Principle

of physics class 11 pdf ayam publication

Principles of physics class 11.

Back to subjects HomeClass 11 Physics Book Ayam publication Read more If you are buying or using old books you are not a poor person, you are a responsible person who saves plants. This book is for Class 11 science faculty Students.Contact Email: Nepalenotes@gmail.comContact Number: 9840620604, 9814667866Whatsapp Number:
9814667866Address: Attariya, KailaliPrice: Rs. 735 300 Delivery all over Nepal Excellent:✓ Very Good: Good: Facebook Instagram Whatsapp Class 11 Physics (New Curriculum) | Class 11 Physics | Complete Physics Book | Class 11 Physics Book | Class 11 Physics purano old Book | Class 11 Physics Book Ayam publication A. Short questions 1.
Dimensional analysis has following limitations: 1. Through dimensional analysis we cannot find the values of dimensionless constants. Consider the example of derivation of kinetic energy through dimensional analysis, ${\rm{K}}.{\rm{E}} \propto {{\rm{m}}^{\rm{x}}}{{\rm{v}}^{\rm{y}}}$ ${\rm{K}}.
{\rm{E}} = {\rm{k\: }}{{\rm{m}}^{\rm{x}}}{{\rm{v}}^{\rm{y}}}$ Converting in dimensional form ${\rm{J}} = {\rm{k\: k}}{{\rm{g}}^{\rm{x}}}{\left( {{\rm{m}}{{\rm{s}}^{ - 1}}} \right)^{\rm{y}}}$ ${\rm{M}}{{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}} = {\rm{k\: }}{{\rm{M}}^{\rm{x}}}{{\rm{L}}^{\rm{y}}}{{\rm{T}}^{ -
{\rm{y}}}}$ Comparing powers of dimensions we get Comparing M 1=x Equation – 1 Comparing L 2=y Equation – 2 Comparing T -2=-y Equation – 3 Using values obtained through the above equations, the kinetic energy can be written as, ${\rm{K}}.{\rm{E}} = {\rm{k\: }}{{\rm{m}}^1}{{\rm{v}}^2}$ We have
derived the correct relationship between the physical quantities but still the value of dimensionless ‘k’ is unknown. 2. The principle of homogeneity of dimensions is used to verify the physical laws involving physical quantities. For a relation to be valid and correct the dimensional form of the physical law must be balanced, i.e. the dimensions at both
side of the equation must be same. Every physical law that is valid obeys the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. For example consider following equations: Equations of motion: ${{\rm{v}}_{\rm{f}}} = {{\rm{v}}_{\rm{i}}} + {\rm{a\: t}}$ ${\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} = {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} +
{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}{\rm{\: T}}$ ${\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} = {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} + {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}$ ${\rm{s}} = {{\rm{v}}_{\rm{i}}}{\rm{\: t}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{a\: }}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ ${\rm{L}} = {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}{\rm{\: T}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{L}}
{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}{{\rm{T}}^2}$ ${\rm{L}} = {\rm{L}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{L}}$ $2{\rm{\: a\: s}} = {\rm{v}}_{\rm{f}}^2 - {\rm{v}}_{\rm{i}}^2$ $2{\rm{\: L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}{\rm{\: L}} = {\left( {{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}} \right)^2} - {\left( {{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{
- 1}}} \right)^2}$ $2{{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}} = {{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}} - {{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}$ Mass – Energy equivalence: ${\rm{E}} = {\rm{m}}.{{\rm{c}}^2}$ ${\rm{J}} = {\rm{kg}}.{\left( {{\rm{m}}{{\rm{s}}^{ - 1}}} \right)^2}$
${\rm{M}}{{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}} = {\rm{M}}{{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}$ All the equations that are given above are dimensionally correct i.e. the dimensions are same at both sides of the equation. It is to be noted that all the constants are ignored in dimensional form and also dimensions are never to be canceled
by subtraction, just like we have two similar terms with opposite signs in last equation of motion. 3. No, dimensional analysis does not tell that a physical relation is completely right because numerical factors in the relation cannot be determined. 4. Dimensionless quantities are those physical quantities which do not have any physical dimension
associated with them. These usually result as a product or ratio of physical quantities such that their dimensions get cancelled out leaving a dimensionless entity. Examples are: Strain – ratio of change in length and original length ${\rm{strain}} = \frac{{\Delta {\rm{l}}}}{{\rm{l}}} = \frac{{\rm{L}}}{{\rm{L}}}$ Refractive
index – ratio of speed of light in vacuum and speed of light in a medium ${\rm{refractive\: index}} = \frac{{\rm{c}}}{{\rm{v}}} = \frac{{{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}}}{{{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}}}$ Although the dimension less quantities doesn’t have dimensions but they can have unit associated with them. These units are termed as
dimension less units. 5. Yes we can tell the most unit of physical quantity from its dimensions. 6. If a body moves with uniform velocity v for time t, the distance covered x is given by x = vt. Now, if x is measured in meter, vt should also be in meter.
This is known as unit consistency. 7. π is unit less quantity. 8. The principle of homogeneity of dimensions is used to verify the physical laws involving physical quantities. For a relation to be valid and correct the dimensional form of the physical law must be balanced, i.e. the dimensions at both side of the equation must be same. Every physical law
that is valid obeys the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. 9. The principle of homogeneity of dimensions is used to verify the physical laws involving physical quantities. For a relation to be valid and correct the dimensional form of the physical law must be balanced, i.e. the dimensions at both side of the equation must be same. Every physical law
that is valid obeys the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. For example consider following equations: Equations of motion: ${{\rm{v}}_{\rm{f}}} = {{\rm{v}}_{\rm{i}}} + {\rm{a\: t}}$ ${\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} = {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} + {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}{\rm{\: T}}$
${\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} = {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}} + {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}$ ${\rm{s}} = {{\rm{v}}_{\rm{i}}}{\rm{\: t}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{a\: }}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ ${\rm{L}} = {\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}{\rm{\: T}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}{{\rm{T}}^2}$
${\rm{L}} = {\rm{L}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{L}}$ $2{\rm{\: a\: s}} = {\rm{v}}_{\rm{f}}^2 - {\rm{v}}_{\rm{i}}^2$ $2{\rm{\: L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}{\rm{\: L}} = {\left( {{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}} \right)^2} - {\left( {{\rm{L}}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 1}}} \right)^2}$
$2{{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}} = {{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}} - {{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}$ Mass – Energy equivalence: ${\rm{E}} = {\rm{m}}.{{\rm{c}}^2}$ ${\rm{J}} = {\rm{kg}}.{\left( {{\rm{m}}{{\rm{s}}^{ - 1}}} \right)^2}$
${\rm{M}}{{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}} = {\rm{M}}{{\rm{L}}^2}{{\rm{T}}^{ - 2}}$ All the equations that are given above are dimensionally correct i.e. the dimensions are same at both sides of the equation. It is to be noted that all the constants are ignored in dimensional form and also dimensions are never to be canceled by subtraction,
just like we have two similar terms with opposite signs in last equation of motion. 10. In the equation C = A + B the dimensions of C are equal to the dimensions of A + B. 11. Advantages of SI system are; 1. It is a rational system of units 2. It is a coherent system of units 3. It is a decimal system of units 12. Precision is determined by the least count of
the measuring instrument. The smaller the least count, the greater is the precision. 13. The number of meaningful digits in number is called its number of significant figures. 14. Reshaping the measure of a physical quantity with the least deviation from its original value after dropping the last digits which are not required is called rounding off. It is
necessary for Reshaping the measure of a physical quantity with the least deviation from its original value after dropping the last digits which are not required. 15. The accuracy of measurement means the extent to which a measure value agrees with the standard or true for the measurement. Precision of measurement means the extent to which a
given set of measurement of the same quantity agree with their mean value. 16. a. Power- [M L2 T-3] b. Force- [M L T-2] c. Gravitational constant-[M-1 L3 T-2] d. Acceleration due to gravity-[M0 L T-2] e. Torque-[M L2 T-2] 17. a.
Dimensional variables: Physical quantities which have dimensions but do not have fixed value are called dimensional variables, eg; work, power, velocity.
b. Dimensionless variables: These are physical quantities which have neither dimensions nor fixed value. c. Dimensional constant: These are physical quantities which have dimensions and fixed value. d. Dimensionless constant: Physical quantities which do not posses dimensions but have fixed value are called dimensional constants, eg; π, counting
number etc. Long Answer question; 1. The mathematical relation contains many parameters concerning the phenomenon. The various parameters appearing in the relation are called physical quantities. Fundamental Unit Derived unit The unit of the fundamental quantities are called fundamental unit. The units of the derived quantities are called
derived unit. The fundamental unit depend upon the system of unit used. The derived unit depend upon the system of units taken. Eg: Kilogram,metre etc Eg: Unit of force, Newton etc 2. The dimension of a physical quantity is definaed as the power to be raised to the fundamental quantities in order to represent the physical quantity. The dimensional
formula is defined as the expression of the physical quantity in terms of its basic unit with proper dimensions. Eg: Force=$\frac{{{\rm{Work\: done}}}}{{{\rm{Time}}}}$ $ = \frac{{{\rm{Force*distance}}}}{{{\rm{Time}}}}$ =$\frac{{{\rm{Mass*Accleration*Distance}}}}{{{\rm{Time*TIme*Time}}}}$
=$\frac{{\left[ {\rm{M}} \right]{\rm{*}}\left[ {\rm{L}} \right]{\rm{*}}\left[ {\rm{L}} \right]}}{{\left[ {\rm{T}} \right]{\rm{*}}\left[ {\rm{T}} \right]{\rm{*}}\left[ {\rm{T}} \right]}}$ =$\frac{{\left[ {\rm{M}} \right]{\rm{*}}{{\left[ {\rm{L}} \right]}^3}}}{{{{\left[ {\rm{T}} \right]}^3}}}$ =[ML2T-3] Thus, Power (P) =[ML2T-3] Hence, the
dimension of power is 1 in mass, 2 in length and -3 in time. Some dimensional formula of some physical quantities Distance Length [L] Area Length * Width [L2] Velocity $\frac{{{\rm{Distance}}}}{{{\rm{Time}}}}$ [MLT-1] Gravitational Constant (G) $\frac{{{\rm{Force*}}{{\left( {{\rm{Distance}}} \right)}^2}}}{{{{\left( {{\rm{Mass}}}
\right)}^2}}}$ [M-1L3T-2] Impulse Force * Time [MLT-1] An equation explaining physical quantities with dimensional formula is known as dimensional equation. For example, the equation ${\rm{S}} = {\rm{ut}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{a}}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ represents the physical equation for the distance travelled by a body accelerating of
acceleration (a) for time (t) with initial velocity (u). Then, replacing u,a,s and t by their dimensional formula, we get, S = [M0-LT1]*[M0L0T]+[M0LT-2]*[M0L0T-2] This equation is called dimensional equation. 3. The main uses of dimensional equations are: a. To check the correctness of a physical equation. b. To convert a system of unit to another
system of unit. c. To determine the dimension of a constant in a relation d. To derive the relation between various physical quantities.
e. To correct a formula 4. A unit is defined as a convention to define an amount of physical property in a specific system of units. There are several systems of units with different conventions to express these units. There are units defined for every physical quantity and that physical quantity is expressed in terms of that specific unit.
For example, in International System of units we have kilogram for mass, meter for length, seconds/minutes/hours for time, etc. Without a unit a physical property cannot be distinguished or described.

For writing, units are expressed in terms of alphabets, referred to as unit symbols. Like meter is written ‘m’, second as‘s’, grams as ’g’, etc. To expresses larger quantities of units in terms of power of tens, certain prefixes are used. Examples: kilogram for 1000 grams, centimeters for 1/100 of a meter meters, milliseconds for 1/1000 of a second, etc.
The Si system has seven fundamental physical quantities given below: Physical Quantity Unit Symbol mass kilogram kg length Meter m time second s temperature Kelvin K electric current ampere A amount of matter Mole mol luminous intensity candela Cd Page 2Short Questions 1. The sum of two vectors is not being a scalar and numeric they are
vector.
2. If two vectors are equal in magnitude directions, the resultant vector would be equal to zero. ${\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{A}} + {\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{B}} = \mathop\to\limits_{\rm{A}} - {\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{B}} = {\rm{o}},{\rm{\: }}$ If ${\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{A}} = \mathop\to\limits_{\rm{B}} $
3. Distinguish between cross product and dot product of two vectors. 1. The cross product of two vectors is non-commutative whereas the dot product of two vectors is always commutative. 2. The cross product of two perpendicular vectors has maximum magnitude whereas the dot product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is always zero. 3. The
cross product of two parallel vectors is null or zero vector whereas, the dot product of two parallel vectors is always equal to product of their magnitudes. 4. The necessary condition for addition of vectors is both are must be vector or the vectors having the same, nature only can be added. 5. Momentum of a moving body is vector because it has both
magnitude and direction. 6. The scalar product of two vectors is just a number, whereas the vector product is itself a vector. 7. Yes two vectors be added by using the parallelogram law of vector addition 8. Let ${\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{P}} $ and ${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{Q}} $ be two vactors such p=x, Q=x and their resultant
R=x From the parallelogram law of vector addition R2=P2 + Q2 +2PQ cos θ 1 = 2 + 2 cos θ Cos θ = $ - \frac{1}{2}$ Θ = ${\rm{co}}{{\rm{s}}^{ - 1}}\left( { - \frac{1}{2}} \right) = {120^0}$ Hence when angle between two vectors is 120 then the resultant of the two vectors is equal to either of the vector. 9. Equal vectors: Two vectors suppose
A and B are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and same direction regardless of the position of their starting points. Negative of a vector: Vector equal in magnitude with the other vector but in the opposite direction. Such vector is called as negative of a vector. Suppose we have two vectors A and B both have the same magnitude but
they are opposite in direction so they will be written as: A = -B 10. The answer can be determined by calculating the maximum and minimum resultants. These values are found by subtracting and adding the two vectors. Only 20N has the maximum resultant that is more than 15N and minimum resultant that is less than 15N. 11. Scalars are the
physical quantities that can be represented by their magnitude. Examples of such physical quantities include mass, time, length, energy, temperature etc. All of these require a magnitude to be represented. For instance mass is represented by just expressing its magnitude in respective units, like 5 kg, time is expressed in seconds, energy in joules,
temperature in Celsius. There is no sense of direction in these physical quantities. Vectors are the physical quantities that require magnitude and also direction to be represented. Examples include force, velocity, acceleration, etc. All of these require a magnitude and a direction in which they act to be completely defined. For instance force needs to
be defined in terms of magnitude in N and also the direction in which it acts; velocity is expressed in ms-1 and needs a direction in which the body is travelling., 12. State triangle law of vector addition. The triangle law of vectors states: If two vectors such as AB and BC are representing the two sides of a triangle ABC, then the third side AC closing
the other side of the triangle in opposite direction represents the sum of two vectors both in magnitude and vectors. $\overrightarrow {{\rm{AC}}} = \overrightarrow {{\rm{AB}}}+\overrightarrow {{\rm{BC}}} $ 13. Parallelogram law of vector states that “If the vectors acting simultaneously at a point both in direction and magnitude represented
by the adjacent sides of the parallelogram drawn from the point, then the resultant of the vectors both in magnitude and direction are represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point”. 14. If a number of vectors acting simultaneously on a body be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in
order, the closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order represents the resultant vector both in magnitude and direction. 15. The vectors having the same, nature only can be subtracted. 16. The Parallelogram Law of Forces: The law states that 'two forces acting at a point on rigid body or on a particle can be replaced by a single equivalent force
obtained by drawing the diagonal of Parallelogram having length of side proportionate to the given forces, to the point.
A parallelogram the diagonal of which represents the resultant of two velocities, forces,accelerations, momenta, etc., both in quantity and direction, when the velocities, forces,accelerations, momenta, etc., are represented in quantity and direction by the two adjacent sides of the parallelogram. 17. The process of splitting a vector into various parts or
components is called resolution of vectors these parts of a vector may act in different directions and are called components of vector. 18.

The scalar product between two vectors is zero if the vectors are perpendicular to each other. The vector product between two vectors is zero if the vectors are parallel to each other.

19. The magnitude of scalar product of two vectors ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$ is AB cosθ. 20. The magnitude of vector product of two vectors ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$ is AB sinθ. 21. The different between scalar and vector product of two vector is, the magnitude of scalar product of two vectors ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and
${\rm{\vec B}}$ is AB cosθ. The magnitude of vector product of two vectors ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$ is AB sinθ. 22. 23. No. the quantity having magnitude and direction must also obey the laws of vector addition in order to be a vector quantity. Hence a quantity having magnitude and direction is not necessarily a vector. 24. Solution,
A=3, B=4 ${\rm{\vec A}}$ . ${\rm{\vec B}}$ = AB cos θ 6= AB cosθ Or, 6 = 3*4 cosθ Or, 6 = 12 cos$\theta $ Or, $\frac{6}{{12}} = $cosθ Or, $\frac{1}{2} = $cosθ Or, Cosθ = 60 Or, θ = 60 ∴ Angle between them is 60.
25. Yes, it is possible only when the two vectors ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$have same magnitude but are in opposite direction. 26. The dot product between ${\rm{\: \vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$ is given by ${\rm{\vec A}}$ . ${\rm{\vec B}}$ = AB cosθ Where θ is angle between ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$.

Since ${\rm{\vec A\: }}$. ${\rm{\vec B}}$= 0, then AB cosθ= 0 Cosθ= 0 Θ = 900 So angle between ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$ is 900. 27. The dot product between ${\rm{\: \vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$ is given by ${\rm{\vec A}}$ . ${\rm{\vec B}}$ = AB cosθ Where θ is angle between ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$. Since
${\rm{\vec A\: }}$. ${\rm{\vec B}}$= 0, then AB cosθ= 0 Cosθ= 0 Θ = 900 So angle between ${\rm{\vec A}}$ and ${\rm{\vec B}}$ is 900. Long question; 1. Those physical quantities which have magnitude only but no direction are called scalar whereas those physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vector. Scalars
Vectors Those physical quantities have magnitude but no directions are called scalars. Those physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction are called vector. These quantities do not obey the law of vector addition. These quantities obey the law of vector addition. For example: mass, time, distance, speed etc. For example: displacement,
velocity, acceleration etc. 2. The resultant vector is the vector that results from adding two or more vectors together.
Parallelogram law of vector states that “If the vectors acting simultaneously at a point both in direction and magnitude represented by the adjacent sides of the parallelogram drawn from the point, then the resultant of the vectors both in magnitude and direction are represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point”.⃗
Here,${\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{P}} $ and ${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{Q}} $ are represented by the sides of parallelogram OBCA and the $\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{R}} $ is represented by OC such that ${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{R}} $ =${\rm{\: \: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{{\rm{\: P}}} $ + ${\rm{\: \:
}}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{Q}} $ Let the angle between ${\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{P}} $ and ${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{Q}} $ is ${\rm{\: \: }}\theta $ Magnitude of$\: \: \mathop\to\limits_{\bf{R}} $ To calculate ${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{R}} $ , draw the perpendicular from point C to D as shown in figure. In
$\Delta $OCD ${\rm{O}}{{\rm{C}}^2}{\rm{\: }} = {\rm{\: \: }}{\left( {{\rm{OA}} + {\rm{AD\: }}} \right)^2}{\rm{\: }} + {\rm{C}}{{\rm{D}}^2}$ ………………………i In Δ ACD, CD = Q sin θ AD= Q cos θ From I ${\rm{O}}{{\rm{C}}^2}{\rm{\: }} = {\rm{\: \: }}{\left( {{\rm{P}} + {\rm{Qcos}}\theta {\rm{\: }}} \right)^2}{\rm{\:
}} + {\left( {{\rm{Qsin}}\theta {\rm{\: }}} \right)^2}$ ${\rm{R\: }} = {\rm{\: }}\sqrt {{\rm{\: }}{{\rm{P}}^2} + {\rm{\: }}2{\rm{PQcos}}\theta {\rm{\: }} + {\rm{\: \: }}{{\rm{Q}}^2}} $ Direction of ${\rm{\vec R}}$ is given by Tan α $ = \frac{{{\rm{CD}}}}{{{\rm{OD}}}}{\rm{\: }}$ = $\frac{{{\rm{Q\: sin}}\theta }}{{\left( {{\rm{P\:
}} + {\rm{\: Q\: cos}}\theta {\rm{\: }}} \right){\rm{\: }}0}}{\rm{\: }}$ α = ${\tan ^{ - 1}}{\rm{\: Q}}\frac{{{\rm{sin}}\theta }}{{\left( {{\rm{P\: }} + {\rm{\: Q\: cos}}\theta {\rm{\: }}} \right)}}$ Special cases, i. when P and Q act on the same direction θ = 0 ° ${\rm{R\: \: }} = {\rm{\: }}\sqrt {{\rm{\: }}{{\rm{P}}^2} + {\rm{\:
}}2{\rm{PQcos}}0{\rm{\: }} + {\rm{\: \: }}{{\rm{Q}}^2}} $ R = P+Q Tan α = 0 ii.
When they act in opp direction ${\rm{R\: }} = {\rm{\: }}\sqrt {{\rm{\: }}{{\rm{P}}^2} + {\rm{\: }}2{\rm{PQcos}}180{\rm{\: }} + {\rm{\: \: }}{{\rm{Q}}^2}} $ R = A – B Tan α = 0 When P an Q are perpendicular to each other θ = 90 R = ${\rm{\: }}\sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{Q}}^2}} $ Tan α = $\frac{{\rm{Q}}}
{{\rm{P}}}$ α = $\frac{{{{\tan }^1}{\rm{Q}}}}{{\rm{P}}}$ 3. Statement: "If two vectors are acting simultaneously at a point and these are represented in magnitude and direction by any two adjacent side of a triangle taken in order then the remaining side of the triangle gives the magnitude and direction at their resultant taken in opposite
sides. Explanation Let ${\rm{\vec P\: and\: \vec Q}}$ be the two vectors acting simultaneously at a point O and these are represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides AB and BC of a triangle ABC then the side AC of a triangle ABC represent their resultant in magnitude and direction as shown in figure i.e.$\frac{{\overrightarrow
{{\rm{AC}}} }}{{{\rm{\vec R}}}} = \frac{{\overrightarrow {{\rm{AB}}} }}{{{\rm{\vec P}}}} + \frac{{\overrightarrow {{\rm{BC}}} }}{{{\rm{\vec Q}}}}$ Calculation of magnitude and direction of ${\rm{\vec R}}$produce AB forward and draw an perpendicular on it.
CBM=0 [as the angle between ${\rm{\vec Pand\: \vec Q}}$ is G.] Let G be the angle made by ${\rm{\vec R}}$ with ${\rm{\vec P}}$ which gives the direction of ${\rm{\vec R}}$. In triangle CBM, $\cos \theta = \frac{{{\rm{BM}}}}{{{\rm{BC}}}} = \frac{{{\rm{BM}}}}{{\rm{G}}}$ And $\sin \theta =
\frac{{{\rm{CM}}}}{{{\rm{BC}}}} = \frac{{{\rm{CM}}}}{{\rm{G}}}$ CM=a$\sin \theta $ Now In triangle ACM, AC2 = AM2+CM2 Or, $\overrightarrow {{{\rm{R}}^2}} = $(AB+BM)2 + CM2 Or, $\overrightarrow {{{\rm{R}}^2}} = {\left( {{\rm{P}} + {\rm{acos}}\theta } \right)^2} + {\left( {{\rm{asin}}\theta } \right)^2}$ Or,
$\overrightarrow {{{\rm{R}}^2}} $= P2 + 2p$\cos \theta $+a2cos2$\theta $+ a2sin2$\theta $ Or, $\overrightarrow {{{\rm{R}}^2}} $= P2+2pa$\cos \theta $+ a2(cos2$\theta $+sin2$\theta $) \ R = $\sqrt {{{\rm{p}}^2} + {{\rm{a}}^2} + 2{\rm{pa}}\cos \theta } $ Again in triangle ACM, $\tan \theta =
\frac{{{\rm{CM}}}}{{{\rm{AM}}}}$ $\tan \theta = \frac{{{\rm{CM}}}}{{{\rm{AB}} + {\rm{BM}}}}$ $\theta = {\tan ^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{{{\rm{asin}}\theta }}{{{\rm{p}} + {\rm{acos}}\theta }}} \right)$ To find the resultant of ${\rm{\vec R}}$ of vector ${\rm{\vec a}}$ and ${\rm{\vec b}}$ R=$\sqrt
{{{\rm{u}}^2} + {{\rm{v}}^2} + 2{\rm{puv\: cos\: }}\theta } $ =$\sqrt {{3^2} + {4^2} + 2{\rm{*}}3{\rm{*}}4{\rm{*}}\cos 60} $ =$\sqrt {37} $ ms-1 And Direction ($\theta $)=${\tan ^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{{{\rm{vsin\: }}\theta }}{{{\rm{u}} + {\rm{v}}\cos \theta }}} \right)$ =${\tan ^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{{4\sin 60}}{{3 + 4\cos 60}}}
\right)$ 4. The special cases of parallelogram law of vectors are i.
When two vectors are acting on the same line or different line in the same direction then $\theta = 0$ \ ${\rm{R}} = \sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {{\rm{Q}}^2} + 2{\rm{PQ}}\cos \theta } $ =$\sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {{\rm{Q}}^2} + 2{\rm{PQ}}} $ =$\sqrt {{{\left( {{\rm{P}} + {\rm{Q}}} \right)}^2}} $ ∴R=P+Q And, Direction ($\theta
$)=${\tan ^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{{{\rm{Q}}\sin \theta }}{{{\rm{P}} + {\rm{Q}}\cos \theta }}} \right)$ =${\tan ^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{0}{{{\rm{P}} + {\rm{Q}}}}} \right)$ =0 Thus, if the two vectors are acting on the same line and in the same direction then magnitude of their resultant is sum of the magnitude of these vectors and resultant lies in
the direction of these vectors. ii. When two vectors are acting opposite on the same line (or different line) in the opposite direction, then $\theta = 180\infty $ \ R =$ \sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {{\rm{Q}}^2} + 2{\rm{PQ}}\cos 180} $ =$\sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {{\rm{Q}}^2} - 2{\rm{PQ}}} $ ∴R=P – Q And Direction of ${\rm{\vec R}}$=${\tan ^{ -
1}}\left( {\frac{{{\rm{Q}}\sin 180}}{{{\rm{P}} + {\rm{Q}}\cos 180}}} \right)$ =${\tan ^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{0}{{{\rm{P}} - {\rm{Q}}}}} \right)$ =${\tan ^{ - 1}}0$ =0 Thus, if two vectors are acting on the same line but in opposite direction, then the magnitude of their resultant is simple the difference in magnitude of those vectors and the
resultant lies in the direction of greater vector. iii. When two vectors are acting at right angle to each other then $\theta$ = 90° \ R =$ \sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {{\rm{Q}}^2} + 2{\rm{PQcos\: }}90} $ R=$\sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {{\rm{Q}}^2} + 0} $ R=$\sqrt {{{\rm{P}}^2} + {{\rm{Q}}^2}} $ Direction of ${\rm{\vec R}}$=${\tan ^{ -
1}}\left( {\frac{{{\rm{Qsin\: }}90}}{{{\rm{P}} + {\rm{Q}}\cos 90}}} \right)$ =${\tan ^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{{\rm{Q}}}{{\rm{P}}}} \right)$ 5. The splitting of a vector into two or more vectors in the specified direction is called resolution of a vector. It is an opposite process of addition of vectors. Each part of the vector in a given direction is
called its component. A vector can have a number of component vectors.
Suppose, a vector ${\rm{\vec A\: }}$is the component of ${\rm{\vec A}}$ along OX-direction is OQ. In triangle POQ, $\cos \propto {\rm{\: }} = \frac{{{\rm{OQ}}}}{{{\rm{OP}}}} = \frac{{{\rm{OQ}}}}{{\rm{A}}}$ Or, ${\rm{OQ}} = {\rm{A}}\cos \propto $ Similarly, the component of ${\rm{\vec A}}$ along OX direction is
OS=${\rm{A}}\cos \beta $ where $\beta $ is angle made by ${\rm{\vec A}}$ with OX-direction and that along OX" direction is OT=${\rm{A}}\cos \gamma $ When a vector is resolved into two perpendicular directions, then the component vectos are called rectangular components.
Let us consider a vector ${\rm{\vec A}}$ represented by OB in x-y plane. Suppose that ${\rm{\vec A}}$ makes an angle $\theta $ with x-axis. Let us drop perpendicular on x-axis and y-axis of P and Q. then OP and OQ represent the components of vector ${\rm{\vec A}}$ such that ${\rm{\vec A}} = {\rm{\vec Ax}} + {\rm{\vec Ay}}$ where
${\rm{\vec Ax\: and\: \vec Ay}}$ represents the x-components and y-components of ${\rm{\vec A}}$ repspectively. In triangle OPB, $\sin \theta = \frac{{{\rm{BP}}}}{{{\rm{OB}}}}$ Or, ${\rm{BP}} = {\rm{OB}}\sin \theta $ Or, ${{\rm{A}}_{\rm{y}}} = {\rm{Asin\: }}\theta {\rm{\: }}$……(i) Or, $\cos \theta
= \frac{{{\rm{OP}}}}{{{\rm{OB}}}}$ Or, ${\rm{OP}} = {\rm{OB}}\cos \theta $ Or, ${{\rm{A}}_{\rm{x}}} = {\rm{A}}\cos \theta $….(ii) Squaring and adding equation (i) and (ii), we get, A=$\sqrt {{\rm{A}}_{\rm{x}}^2 + {\rm{A}}_{\rm{y}}^2} $ And dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), $\tan \theta =
\frac{{{{\rm{A}}_{\rm{y}}}}}{{{{\rm{A}}_{\rm{x}}}}}$Page 3Chapter – 1.3 Kinematics Short Questions 1. Distance of particle travelled in half revolution is total length of path between its initial and final position and its displacement is the shortest length of the path between two points in a direction. 2. Yes, it is possible when the body is
moving in a circular path with a uniform speed. At every point of its path, the speed is same but the velocity is directed tangentially. 3. No, average velocity of a body be zero and yet speed hot zero because velocity= speed + direction.
4. When an object is thrown upward its direction of motion and velocity are vertically upward but the acceleration is downward as change in the velocity is negative in upward direction and projectile has only horizontal velocity. So velocity gives the direction of motion not acceleration. 5. Figure 6. Figure (i) shows the body is moving with the constant
velocity . Figure (ii) shows the body is moving with the uniform acceleration. 7.
Figure 8. Average velocity is equal to the instantaneous velocity when acceleration is zero. In order for acceleration of an object to equal zero, there can be no change in speed or direction. 9. Since the acceleration of both balls is same i.e g, the speed with which a body returns back is always equal to the speed with which it is thrown up.
Since expression for final speed not involves mass, both the balls will acquire the same speed. 10. In this condition the front screens get wet whereas the hind screen remains dry because screen is waterproof. 11. When the man move through the rain falling vertically downwards, the rain drops appear to fall in a direction inclined to the vertical. So as
to protect himself from the rain, he holds the umbrella inclined to the vertical in the direction of relative velocity of the rain with respect to himself. 12. Any other reference frame moving rectilinearly and uniformly relative to an inertial frame is also inertial. Thus there is a vast no. of inertial reference frames moving relative to one another uniformly
and rectilinearly. 13. Any other reference frame moving rectilinearly and uniformly relative to an inertial frame is also inertial. Thus there is a vast no.
of inertial reference frames moving relative to one another uniformly and rectilinearly. 14. A person sitting in one train think that the other train is at rest when the both train are moving in parallel Because a body can be regarded in a state of rest as well as in motion at the same time it is due to relative motion between source and surrounding. 15. A
package falls out of an airplane that is flying in a straight line at a constant altitude and speed. If air resistance is neglected, what would be the path of the package as observed by the pilot? As observed by the person on the ground? 16.
The maximum horizontal range is four times the maximum height attain by the projectile when fired at inclination so as to have maximum horizontal range. 17. An example of motion in which motion is in two dimensions, where as the acceleration is in one dimension; Let's escape from the binds of one-dimension (where we were forced to launch
things straight up) and start launching at angles. With a little bit of trig (might want to review sin and cos) we'll be figuring out just how long and far something can travel. 18. The direction of motion of a projectile becomes horizontal at the highest point of its trajectory. 19.
20. If a jumper can give the same initial speed regardless of the direction he jumps, how is his maximum horizontal jump? If he jumps at an angle of${\rm{\: }}45^{\circ} $ Such that, 2$\theta = 90^{\circ} {\rm{\: or\: }}\theta = 45^{\circ} $ 21.
The ball is thrown into the air with a horizontal component to its motion. But that horizontal component is equal to the speed and direction of the bus, and so the ball moves in an up and down arc directly into the same hand. 23. Yes, a body can be in motion and at rest at the same time. According to the first law of Newton based on motion and
inertia” A body will remain at rest and a body moving with uniform velocity will continue to do so unless acted upon by some unbalanced external force.” This is also called as law of inertia. Long answer questions 1. The difference between speed and velocity are as follows: Speed Velocity The rate of distance travelled by the body is known as speed. It
is the ratio of distance travelled in a given direction to the time taken. It is just the magnitude hence is a scalar quantity. It is vector quantity so it includes not only speed but also direction. Eg: That ship is travelling at 20 knots. Eg: That ship is travelling NMW at 20 knots.
Distinguish between uniform, average and instantaneous velocities are: i. Average velocity (${{\rm{\vec V}}_{{\rm{av}}}}$)= The ratio of total displacement made to the total time interval of a body is called it's average velocity. It is denoted by ${{\rm{\vec V}}_{{\rm{av}}}}$and given as: ${{\rm{\vec V}}_{{\rm{av}}}} = \frac{{\Delta
{\rm{\vec S}}}}{{\Delta {\rm{\vec t}}}} = \frac{{\overrightarrow {{{\rm{S}}_2}} - \overrightarrow {{{\rm{S}}_1}} }}{{{{\rm{t}}_2} - {{\rm{t}}_1}}} = \frac{{{\rm{\vec S}}}}{{\rm{t}}}$ ii. Instantaneous velocity ($\overrightarrow {{{\rm{V}}_{{\rm{ins}}}}} $)=The limiting value of average velocity as time interval tends to zero is
called instantaneous velocity of the body. It is denoted by $\overrightarrow {{{\rm{V}}_{{\rm{ins}}}}} $ and given as: $\overrightarrow {{{\rm{V}}_{{\rm{ins}}}}} = \mathop {\lim }\limits_{\Delta {\rm{t}} \to 0} \overrightarrow {{{\rm{V}}_{{\rm{av}}}}} = \mathop {\lim }\limits_{\Delta {\rm{t}} \to 0} \overrightarrow {\frac{{\Delta
{\rm{S}}}}{{\Delta {\rm{t}}}}} = \frac{{\overrightarrow {\Delta {\rm{S}}} }}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ iii. Uniform velocity = If a body covers some displacement in equal interval of time, then the velocity of body is called uniform velocity. 2 i. Uniform acceleration: A body is said to have uniform acceleration if its velocity changes at a uniform rate. In
other words, if the velocity of the body changes by equal amount in equal interval of time, the body is said to have uniform acceleration. The following are some examples of uniform acceleration.
a. The acceleration of a falling body. b. The motion of a ball rolling down an inclined. ii. Instantaneous acceleration: If the acceleration of a body is changing in time, it may be necessary to determine the acceleration of an instant. The acceleration of a body at that instant is called instantaneous acceleration. The instantaneous acceleration of a body at
any time is defined as the limiting value of the change in velocity per unit change in time. That is instantaneous acceleration. ${{\rm{a}}_{{\rm{ins}}}} = \mathop {\lim }\limits_{\Delta {\rm{t}} \to 0} \frac{{\Delta {\rm{v}}}}{{\Delta {\rm{t}}}} = \frac{{{\rm{dv}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ iii. Average acceleration: if the acceleration of a body is not
uniform but changing uniformly, the average acceleration is defined as the arithmetic mean of the initial acceleration and the final acceleration.
Hence the average acceleration is given by: ${{\rm{a}}_{{\rm{av}}}} = \frac{{{{\rm{a}}_{{\rm{initial}}}} + {{\rm{a}}_{{\rm{final}}}}}}{2}$ 3. i. v=u + at Let line AB in velocity time graph represents uniformly accelerated motion of a body. Draw BM perpendicular time axis and AN perpendicular BM. Then, OM=t=Am OA=u=NM Slope of
velocity versus time. I.e. line AB=a $\frac{{{\rm{BN}}}}{{{\rm{AM}}}} = {\rm{a}}$ ${\rm{or}},\frac{{{\rm{BM}} - {\rm{NM}}}}{{{\rm{OM}}}} = {\rm{a}}$ or,$\frac{{{\rm{v}} - {\rm{u}}}}{{\rm{t}}} = {\rm{a}}$ ∴v=u+at ii. S=${\rm{ut}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{a}}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ Let AB represents the uniformly accelerated
velocity motion of a body in the velocity versus time graph. Draw BM perpendicular time axis and An perpendicular BM. Here, OM=t=time interval OA=u=initial velocity=NM BM=final velocity BN=change in velocity Now, Area of trapezium OABM= Area of rectangle AONM + Area of triangle ABN =${\rm{OA*OM}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{AN}}.
{\rm{BN}}$ =${\rm{u}}.{\rm{t}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{A}}{{\rm{N}}^2}{\rm{*}}\frac{{{\rm{BN}}}}{{{\rm{AN}}}}$ =${\rm{ut}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{a}}{{\rm{t}}^2}$….(i) We also have area of v-t graph with time axis given distance \${\rm{S}} = {\rm{ut}} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{a}}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ iii. v2=u2+2aS Let AB represents the
uniformly accelerated motion of a body in the velocity-time graph. Draw BM perpendicular time axis and AN perpendicular BM. Here, OM = time interval OA = u = initial velocity = NM BM= v =final velocity Slope of line AB I.e. v-t graph =$\frac{{{\rm{BN}}}}{{{\rm{AN}}}}$ Now, Area of trapezium OABM, =$\frac{1}{2}\left( {{\rm{OA}} +
{\rm{BM}}} \right){\rm{*AN}}$ =$\frac{1}{2}\left( {{\rm{u}} + {\rm{v}}} \right){\rm{*}}\left( {\frac{{{\rm{AN}}}}{{{\rm{BN}}}}} \right){\rm{*BN}}$ =$\frac{1}{2}{\rm{u}} + {\rm{v*}}\frac{1}{{\rm{a}}}\left( {{\rm{BN}} - {\rm{NM}}} \right)$ =$\frac{1}{2}\left( {\frac{{{\rm{u}} + {\rm{v}}}}{{\rm{a}}}} \right)\left(
{{\rm{v}} - {\rm{u}}} \right)$ =$\frac{{{{\rm{v}}^2} - {{\rm{u}}^2}}}{{2{\rm{a}}}}$….(i) We also have, Area of v-t graph =s …(ii) With time axis, Or, $\frac{{{{\rm{v}}^2} - {{\rm{u}}^2}}}{{2{\rm{a}}}} = {\rm{S}}$ \${{\rm{v}}^2} = {{\rm{u}}^2} + 2{\rm{aS}}$ 4. A ball is thrown vertically downward and bounce it back, velocity
time graph 5. A ball is thrown vertically upward and return back velocity time graph 6. Relative velocity is defined as the velocity of one of the object with respect to another object. Figure Let ${{\rm{v}}_1}{\rm{\: and\: }}{{\rm{v}}_2}{\rm{\: }}$are the velocity of body A and body B and the resultant velocity ${{\rm{v}}_{{\rm{AB}}}}$
Here,${\rm{\: }}\mathop\to\limits_{{{\rm{V}}_1}} $ and ${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{{{\rm{V}}_2}} $ are represented by the sides of parallelogram OBCA and the${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{V}} $ is represented by OC such that ${\rm{\: \: }}\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{v}} $ = $\mathop\to\limits_{{{\rm{V}}_1}} $
+$\mathop\to\limits_{{{\rm{V}}_2}} $ .let the angle between $\mathop\to\limits_{{{\rm{V}}_1}} {\rm{\: \: }}$and $\mathop\to\limits_{{{\rm{V}}_2}} $ is ${\rm{\: \: }}\theta $ Magnitude of$\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{v}} $ To calculate $\mathop\to\limits_{\rm{v}} $ , draw the perpendicular from point C to D as shown in figure. In $\Delta
$OCD ${\rm{O}}{{\rm{C}}^2}{\rm{\: }} = {\rm{\: \: }}{\left( {{\rm{OA}} + {\rm{AD\: }}} \right)^2}{\rm{\: }} + {\rm{C}}{{\rm{D}}^2}$ ………………………i In Δ ACD CD = ${{\rm{V}}_2}{\rm{\: }}$ sinθ AD= ${{\rm{V}}_2}$cosθ From i ${\rm{O}}{{\rm{C}}^2}{\rm{\: }} = {\rm{\: \: }}{\left( {{{\rm{v}}_1} + {{\rm{v}}_2}
{\rm{cos}}\theta {\rm{\: }}} \right)^2}{\rm{\: }} + {\left( {{{\rm{v}}_2}{\rm{sin}}\theta {\rm{\: }}} \right)^2}$ ${{\rm{V}}_{{\rm{AB}}}}{\rm{\: }} = {\rm{\: }}\sqrt {{\rm{\: }}{{\rm{v}}_1}{{\rm{\: }}^2} + {\rm{\: }}2{{\rm{v}}_1}{{\rm{v}}_2}{\rm{cos}}\theta {\rm{\: }} + {\rm{\: \: }}{{\rm{v}}_2}{{\rm{\: }}^2}} $ 7.
A projectile is fired from the ground at an angle of $\alpha $ and with a velocity u. Calculate horizontal range of the projectile and show that its path is parabola. Let us consider the object which is projected with initial velocity u with an angle α with ground (x-axis). Theis velocity has two components, ucos α along the x-axis and usin α along Y –
axis as shown in figure. Figure The motion of projectile is two dimensional. The horizontal distanced covered is not affected by the gravity whereas the vertical distance is affected by the gravity Let us consider the objects reaches at point P in time t whose horizontal and vertical distance are x and y and it is given by ${\rm{x}} = {\rm{ucos\:
}}\alpha {\rm{\: \: *t}}$ , ${\rm{t}} = \frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: }}}}$ ……………1 ${\rm{y}} = {\rm{\: \: usin\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: *t}} - \frac{1}{2}{\rm{\: g}}{{\rm{t}}^2}{\rm{\: }}$ ${\rm{y}} = {\rm{\: \: usin\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: *}}\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: }}}}{\rm{\: \: }} - \frac{1}{2}
{\rm{\: g}}{\left( {\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: }}}}{\rm{\: \: }}} \right)^2}$ ${\rm{y}} = {\rm{\: \: usin\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: *}}\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: }}}}{\rm{\: \: }} - \frac{1}{2}{\rm{\: g}}{\left( {\frac{{{{\rm{x}}^2}}}{{{{\rm{u}}^2}{{\cos }^2}{\rm{\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: }}}}{\rm{\: \:
}}} \right)^{}}$ This is the equation of parabola This shows that the path followed by the object is parabolic. For the horizontal range R , We have to calculate the time by which projectile remains in the air We have S $ = {\rm{ut\: }} + \frac{1}{2}{\rm{g}}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ 0 = usin α + ½ (-g) T2(since vertical displacement is 0) T =
$\frac{{2{\rm{usin\: }}\alpha {\rm{\: \: }}}}{{\rm{g}}}$ Horizontal range = horizontal velocity * time of flight (T) R = ucos α * 2usin α /g 8. When an object is thrown into the atmosphere, it falls under the effect of gravity alone .This is called projectile. Let us consider an object projected horizontally from a height h from the ground with initial
velocity u. Figure: Let the position of an object at point p after time t is given by For horizontal distance X = ut t = $\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{\rm{u}}}$ For vertical distance y = 0 + $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{g}}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ Or, y = $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{g\: }}{\left( {\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{\rm{u}}}} \right)^2}{\rm{\: }}$ This is the expression for the path of
horizontal projectile and its shows that it is parabolic. Although particle has initial velocity it gains vertical velocity due to the gravity .If ${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}}{\rm{\: \: and\: }}$${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{y}}}$ are the componenet of the velocity at P in horizontal and vertical direction the resultant velocity is given by V = $\sqrt
{{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}^2 + {\rm{\: V}}_{\rm{y}}^2} $ Since ${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}}{\rm{\: \: is\: the\: constant\: being\: no\: acceleration\: in\: horizontal\: direction\: }}$ ${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{y}}} = {\rm{gt}}$ V = $\sqrt {{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}^2{\rm{\: \: }} + {{\left( {{\rm{gt}}} \right)}^2}} $ If α is the angle made by the resultant velocity V
with the horizontal, then Tanα = $\frac{{{{\rm{v}}_{\rm{y}}}}}{{{{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}}}}$ = $\frac{{{\rm{gt}}}}{{\rm{u}}}$ $\alpha = {\tan ^{ - 1}}\frac{{{\rm{gt}}}}{{\rm{u}}}{\rm{\: \: }}$ 9. When an object is thrown into the atmosphere, it falls under the effect of gravity alone .This is called projectile. Let us consider a object
projected horizontally from a height h from the ground with initial velocity u. Figure Let the position of an object at point p after time t is given by For horizontal distance X = ut t = $\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{\rm{u}}}$ For vertical distance y = 0 + $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{g}}{{\rm{t}}^2}$ Or, y = $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{g\: }}{\left( {\frac{{\rm{x}}}
{{\rm{u}}}} \right)^2}{\rm{\: }}$ This is the expression for the path of horizontal projectile and its shows that it is parabolic. Although particle has initial velocity it gains vertical velocity due to the gravity .If ${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}}{\rm{\: \: and\: }}$${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{y}}}$ are the componenet of the velocity at P in horizontal and vertical
direction the resultant velocity is given by V = $\sqrt {{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}^2 + {\rm{\: V}}_{\rm{y}}^2} $ Since ${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}}{\rm{\: \: is\: the\: constant\: being\: no\: acceleration\: in\: horizontal\: direction\: }}$ ${{\rm{V}}_{\rm{y}}} = {\rm{gt}}$ V = $\sqrt {{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}^2{\rm{\: \: }} + {{\left( {{\rm{gt}}}
\right)}^2}} $ If α is the angle made by the resultant velocity V with the horizontal , then Tanα = $\frac{{{{\rm{v}}_{\rm{y}}}}}{{{{\rm{V}}_{\rm{x}}}}}$ = $\frac{{{\rm{gt}}}}{{\rm{u}}}$ $\alpha = {\tan ^{ - 1}}\frac{{{\rm{gt}}}}{{\rm{u}}}{\rm{\: \: }}$ A body is projected making an angle θ with horizontal. Show that its path is
parabolic. Let us consider the object which is projected with initial velocity u with an angle θ with ground (x-axis). There is velocity has two components, ucosθ along the x-axis and usinθ along Y – axis. 10. Let us consider the object which is projected with initial velocity u with an angle θ with ground (x-axis). There is velocity has two components,
ucosθ along the x-axis and usinθ along Y – axis as shown in figure The motion of projectile is two dimensional. The horizontal distanced covered is not affected by the gravity whereas the vertical distance is affected by the gravity. Let us consider the objects reaches at point P in time t whose horizontal and vertical distance are x and y and it is given
by ${\rm{x}} = {\rm{ucos}}\theta {\rm{*t}}$ , ${\rm{t}} = \frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos}}\theta }}$ ……………1 ${\rm{y}} = {\rm{\: \: usin}}\theta {\rm{*t}} - \frac{1}{2}{\rm{\: g}}{{\rm{t}}^2}{\rm{\: }}$ ${\rm{y}} = {\rm{\: \: usin}}\theta {\rm{*}}\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos}}\theta }}{\rm{\: \: }} - \frac{1}{2}{\rm{\: g}}{\left(
{\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos}}\theta }}{\rm{\: \: }}} \right)^2}$ ${\rm{y}} = {\rm{\: \: usin}}\theta {\rm{*}}\frac{{\rm{x}}}{{{\rm{ucos}}\theta }}{\rm{\: \: \: }} - 1/2{\rm{\: \: g}}\left( {\frac{{{{\rm{x}}^2}}}{{{{\rm{u}}^2}{{\cos }^2}\theta }}{\rm{\: \: }}} \right){\rm{\: }}$ This is the equation of parabola This shows that the path
followed by the object is parabolic.Page 4Short question: 1. A passenger standing in a bus falls backward when the bus suddenly starts moving because passengers tends to maintain their direction of motion (inertia of motion) while the bus bends and passengers are falls backwards. 2. A passenger standing in a bus falls backward when the bus
suddenly stop moving because passengers tends to maintain their direction of motion (inertia of motion) while the bus bends and passengers are thrown forwards. 3. When cardboard is suddenly pulled, it comes in to motion but due to inertia of rest the coin remains in its position so that it falls in to the glass. 4. An athlete runs over a certain distance
before taking a long jump to gain inertia of motion. This enables him to take a longer jump. 5. Before shaking, both the branches and the mangos are at rest. When we shake the branches, the branches con in motion. But due to inertia of rest, the mango tends to continue the state of rest. As a result they drop. 6. When the net force on a body is zero,
its acceleration f = ma, it means that either the body is at rest or it is moving a constant velocity. Even if there are many forces acting on the body than the bopdy will remain at rest if there resultant is zero. 7. Automobiles and bogies of the trains are provided with spring in it because the spring increase the time of jerk , reduces the force caused byit
jerk and prevents the possible damage. 8.
A person falling from a certain height receives more serve injuries if he falls on a cemented floor than on a heap of sand because when we fall on cement, our velocity instantly reduces to 0, so time is very short and thus the force we feel is quite high, according to the above equation. But when we fall on sand visualize it as a cushion], significantly
higher amount of time is taken by the body to come at rest, so, force is decreased. 9. According to Newton’s third law of motion, action and reaction are equal and opposite. So when a balloon filled with air and its mouth downward is released, air escapes out through the mouth downward with higher velocity and as a result balloon moves upward with
higher velocity. 10.
When a man jumps out of a boat to the shore, the boat slightly moves away from the shore. Initially, the total momentum of the boat and the man is zero. As the man jumps from the boat to the shore, he gains a momentum in the forward direction.
To conserve momentum, the boat also gains an equal momentum in the opposite direction. 11. According to Newton’s third law for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Therefore, when the person pushes the water in the backward direction, the water pushes him forward, when the person applies force on water in the backward
direction, then the water also applies force as a reaction in the forward direction. 12. While trying to pull a cart, a horse pushes the grounds backwards with a certain force at an angle. The ground offers an equal reaction in the opposite direction, on the feet of the horse. The forward component of this reaction is responsible for motion of the cart. In
empty space, there is no reaction and hence a horse cannot pull the cart or run. 13. As we press the sandy ground in backward direction, the sand gets pushed away so that we get very small reaction from the ground which makes us difficult to run fast. 14. The pointed end of the nail needs to be supported as it would fall before we blow a strike over
it to drive it inside. We need to hold it in such a manner that the sharpest pointed end is in contact with the wooden planks as it has wooden plank as it has the smallest area. 15. Birds have many physical features, besides wings, that work together to enable them to fly. They need lightweight, streamlined, rigid structures for flight. The four forces of
flight – weight, lift, drag and thrust – affect the flight of birds. 16. We can throw a stone much farther by means of a sling, because, by a very moderate motion of the hand, we can whirl the stone round till it. The string presses hard on the notch of the arrow, and it yields to this pressure and goes forward. 17. According to Newton's third law of motion
"Every action force is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction force". Then there cannot a movement ever take place. 18. When the breaks of cycle are on, its wheels cannot rotate. They will simply slide. Thus rolling friction will be converted in to sliding friction which is comparatively larger. Hence it is difficult to move a cycle with break on.
19. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of horizontal force to the normal force. A car can exceed 1g of acceleration without exceeding a coefficient of 1 by increasing the normal force. This occurs due to downward aerodynamic forces, or negative lift. At speed, these forces can be considerable and provide added load on the drive wheels. If the
friction coefficient exceeds unity, there must be some attraction between the two surfaces. This would result in an extra torque required at the traction wheel to force this sticky action to release at the edge of the contact patch. A race car would easily be able to handle this extra load. 20. The coefficient of friction between rubber tires and road is
much smaller than the coefficient of friction between the iron tires and the road. In this way vehicles with rubber tires are easier to travel. Long question 1. The inability of a body to change its states by itself is known as inertia. For example, if a book is lying in a rack, the book continues to remain in the rack until some external force is applied to
remove or displace it from its rest position. If a bus is at rest on the road, the bus continues to be at rest on the road until its engine applies force for moving. On the other hand, if a train is moving on its railway track, it keeps on moving for long time until brakes are applied. The stopping of the train after some is due to opposing friction force
between its wheels and the railway track. If a duster on a table is pushed by your finger, the duster moves on the table.
If a big block of wood on the table is pushed by finger with the same force, the block may not move. This means that the duster has small inertia and the block has larger inertia. The mass of the block is greater than the mass if the duster. Hence, the mass if a body has greater inertia.
2. Newton’s laws of motion are: First law of motion Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it. Second law of motion It states that the rate of change of momentum of the body with respect to the time is directly proportional to external force applied and the changes take
plac in the direction of force . F ∝ dp/dt F = K dp/dt Where k is proportionality constant whose value is chose to be 1 F = d(mv)/dt F = mdv/dt ∴ F = ma Third law of motion Newton's third law states for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The law itself states or shows the importance of force to bring a moving body to rest or move
the body in rest to motion. As force plays a major role in here we can say that its well defined or more prominence is given to force in this law. a\q to the second law External force is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum i.e F ∝ dp/dt F = K dp/dt Where k is proportionality constant whose value is chose to be 1 F = d(mv)/dt F =
mdv/dt ∴ F = ma This is the quantitative measurement of force which is the product of mass and and acceleration of the body. 3. The momentum of an object is defined as the product of its mass and velocity. Units: The SI unit of momentum is kilogram per second (kgm/s). it can also be expressed as Newton second (Ns) Dimension Dimension of
momentum is . The momentum of an object is depend upon mass and velocity We know momentum = mass * velocity 4. A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. All forces in nature may be classified
into four types. The gravitationalforce holds together the universe at large, plus the atmosphere, water, and us to the planet Earth. The electromagnetic force governs atomic level phenomena, binding electrons to atoms, and atoms to one another to form molecules and compounds. The strong nuclear force holds the nucleus together. The fourth force,
the weak nuclear force, is responsible for certain types of nuclear reactions and has little bearing on energy sources today. In the case of the electromagnetic force, the object must have an electric charge. But if that object has no net electric charge, then an outside source of electromagnetic force cannot exert a force on that object. The space in
which a force is felt is called the "field" of the force. Thus all objects on Earth are in Earth's gravitational field, the planets and moons are in the sun's gravitational field, as well as in their mutual gravitational field. 5. Newton's second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum of a body with respect to time is directly proportional to the
net external force applied on it and the change takes place in the direction of force. When a force f is applied on a body whose momentum at time t is p, then from Newton's second law we have, ${\rm{f}} \propto \frac{{{\rm{dp}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ Or, f=${\rm{k}}\frac{{{\rm{dp}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ Where k is a constant of proportionality
whose valye depends upon the choice of unit of force. The system of units are so chosen that K=1 \${\rm{f}} = \frac{{{\rm{dp}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ If m is the mass and v is the velocity of the moving object, the linear momentum, p=mv and ${\rm{f}} = \frac{{{\rm{d}}\left( {{\rm{mv}}} \right)}}{{{\rm{dt}}}} = \frac{{{\rm{mdv}}}}
{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ =ma as m is a constant for a given body, f = ma 6. Both first law and third law are contained in the second law. That Is why it is called the real law. TO prove it, let us write the second law of motion, f=ma. If no external force Is applied on the object i.e. f=0, then ma=0 or a=0 as m$ e $0, so v=constant. That means an object of rest
will remain at rest and an object moving with uniform speed on a straight line will continue to do so which is the first law. To prove that the third law of motion is also contained in the second law of motion, we take two bodies A and B moving along the same straight line. As a result of collision, their momentum will change. Let 't' be the time of
impact, then change in linear momentum of A is; $\Delta {{\rm{p}}_{\rm{a}}} = {{\rm{f}}_{\rm{a}}}{\rm{*t}}$ Similarly, change in linear momentum of B is $\Delta {{\rm{p}}_{\rm{b}}} = {{\rm{f}}_{\rm{b}}}{\rm{*t}}$ So the total change in linear momentum of A and B is, $\Delta {\rm{p}} = \Delta {{\rm{p}}_{\rm{a}}} + \Delta
{{\rm{p}}_{\rm{b}}} = {{\rm{F}}_{\rm{a}}}{\rm{*t}} + {{\rm{F}}_{\rm{b}}}{\rm{*t\: }}$ If no external force acts on system, then$\Delta {\rm{P}} = 0$ or, ${{\rm{F}}_{\rm{a}}}{\rm{*t}} + {{\rm{F}}_{\rm{b}}}{\rm{*t}} = 0$ or, ${{\rm{F}}_{\rm{a}}} = - {{\rm{F}}_{\rm{b}}}$ Which I the Newton's third law of motion 7.
Newton's third law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The effect of force for the small interval of the time is called impulse. Its value varies from zero to maximum and maximum to zero. As the force is not constant its value is measured by taking an average of the force applied and the time interval in which force is
applied. According to the Newton’s third of motion F = $\frac{{{\rm{dp}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ Fdt = dp Integrating on both sides $\mathop \smallint \limits_0^{\rm{t}} {\rm{Fdt}}$ = $\mathop \smallint \limits_{{{\rm{p}}_1}}^{{{\rm{p}}_2}} {\rm{dpdt}}$ = ${{\rm{P}}_2} - {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{P}}_1}$ Where P1 andP2 are initial and final
velocity and fdt is the impulse. It is given by Impulse = ${{\rm{P}}_2} - {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{P}}_1}$ Impulse of force is defined as the change linear momentum produced by force 8. The law of conservation of linear momentum states that if no external forces act on the system of two colliding objects, then the vector sum of the linear momentum of
each body remains constant and is not affected by their mutual interaction. Whenever there is change is momentum of the given body there is change of the velocity hence acceleration .According to the Newton’s 1st law of motion, the change in motion is produced by the external force .so, change in momentum and force are interrelated. This shows
that conservation of momentum follows the Newton’s laws. 9. The law of conservation of linear momentum states that if no external forces act on the system of two colliding objects, then the vector sum of the linear momentum of each body remains constant and is not affected by their mutual interaction. Whenever there is change is momentum of the
given body there is change of the velocity hence acceleration .According to the Newton’s 1st law of motion, the change in motion is produced by the external force .so, change in momentum and force are interrelated. This shows that conservation of momentum follows the Newton’s laws.
Newton's second law of motion It states that the rate of change of momentum of the body with respect to the time is directly proportional to external force applied and the changes take plac in the direction of force . F ∝$\frac{{{\rm{dp}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ F = K$\frac{{{\rm{dp}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ Where k is proportionality constant whose value
is chose to be 1 F = $\frac{{{\rm{d}}\left( {{\rm{mv}}} \right)}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ = F = $\frac{{{\rm{mdv}}}}{{{\rm{dt}}}}$ ∴ F = ma 10. The property of a body by virtue of which motion of one body on the other is restricted is known as friction. Methods of minimizing friction: i. By polishing: Polishing makes the surface smoother so friction
reduces. ii. By lubrication: Lubricants like oil, grease etc. fill up the irregularities of the surface making them smoother.
Hence friction decreases.
iii. By proper selection of materials: We have studied that friction depends on nature of the material of the surface is contact. The surfaces of moving parts of machines in contact can be linked with materials having low co-efficient of friction. On the same basis, tyres are made of rubber. This is because friction between iron and concrete. iv. By use of
ball bearing: In rotating machinery, the shafts are mounted on ball bearings to reduce friction. v. By streaming: friction due to air is considerably reduced by streaming the shape of body moving in air. 11. Friction: The property of body by virtue of which motion of one body on the other is restricted is called friction.
Limiting friction: The maximum value of the static friction is called the limiting friction. Thus, the limiting friction is the value of friction force just before the body starts moving. Angle of friction: Consider a body A sliding over another body B as in figure.
The body A is moving from left to the right and the force of friction (fc) on the body A is acting from acting to left, R represents the resultant of R and Fc. The force f in the figure makes an angle $ \propto $ with the normal reaction R. The angle $ \propto $ is called the angle of friction. Thus, the angle of friction is defined as the angle made by the
resultant of the normal reaction and the force of friction with normal reaction.
Co-efficient of friction: The co-efficient of friction is the ration of friction force to the normal reaction. It is a unit less quantity and its value depends on the material of the object. \${\mu _{\rm{k}}} = \frac{{{{\rm{f}}_{\rm{k}}}}}{{\rm{R}}}$ ; Where ${{\rm{f}}_{\rm{k}}}$is force of friction and ${\mu _{\rm{k}}}$ is co-efficient of friction 12.
The laws of limiting friction are Limiting friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction. Limiting friction is independent of the area of contact Let us consider a mass m is kept on the plane surface AB and it is inclined to angle θ such that the object begins to slide. The component of the weight mg normal to the surface is mg cosθ which is
balanced by the reaction force R and the component mg sinθ acts along the inclined surface which is balanced by frictional force mgsinθ = Fs………………………………i mgcosθ = R…………………..ii from above $\frac{{{\rm{mgsin}}\theta }}{{{\rm{\:mgcos}}\theta {\rm{\: }}}}{\rm{\: }} = \frac{{{\rm{Fs}}}}{{\rm{R}}}$ Tanθ =
$\frac{{{\rm{Fs}}}}{{\rm{R}}}$ As ,μ = $\frac{{{\rm{Fs}}}}{{\rm{R}}}$ Tanθ = μ This shows that tangent of angle of inclination is equal to the coefficient of friction between the surfaces. 13. Angle of repose is defined as a minimum angle of inclination of a plane structure with the horizontal such that a body kept on it just begins to slide
down to the plane. Let us consider a mass m is kept on the plane surface AB and it is inclined to angle θ such that the object begins to slide. The component of the weight mg normal to the surface is mg cosθ which is balanced by the reaction force R and the component mg sinθ acts along the inclined surface which is balanced by frictional force
mgsinθ = Fs………………………………i mgcosθ = R…………………..ii from above $\frac{{{\rm{mgsin}}\theta }}{{{\rm{\:mgcos}}\theta {\rm{\: }}}}{\rm{\: }} = \frac{{{\rm{Fs}}}}{{\rm{R}}}$ Tanθ = $\frac{{{\rm{Fs}}}}{{\rm{R}}}$ As ,μ = $\frac{{{\rm{Fs}}}}{{\rm{R}}}$ Tanθ = μ This shows that tangent of angle of repose is equal to the
coefficient of friction between the surfaces.
14. An opposing force called into plain, when two surfaces in contact with each other tend to slide relative to one another is called friction. If there is anything which moves forward with respect to something else while in contact with it without any external force acting it's because of god damn friction example walking human, rolling tires, etc.
Friction is the necessary evil because, (a) Without friction between the feet and the ground, it would not have been possible to walk. (b) Thetyre of the motor cars and cycles are rough to increase the friction. (c) In absence of the friction, the brakes of the motor car cannot work.Page 5Short Questions 1. For the stable equilibrium, the vertical line
though C.G. must pass through the base. For this reason, a man carrying a load on his back bends forward. If he does not bend forward, the C.G. falls outside and it will be difficult to carry the load. So the man carrying a load on his back has to bend forward. 2. Heavy load is placed first because for the stable equilibrium generally, the base of the
object should lie in lowest position so that the object becomes more stable. 3. The cargo is stocked near the base of ship to make stable. Because when the base of the object should lie in lowest position so that the object becomes more stable and here a cargo is stocked near the base of ship to make its centre of gravity lower and becomes more stable.
4. The heavy and large base makes the lamp to remain in more stable equilibrium as it lower the centre of gravity of the system. As the centre of gravity is low, more will be the stability of it. Hence table lamp have heavy and large base. 5. A body is in equilibrium if it is in motion generally, the base of the object should lie in lowest position so that the
object becomes more stable. Similarly, the area of base should also be large. Also, the vertical line passing through C.G should lie on the large area of base. Under such three conditions, the body becomes equilibrium. 6. Forces acting in a single plane or in a same plane are called coplanar forces. If only two forces act through a point, they must be
coplanar. However none parallel forces that do not act through a point cannot be coplanar. Three or more non-parallel forces acting through a point may not be coplanar. 7. Center of mass (C.M); Center of mass is the point on the object in which the applied force produces acceleration without rotation. Generally, the center of mass lies within the
object but in some object no mass lies at the center of mass. Center of gravity (C.G); The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the weight of the body acts irrespective of the position of the body. C.G of body is fixed.
8. The center of mass of a body does not always coincide with its intuitive geometric center. For example, engineers try to design a sport car such that its center of gravity is as low as possible, to make the car handle better. When a high jumper performs a "Roxbury Flop," it involves bending the body in such a way that the jumper can clear the bar
while his or her center of mass does not. 9. Anything with Mass has weight due to gravity.
Therefore, all things with Mass have a center of gravity. Where that center lies depends on where on the object most of the mass is relative to the ground.This is why the center of gravity on a Truck is higher off the ground than a sports car, and is more likely to tip over when turning at high speeds than the car. The bulk of the Mass is simply higher
off of the ground. 10. It easier to hold a 10kg body in your hand at your side than to hold it with you hand extended horizontally because it bends opposite to the load in order to make the C.G. of the system (man + load) within the base provided by his feet. 11. We use a thumb and finger to open a bottle cork but turn the door by a single figure
because when we turn the door we use pushing force but to open a bottle cork there act pulling pushing as well as friction force. Long question; 1. If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, then each of the forces proportional to the site of the angle between the other two forces. Figure:8_2(b) from nawakala 202 Consider the three
forces P, Q, R are acting on the particles A such that particles is in equilibrium. ${\rm{if\: }}\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma $ are the angles between the three forces as shown in the figure. From Lami’s theorem, mathematically, we have $\frac{{\rm{P}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\alpha }} = \frac{{\rm{Q}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\beta }} = \frac{{\rm{R}}}
{{{\rm{sin}}\gamma }}{\rm{\: }}$ ${\rm{if\: the\: body\: is\: in\: equilibrium}}.$ $\frac{{{\rm{AB}}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\alpha }} = \frac{{{\rm{BC}}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\beta }} = \frac{{{\rm{CA}}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\gamma }}$ $\frac{{\rm{P}}}{{{\rm{sin}}180 - \alpha }} = \frac{{\rm{Q}}}{{{\rm{sin}}180 -
\beta }} = \frac{{\rm{R}}}{{{\rm{sin}}180 - \gamma }}$ $\frac{{\rm{P}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\alpha }} = \frac{{\rm{Q}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\beta }} = \frac{{\rm{R}}}{{{\rm{sin}}\gamma }}{\rm{\: }}$ Hence lami’s theorem proved 2.
Generally, the base of the object should lie in lowest position so that the object becomes more stable. Similarly, the area of base should also be large. Also, the vertical line passing through C.G should lie on the large area of base. Under such three conditions, the objects become stable. A rigid body will be in equilibrium if the following two conditions
are met. 1. The vector sum of the forces acting on the body must be zero 2. The net torque acting on the body must be zero. Forces acting in a single plane or in a same plane are called coplanar forces. If only two forces act through a point, they must be coplanar. However none parallel forces that do not act through a point cannot be coplanar. Three
or more non-parallel forces acting through a point may not be coplanar. Co-planner force: If the line of action of all forces lies on a plane then, these forces are called co-planer forces. If the sum of two forces is equal and opposite to third force then, their resultant will be zero, but these all forces should be co-planner. Let${\rm{\vec P}}$, ${\rm{\vec
Q}}$ and ${\rm{\vec R}}$ be three co-planner forces such that ${\rm{\vec P}}$ +${\rm{\vec Q}}$ = $\overrightarrow { - {\rm{R}}} $ , then their resultant or sum is zero. i.e${\rm{\vec P}} + {\rm{\vec Q}} + {\rm{\vec R}} = 0$Page 6Short questions 1. Work done on bricks is given as W = FS cosθ where F is the force on bricks, S is
displacement of Bricks and θ is the angle between F and S. the weight of bricks acting vertically downward.
When the person walk on the horizontal road, displacement is in horizontal direction, Hence θ = 900 Therefore FS cos 900 = FS * 0 =0 Hence no work is done on the bricks in this case. 2. Yes it is possible when the force is perpendicular to the direction of motion. For example, the moon revolves round the earth under centripetal force of attraction of
the earth but the earth does not work on the moon. 3. No energy is consumed in the planetary motion because in planetary motion work done by the planet in moving the circular motion is zero. As we have W = F.S cosθ angle between the force and displacement is 90° which means W = 0. 4. Here P1 = P2 Or, M1 V1 = M2 V2
$\frac{{{{\rm{V}}_2}}}{{{{\rm{V}}_1}}} = \frac{{{{\rm{M}}_2}}}{{{{\rm{M}}_1}}}$…………………1 As ${{\rm{E}}_2} = \frac{1}{2}{{\rm{M}}_2}{\rm{\: V}}_2^2$ ${{\rm{E}}_1} = \frac{1}{2}{{\rm{M}}_1}{\rm{\: V}}_1^2$ ∴$\frac{{{{\rm{E}}_2}}}{{{{\rm{E}}_1}}} = \frac{{\frac{1}{2}{{\rm{M}}_2}{\rm{\: V}}_2^2}}
{{\frac{1}{2}{{\rm{M}}_1}{\rm{\: V}}_1^2}} = \frac{{{{\rm{M}}_1}}}{{{{\rm{M}}_2}}}$ Here E1>E2 ∴ Lighter body has more K.E 5. The momentum of a moving body, P = m v and its kinetic energy, =${\rm{\: }}\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m\: v}}$2 Now, ${\rm{K}}.{\rm{E}} = \frac{1}{2}.\frac{{{{\rm{M}}^2}{{\rm{V}}^2}}}{{\rm{m}}}
= \frac{{{{\rm{p}}^2}}}{{2{\rm{m}}}}$ P2 = 2 m * K.E. P = $\sqrt {2{\rm{m*K}}.{\rm{E}}} $…………….1 From equation 1 if K. E. is constant ${\rm{P}} \propto \sqrt {\rm{m}} $ Hence a havier body has greater momentum than the lighter one. 6. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, if so much energy
spends against friction it converted in to heat energy.
7. When the body is raise from the lower level to higher level the mechanical energy of the system remain constant at all point. 8. Kinetic energy is possessed by a body due to its motion whereas momentum is product of mass and velocity. 9. The vehicle stops when its kinetic energy is spent in working against the friction between the tires and the
road. This force varies directly with weight of the vehicle. E = F * s ${\rm{s}} = \frac{{{\rm{K}}.{\rm{E}}.}}{{\rm{F}}}$ For given K.E. distance s will be smaller, where F is larger. Hence truck will stop at a lesser distance. 10. Following work done obtained in given cases Constant Increasing Decreasing 11. Potential energy a stretched catapult
a body at a height and water collected in a dam possess potential energy. 12. The potential energy of the water is converted in to the kinetic energy at the foot of the fall. So the velocity of water at the foot of the fall is maximum. Now the velocity is suddenly reduced to zero and the whole potential energy is converted in to heat energy.
Hence the temperature rises. 13. The kinetic energy does not depend on the direction of the motion involved.
It depends upon mass, velocity of the body. 14. The potential energy of an elevator which it lost in coming down from the top of a building to a stop at the ground floor there potential energy change in to kinetic energy. 15. Because during collision some part of the energy is converted in to heat energy. 16. Figure 17. A force is said to be conservative
if the work done by or against the force in moving body depends on the initial and final positions of the body and independent on the nature of the path followed. The earth-moon system is conservative. The work from point a to b then point b to a is zero. The moon follows an elliptical orbit. The energy at some specific point in said orbit remains the
same. As the distance changes so does the energy. But when the moon returns to the same point it was at previously, it has exactly the same energy as previously so there is no change of energy taking place. 18. A force is said to be non-conservative if the work done by or against the force in moving body depends on nature of the path followed
between these points. Frictional forces are non-conservative forces .let us consider a body is moved from position A to B .work done in moving this body from A to B does not only depend upon the position A and B but also on the length. 19. Suppose a body of mass m is moving with velocity u. so its initial momentum = mu and Initial kinetic energy,
=${\rm{\: }}\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m\: u}}$2 Momentum of a body is doubled, then its velocity, v is doubled Now, New kinetic energy, =${\rm{\: }}\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m\: v}}$2 =${\rm{\: }}\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m*}}\left( {2{\rm{u}}} \right)$2 =${\rm{\: }}\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m*}}4{\rm{u}}$2 = 4 * initial K.E. New K.E. = 4 * initial K.E. It means when
linear momentum is doubled its K.E. is increased by four times than previous K.E. 20. Moving bullet possesses kinetic energy due to its motion. As it embeds inside a wood block on frictional force acting on the contact surfaces, so the block and bullet moves continuously. Long question: 1. The work is said to be done by force acting on a body,
provided the body Is displaced actually in any direction except in a direction perpendicular to the direction of force. Its S.I unit is Nm or J. And dimensional equation of work is [ML2T-2] Energy of a body is defined as the capacity to do work.
It is scalar quantity and has same unit that of the work. Power is defined as the rate at which the work is done. Force =${\rm{\: }}\frac{{{\rm{Work\: }}}}{{{\rm{TIme\: }}}}$ Its SI unit is Watt, which is denoted by W And dimensional equation of power is [ML2T-3] 2. i. When $\theta $ is an acute angle (i.e. $\theta < 90\infty $), then work done is
positive. For example, when a body falls freely under gravitational pull, the work done by gravity is positive. ii. When $\theta = 90\infty ,\cos 90 = 0{\rm{\: and\: W}} = {\rm{fcos\: }}90 = 0$ I.e. if the force is perpendicular to the direction of displacement, work done is zero. For example, when a coolie travels on platform with a load on his head,
work done by the coolie is zero. iii.
When$90\infty < \theta \le 180\infty $, then $\cos \theta $ is negative and the work done is negative .i.e. work is done against the force.
For example, when a body slides over a rough surface, the work done by frictional force is negative. 3. The work done by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. Expression for K.E Consider a body of mass 'm' moving with speed 'u' and accelerated to gain velocity 'v' Force applied (F) = ma Work done (W) =FS = mas …………..(i) From
kinematics, we have, v2-u2= 2aS $\frac{{{{\rm{v}}^2} - {{\rm{u}}^2}}}{2} = {\rm{aS\: \: \: \: \: }}$…………(ii) From equation (i) and (ii), we get, Work done (W) = ${\rm{m}}.\frac{1}{2}\left( {{{\rm{v}}^2} - {{\rm{u}}^2}} \right)$ [Kinetic energy = $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m}}\left( {{{\rm{v}}^2} - {{\rm{u}}^2}} \right)$ ] This is the
expression for change in K.E. when body starts to move from rest, u=0 4. Work is said to be done on the body if the external force applied to the body displace it in any direction except perpendicular to the direction of force. Figure Let variable force acting on a body to displace it from A to B in a fixed direction. A to B is consists large number of
infinitesimal displacement.
Let’s take PQ = dx infinisitmely small displacement and along this displacement force is constant in magnitude as well as in direction. Small amount work done in moving the body from P to Q is Dw = F * dx = PQ *PS = area of PQRS Total work done from A tto B = W = Σ dW = Σ Fdx It can be written as W =$\mathop {\lim }\limits_{{\rm{dx}} \to
0{\rm{\: }}} \Sigma {\rm{\: Fdx}}$ = $\mathop \smallint \limits_{{{\rm{x}}_{\rm{A}}}}^{{{\rm{X}}_{\rm{B}}}} {\rm{Fdx}}$ = $\mathop \smallint \limits_{{{\rm{x}}_{\rm{A}}}}^{{{\rm{X}}_{\rm{B}}}} {\rm{area\: of\: PQRS}}$ = Area of ABCDA ∴ Work done by the variable force is equal to the area under the force curve and the
displacement axis. 5. Principle of conservation of the energy states that,” the for an isolated system the total energy of the system remains constant”. Let us consider a body of mass m falling freely under the effect ogf gravity from the height h as shown in figure. At point A (initially) body is at rest K.E of body = 0 P.E of the body = mgh Total energy
of the body = K.E + P.E = mgh At point B the body is at height of (h-x ) from the ground . P.E of the body = mg (h-x) If v is the velocity at point B then V2 = U2 + 2as V2 = 2gx ∴ K.E of the body = $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m}}{{\rm{v}}^2} = {\rm{mgx\: }}$ Total energy of the body = K.E + P.E = mgh At point C Id v is the velocity just before striking
the ground ${{\rm{V}}^2} = 0 + 2{\rm{gh}}$ ${{\rm{v}}^2} = 2{\rm{gh}}$ K.E = $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m}}.2{\rm{gh}}$ = mgh P.E = mgh = 0 Total energy of the body = K.E + P.E = mgh This shows that sum of P.e and K.E of the falling bodied remain constant 6. Power is defined
as the rate at which the work is done. ${\rm{Power}} = \frac{{{\rm{Work\: done}}}}{{{\rm{time\: taken}}}}$ Thus, power of an agent measures how fast it can do the work. For constant force, ${\rm{Power}},{\rm{P}} = \frac{{\rm{w}}}{{\rm{t}}} = \frac{{{\rm{\vec F}}.{\rm{\vec S}}}}{{\rm{t}}} = {\rm{\vec F*\vec v}}$ Where,
${\rm{\vec v}} = \frac{{{\rm{\vec S}}}}{{\rm{t}}}$, linear velocity. Hence power of an agent can be expressed as the dot product of force applied an velocity of the body. If $\theta $ is the angle between ${\rm{\vec F\: and\: \vec V}},{\rm{\: then}}$ ${\rm{P}} = {\rm{\vec F*\vec v}} = {\rm{F*v}}\cos \theta $ However, when ${\rm{\vec v}}$
is along ${\rm{\vec F}},{\rm{\: }}\theta = 0{\rm{\: and\: }}$ P = Fvcos0 =Fv 7. According to the principle of conversation of energy, energy of an isolated system is constant.
It can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another. For example; when an objects falls on the ground from certain height, its kinetic energy is converted into other form. Consider a body having mass 'm' at height 'h' located at point A. It is released which falls under gravity. Let it reach to point B covering
distance x and reaches to point C (just above the ground) covering distance (h-x) as shown in figure. At point A, Kinetic energy of body = K.E.A =$\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m*u}}_{\rm{a}}^2$ = 0 [∵ ua = 0] Potential energy of body = P.Ea = mgh Total mechanical energy of body = K.E.A+P.E.A =0+mgh = mgh Now, At point B, Let the body gains velocity
Vb, \${\rm{V}}{{\rm{B}}^2} - {\rm{V}}{{\rm{A}}^2} = 2{\rm{gx}}$ or, VB2=2gx Kinetic energy of body at B =K.E.B = $\frac{1}{2}{\rm{mv}}_{\rm{B}}^2 = \frac{1}{2}{\rm{m*}}2{\rm{gx}}$ =mgx And potential energy of body at B = P.EB = mg(h-x) = mgh-mgx Total energy of body at point B = K.E.B + P.E.B = mgh +mgx – mgx =mgh
Similarly, At point C Let VC be the velocity of body \${\rm{V}}_{\rm{C}}^2 - {\rm{V}}_{\rm{A}}^2 = 2{\rm{gh}}$ Or, Vc2=2gh Kinetic energy of body at C = K.E.C =$\frac{1}{2}{\rm{m*v}}_{\rm{C}}^2 = \frac{1}{2}{\rm{*}}{{\rm{m}}^2}{\rm{gh}}$=mgh And Potential energy of body at C=P.Ec =m*g*h = 0[h=0] Total energy of body at
C = K.EC+P.E.C = mgh + 0 = mgh Thus, at each point A, B and V for freely falling body, total energy is same which conservation of energy is.
This is also illustrated in following gaps. 8. A force is said to be conserved if the work done by or against the force in moving a body depends only on the initial and final position of the body and not on the nature of path followed between the initial and final position .i.e. amount of work done by or against a conservative force in moving a body over any
path between fixed initial and final position will be the same. Gravitational force, force in an elastic spring, electrostatic force, magnetic force etc. are examples of conservative forces. All central forces are conservative forces. For example: In case of gravitational force, if we take on work done in moving the body from x to y, we take gravity as
negative, then work done in moving the body from y to x by gravity has to be taken as positive. So, they are equal and opposite. i.e. Wxy = -Wyx Or, Wxy+ Wyx = 0 It means that the total amount of work done in a closed path in conservative force field (gravitational force) is zero. A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by or against the
force in moving a body from one position to another depends upon the path followed between these two positions. 9. Elastic Collision Non-Elastic Collision The collision in which total linear momentum and K.E. of a system remains constant is called elastic collision. The collision in which total momentum remains constant but K.E. does not remain
constant is called non-elastic collision. The atomic collisions are considered as perfect elastic collision. All collisions around us are considered non-elastic collisions. There is no loss of energy in elastic collision. There is loss of energy in non-elastic collision. 10. Consider two particles, of m1 and m2, the masses, u1 and u2 the velocities before collision,
and v1 and v2 the velocities after collision. The conservation of the total momentum demands that the total momentum before the collision is the same as the total momentum after the collision, and is expressed by the equation ${{\rm{m}}_1}{{\rm{u}}_1} + {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{m}}_2}{{\rm{u}}_2}{\rm{\: }} = {{\rm{m}}_1}{{\rm{v}}_1} +
{\rm{\: }}{{\rm{m}}_2}{{\rm{v}}_2}$ ${{\rm{m}}_1}{\rm{\: }}\left( {{{\rm{u}}_1} - {{\rm{v}}_1}} \right) = {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{m}}_2}{\rm{\: }}\left( {{{\rm{v}}_2} - {{\rm{u}}_1}} \right){\rm{\: }}$………..1 ${\rm{\: }}$ Also the kinetic energy before and after collision are equal $\frac{1}{2}
{{\rm{m}}_1}{\rm{u}}_1^2{\rm{\: }} + {\rm{\: }}\frac{1}{2}{{\rm{m}}_2}{\rm{u}}_2^2{\rm{\: }} = {\rm{\: }}\frac{1}{2}{{\rm{m}}_1}{\rm{v}}_1^2 + \frac{1}{2}{{\rm{m}}_2}{\rm{v}}_2^2$ ${{\rm{m}}_1}{\rm{\: }}\left( {{{\rm{u}}^2}{{\rm{\: }}_1} - {\rm{v}}_1^2} \right) = {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{m}}_2}{\rm{\: }}\left(
{{\rm{v}}_2^2 - {\rm{u}}_1^2} \right)$………..2 Solving 1 and 2 we get ${{\rm{u}}_1} + {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{v}}_1} = {{\rm{v}}_2} + {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{u}}_2}$ ${\rm{\: }}{{\rm{u}}_1} - {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{u}}_2} = {{\rm{v}}_2} - {\rm{\: }}{{\rm{v}}_1}$ This shows that the relative velocity of approach before the collision is equal to relative
velocity of separation after collision.