
of light from A to B when there is a change of medium, i.e. refraction.

You must decide where you will enter the water in order to get from A to B in the least possible amount
of time. In other words you must find the optimal distance x.

h1
c1
x θ1

D
c2
θ2 h2

h12 + x 2
Time taken on sand: .
c1

h22 + (D − x)2
Time taken in water: .
c2

h12 + x 2 h2 + (D − x)2
Total time is T = + 2 . We want to find x such that this time is as small as possible:
c1 c2
so we must differentiate T and set the derivative to zero.

dT x D−x
= − =0
dx c1 h12 + x 2 c2 h22 + (D − x)2

which gives
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

x D−x
= .
c1 h + x 2
1
2
c2 h + (D − x)2
2
2

But

x D−x
= sin1 and = sin2 so we get
h +x2
1
2
h + (D − x)2
2
2

sin1 sin2
=
c1 c2

i.e. Snell’s law.

It appears that light gets from A to B in the shortest possible time!

You can avoid calculus by putting in numbers and using the GDC.

For example, let, h1 = h2 = 20 m , D = 35 m and c1 = 3 m s−1 , c2 = 2 m s −1 , then

400 + x 2 400 + (35 − x)2

T= +
3 2

Plotting the time T we get:

Ts
40

30

20

10

0 xm
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

23 35 − 23
The minimum time is obtained for x  23 m . Then tan1 =  1  49 and tan2 =  2  31 .
20 20

Then

sin1 c
 1.5 = 1
sin2 c2
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

The French mathematician Pierre de Fermat elevated this to a principle, the principle of least time, in
1662: light travels from A to B in the least possible time. In ancient Greece, Euclid and Hero of
Alexandria had shown that in reflection, a ray of light follows the path of least length and time.

The principle has been extended to the principle of least action in Lagrangian mechanics that has made
possible the transition from classical to quantum mechanics, among many other things. You may want
to know more about all this as well as to discuss the question of how light “knows” which is the path of
least time!
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
A longitudinal wave puzzle

Suppose a longitudinal wave travels through a medium from left to right. Consider the equilibrium
positions of two particles in the medium: P at the origin and Q a distance q away, to the right of P. What
are the maximum and minimum distances between P and Q as time goes on?

So consider the wave, at t = 0, shown in the figure (here q = 10 cm):

y cm

P Q
0 x cm
10 20 30 40

P and Q are the equilibrium positions of the two particles in the medium. This means that when there is
no wave in the medium the positions of P and Q are 0 cm and 10 cm respectively. When a wave is
present the positions of P and Q will change according to the red curve in the graph. So, at t = 0, P has
displacement 0 and so its position remains at 0. But Q has displacement 4 cm so its position is at 10 + 4 =
14 cm. The distance between P and Q at t = 0 is then 14 cm.

At any time, t, the distance between P and Q is given by D = q + yQ − yP , where yP and yQ are the
displacements of P and Q. Now, yP = − A sin(t ) and yQ = A cos(t ) (A is the amplitude) so that:

D = q + A cos(t ) + A sin(t )

Try to guess the maximum distance between P and Q before reading on.

Since q = 10 cm and A = 4 cm the distance between P and Q is

D = 10 + 4cos(t) + 4sin(t)

We are interested in finding the maximum value of this distance. With trigonometry we find:


D = 10 + 4 2 sin(t + )
4
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

The maximum value is when the sine is equal to 1 i.e. Dmax = 10 + 4 2  15.7 cm . The minimum distance
is Dmin = 10 − 4 2  4.34 cm .

We get these answers also by plotting the distance D:

D cm
20

15

10

ts
0 2 4 6 8

The initial distance between P and Q is 14 cm. This makes sense: the displacement of P at t = 0 is zero so
its position is at x = 0. The displacement of Q is 4 cm, so it displaced 4 cm to the right of its equilibrium
position at x = 10 i.e. finds itself at x = 14 cm. The maximum is at and the minimum

occurs at .

The graph above was made with  = 1 rad s−1 . Changing  does not make a difference to the
conclusion.

Figure 1 shows the wave when P and Q have their maximum separation:
y cm

P Q
x cm
10 20 30 40

Dmax
2

Figure 1
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

P is at position x = 0 – 2.83 = – 2.83 cm and Q at x = 10 + 2.83 = +12.83 cm for a separation of 15.7 cm as

we found before. Finally, shown below is the wave when P and Q are at their closest, Figure 2.
y cm

P Q
x cm
10 20 30 40

2 Dmin

Figure 2

To justify the graphs in Figures 1 and 2 we need an alternative, more advanced approach. We need to
derive the general equation of a wave as a function of both position and time.

2
Shown is the graph of the function y = A sin( x) which represents the displacement of a wave as a

function of the distance x at t = 0. (We show only one full wave for clarity.)
y

After time t the wave will move forward a distance vt and so the wave will look like:
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

vt

We have shifted the original graph by vt to the right and from math (function transformations) we know
2
that the equation of this graph will be f (x) → f (x − vt ) . So y = A sin( x) becomes


2
y = A sin( (x − vt ))

2 2
= A sin( x− vt )
 
2 2 
= A sin( x− t)
  T
2 2
= A sin( x− t)
 T
2
y = A sin( x − t )


This is the equation of a wave travelling to the right.

2  x 
Thus, the equation of the graph of Figure 1 is y = A sin( x − ) = 4sin( − ) and that of Figure 2 is
 4 20 4
2 5  x 5
y = A sin( x− ) = 4sin( − ) .
 4 20 4

Incidentally, we can use the general equation to write down the displacements of P and Q at an arbitrary
time that we used earlier without much justification: for P, x = 0 so yP = 4sin(0 − t ) = −4sin(t ) and for
  10 
Q, y = 4sin( − t) = 4sin( − t) = 4cos(t) just as said earlier.
20 2
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
An example of resonance

A block of mass m is attached to a spring obeying Hooke’s law with spring constant k. The block rotates
on a horizontal frictionless table with angular frequency  in a circle of radius R.

k
What happens when  2 = ?
m

Let the extension of the spring be e. Then

ke = m 2R

The radius is R = L + e where L is the natural unstretched length of the spring. This gives

ke = m 2 (L + e)

And so

m 2L
(k − m 2 )e = m 2L  e =
k − m 2

k
We now see that if  2 = the extension of the spring becomes infinite.
m

k
This is because the angular frequency  2 = is the natural frequency of oscillation of the mass-spring
m
system and we have a resonance condition.
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Teacher notes
Topic C
A problem on elastic energy in SHM

A mass hangs in equilibrium at the end of spring. At equilibrium the spring is extended by a
e
distance e. The mass is pulled to position L, a distance below the equilibrium position.
3

position H

equilibrium
position e
3
position L

When the mass is released, it performs simple harmonic oscillations between positions L and H
with angular frequency  . The displacement from equilibrium is given by the equation
e
x = sin(t +  ) . Displacements below the equilibrium position are taken as positive.
3


(a) Show that  = .
2
e
(b) Show explicitly, using the equation for displacement, that position H is a distance
3
above the equilibrium position.

elastic potential energy at L

(c) Determine the ratio .
elastic potential energy at H
IB Physics: K.A. Tsokos

Answers

e e 
(a) At t = 0, = sin(0 +  ) so sin  = 1 . Hence  = .
3 3 2

2 e 2 T  e 3 e
(b) H is attained after half a period.  = so x = sin(  + ) i.e. x = sin( ) = − .
T 3 T 2 2 3 2 3
e
The distance is thus above the equilibrium position.
3

2
1 e  4e 
k (e + )2 
(c) Ratio is 2 3 = 3  =4 .
1 e  2e 
k (e − )2  
2 3  3 