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Relativity Notes
Relativity Notes
where ux, uy and uz are the velocity components along x, y and z directions respectively. Also, since
the body is in uniform motion,
d 2 x dv x d 2 y dv y d 2 z dvz
a x 0, a y 0, az 0
dt 2 dt dt 2 dt dt 2 dt
where ax, ay, az denote the acceleration along x, y and z directions.
An inertial frame of reference may be defined as a frame of reference in which Newton’s Laws of
mechanics are valid. Such a frame of reference is also referred to as Newtonian or Galilean frame of
reference. All frames of reference, moving with a constant velocity with respect to an inertial frame
are also inertial frames of reference. The inertial frames are non-accelerating frames.
(ii) Non-inertial Frame of Reference : A frame of reference in which Newton’s laws of motion are not
valid is referred to as a non-inertial frame of reference.
x' x vt
y' y (1)
z ' z
x x' vt
y y '
(2)
z z'
t t '
u x' u x v
u 'y u y (3)
u z' u z
a x' a x
a 'y a y (4)
a z' a z
Michelson devised an apparatus to detect the motion of the earth relative to ether at rest. It was expected that
light would propagate with different speeds in different directions as viewed from the earth. Therefore, the time
taken by light to travel equal distance in different directions would be different. The objective of the experiment
was to find this time difference from which the relative velocity between ether and the earth could be estimated.
Let a beam of light from a monochromatic source S falls upon a half silvered glass plate P1 inclined at 45o to
the direction of propagation of light. It is partly reflected and partly transmitted. The reflected ray travels
towards mirror M2, gets reflected at B and retraces its path and finally enters the telescope T. Another part of
ray gets refracted and transmitted through P1. The ray gets reflected by mirror M1, retraces its path and finally
meets the other ray in the telescope. Depending upon the path (or phase) difference between the two rays, bright
or dark interference fringes are formed.
The time taken by light in the to and fro journey to the mirror M1 is :
x2 v2
or, 1 1
l22 x 2 x2
l22 v2
or, 1
l22 x 2 c
l22
or, l22 x 2 (2)
v2
1
c2
l22 x 2 l2
The time taken by the light ray to cover this distance =
c v2
c 1
c2
Hence, the time for the to and fro motion of the second ray :
2l2
t2 (3)
v2
c 1 2
c
Interference fringes can be produced due to difference between t 1 and t2. If mirrors M1 and M2 are exactly
perpendicular to each other, the interference fringes will be concentric circles. Michelson-Morley kept the angle
between the mirrors slightly less than 90o so that the fringes were parallel lines as are obtained from a wedge.
From equations (1) and (2):-
2 l1
t t1 t2 l2 (4)
2 2
v v
c 1 2 c 1 2
c c
2l1 2l2
t1' and t2'
v2 v2
c 1 c1 2
c2 c
2l1 l2 1
t ' t 1
v2 v2
c 1 2 1 2
c c
Using Binomial expension and leaving the higher order terms we get:-
2
t 't
1
l1 l2 v 2 (6)
c c
v2
The corresponding path difference ct ' t l1 l2 .
c2
2l v 2 2l v 2
If l1 = l2 = l, then n or, n (7)
c2 c2
v2
Substituting the orbital velocity of the earth v = 3 x 104 m/s, so that = 10–8, l = 1.2 m and for the light of
c2
n
wavelength = 6000 Å = 6 x 10–7 m:- 0.04
n
Although, the instrument was capable of measuring such a small shift, no fringe shift was actually observed.
Michelson improved the accuracy of measurement and repeated the experiment by substituting l1 + l2 = 22 m,
= 5500 Å. The fringe shift worked out to be 0.4
Again no fringe shift was observed.
To avoid the effect of vibrations on the instrument and the stress produced by rotating the arm, they fixed the
instrument to a stone slab and floated it in mercury. In subsequent years, they repeated the experiment many
times with more accurate instruments, but still no fringe shift could be detected.
Conclusions of Michelson-Morley experiment :
(i) The negative result of this experiment proved that the space or medium in which light propagated is
not moving relative to the earth.
Lorentz Transformations.
Any physical event can be specified by space time coordinates (x, y, z, t). Lorentz transformations corelate
these coordinates in two inertial frames. Let there are two observers O and O’ in two frames of reference S and
S’ respectivly such that frame S’ is moving with uniform velocity v along the x-axis. Let initially the two
coordinate frames coincident. Let a light signal be emitted at this instant of time. For both the observers, signal
develops into a spherical wavefront with its point of origin as centre. For observer O, the equation of spherical
wavefront is:-
x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 = 0 (1)
Similarly, for the observer O’ in the frame S’ the equation of spherical wavefront is:-
x’2 + y’2 + z’2 – c2t’2 = 0 (2)
From (1) and (2):-
x’2 + y’2 + z’2 – c2t’2 = (x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2) (3)
The linear and simplest transformation between x and x’, for v << c, is given as:-
For frame S moving with relative velocity – v along x-axis:- x = (x’ + vt’) (6)
2
2 x 1
Using (5) & (7) in ((3) :- x c t x vt c t 1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
v
2
x 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
or, x c t x 2vxt v t c t 1 2 0
v
2
2 2 xt 1 x2 1
2 2 2 2
2
or, x c t x 2vxt v t c t 2 2
2 2
1 1 0
v 2 v 2 2
In order to satisfy this identity, the coefficient of various powers of x and t should vanish separately.
Here equating coefficient of xt to zero, we get:-
2c 22 1
22v 1 2 0
v
1
or, (v2 – c2) 2 + c2 = 0 or, (8)
v2
1 2
c
x vt
Putting the value of in equation (5), we get x' (9)
v2
1 2
c
x 1 1 x c 2 v 2 1 xv 2
t ' t 1 2 t 1 t 2
v v2 v c 2 v 2 vc
1 2 1 2
c c
vx
t
or, t ' c2 (10)
v2
1 2
c
x ' vt '
x
v2
1 2
c
y y'
z z' (12)
vx'
t ' 2
t c
v2
1 2
c
y’ = y
z’ = z
t’ = t
APPLICATIONS OF LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION
(i) Length Contraction
Let a rod be placed along the x-axis of the frame S with coordinates of its end points being (x1, 0, 0) and (x2, 0,
0). So that its length is given by:- l0 = x2 – x1
For an observer on the frame S’, moving with uniform velocity v, the length of the rod will be measured as l =
x’2 – x’1, where x’1 and x’2 are the end points (x’1, 0, 0) and (x’2, 0, 0) of the rod in the frame S’.
Using Lorentz transformations, we have
x'2 x'1
x2 x1
v2
1 2
c
l v2
or, l0 or, l l0 1
v2 c2
l
c2
So, the observer S’ finds the rod AB in the frame S to be contracted. This is called Lorentz contraction.
Reciprocity of Length Contraction : Let a rod be placed at rest in the frame S’ with space coordinates (x’1,0,
0) and (x’2, 0, 0), so that length of the rod measured by the observer O’ in the frame S’ is l0 = x’2 – x’1
x1 vt x2 vt
x'1 and x'2
2
v v2
1 1
c2 c2
x2 vt x1 vt x2 x1 1
or, l0 x'2 x'1
v 2 2
v2
v2 v
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c c
v2
or, l l0 1
c2
Thus, rod appears to be contracted. If the rod moves with the velocity of light, its length reduces to zero.
(ii) Time Dilation Relativity of Time : Let a clock is placed at a point in the frame S and another at a point in
the frame S’. According to Lorentz transformation :
v
t '
2
x
t c
v2
1 2
c
Let a light signal is emitted at a point x’ at time t’1 and another at the same location at time t’2 in the frame S’.
The corresponding times recorded by the clock in the frame S is given by :
vx' vx '
2
t '2
t '1 2
t t 2 t1 c c
2
v v2
1 2 1 2
c c
1
Since > 1, t’ > t.
v2
1 2
c
dx dx'
ux and u 'x
dt dt '
From Lorentz transformations equation:-
v
dt dx
dx vdt c2
dx' , dy ' dy , dz ' dz and dt '
v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c
dx' dx vdt
dt ' dt v dt
c2
v2
dy 1
dy ' c2
dt ' dt v dx
c2
u v
u'x x
v
1 2 ux
c
v2
uy 1
u' y c2
v
1 ux
c2
v2
uz 1
u'z c2
v
1 ux
c2
u ' x v
ux
v
1 2 u'x
c
v2
u'y 1
uy c2
v
1 u 'x
c2
v2
u 'z 1 2
uz c
v
1 2 u 'x
c
v
For the non-relativistic approximation << 1,
c
ux = u’x + v
uy = u’y
uz = u’z which are the Galilean transformation.
vx1 vx
t 2
t 22
t '1 c and t ' c
2 2
v v2
1 2 1 2
c c
v
2 1
x x2
t '1 t '2 c
v2
1 2
c
u 'x v
Using the relation, u x for
vu 'x
1 2
c
u ' v
Particle 1 : u1 (2)
vu '
1 2
c
u ' v
Particle 2 : u2 (3)
vu '
1 2
c
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1) we get:-
u ' v u ' v
m1 m2 m1 m2 v
1 uv 1 vu '
c2 c2
vu'
1 2
m1 c
(4)
m2 1 vu '
c2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
u ' v 2c u1 u2 2 c u1 c u2 (5)
c2 u1 u2
u22
1
m1 c2
(6)
m2 u12
1 2
c
If u2 = 0, then:-
m2
m1 (7)
u2
1 12
c
m0
m (8)
v2
1 2
c
mo v
Momentum of a particle is given by:- p mv
v2
1
c2
dp d m0v m0 dv
According to Newtons Law of Motion :- F 3
dt dt 2 2 dt
1 v 2 1 v
2
c c 2
v v
ds
F. dt F .vdt
0
dt 0
v
dp dp
.vdt F
0
dt dt
v
d
v mvdt p mv
0
dt
v
v.d mv
0
m0
As we know m .
v2
1 2
c
v
v v 2 12
m0
Therefore, Ek v.d v m0 vd v1 2
2
c
0
1 v 2 0
c
v v 2 12 3
v 2 2 2v
1
m0 v 1 2 dv v. 1 2 2 dv
0
c 2 c c
v2 2vdv
Substituting 1 2
y , so that 2 dy , we get
c c
v2 c2
1
c 2 1 dy v 0, y 1
Ek m0 2 2
1
3
y 2 v v, y 1 v
c 2
v2
1
1 c2
2
m0 c y 2
2 1
2
2
m0c 2
1
1 m0c m0c 2
v2 v2
1 1
c2 c2
or Ek = (m – m0)c2
This is a relativistic expression for kinetic energy.
The total energy of the body is the sum of the rest energy and the relativistic kinetic energy of the body, i.e. E =
rest energy + relativistic kinetic energy
= m0c2 + (m – m0)c2
= mc2
m0
m0 c 2
2
1 v 2
c
1 v2 3 v4
Ek 1 2
4 ... – 1 m0c 2
2c 8c
1 v2 1
Ek . 2 m0c 2 m0v 2
2 c 2
m0v
As we know:- p mv
v2
1
c2
m0c 2 m02c 4
The total energy of this particle is E mc 2 E2
v2 v2
1 1 2
c2 c
Putting the above values in the expression p2c2 + m02 c4, we get
m02c 4
E2
v2
1 2
c
E 2 p 2c 2 m02c 4
or, E p 2c 2 m02c 4