The international student experience: three styles of adaptation

Author(s): Jean Russell, Doreen Rosenthal and Garry Thomson

Source: Higher Education , August 2010, Vol. 60, No. 2 (August 2010), pp. 235-249
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40784179

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High Educ (2010) 60:235-249
DOI 10.1007/S10734-009-9297-7

The international student experience: three styles

of adaptation

Jean Russell * Doreen Rosenthal * Garry Thomson

Published online: 15 December 2009

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

Abstract The subjective well-being of a sample of 979 international students attending a

large metropolitan university in Melbourne, Australia, was investigated. A person-focussed
approach was used to determine whether different ways of adapting, based on patterns of
well-being, could be discerned. Cluster analysis of responses on 21 measures identified
three different patterns: positive and connected (58.8% of students), unconnected and
stressed (34.4%), and distressed and risk-taking (6.7%). Tests of the concurrent validity of
the typology were significant. Demographic factors were not particularly helpful in dis-
tinguishing among the three patterns of well-being. The results provide universities with
knowledge pertinent to provision of appropriate international student support.

Keywords International students • Student needs • Styles of adaptation •

Well-being

Introduction

Overseas student enrolments are important to the higher education sector in Australia. By
2005 international students constituted one in four of all Australian university enrolments
(Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST) 2006); numbers have continued
to increase since then. Accompanying this growth has been an increase in awareness of the
range of student needs that must be met, the development of strategies to meet those needs,

J. Russell (El)
Centre for Post-compulsory Education and Lifelong Learning, Faculty of Education,
The University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
e-mail: vjr@unimelb.edu.au

D. Rosenthal
Key Centre for Women's Health in Society, School of Population Health,
The University of Melbourne, VIC, Australia

G. Thomson
Academic Services (Health, Counselling and Disability Services),
The University of Melbourne, VIC, Australia

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 236 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249

and the conduct of research to stre

vary, partly because those enrolled
differ in terms of many other demo
as well as on social and psycholog
anxiety.
Two broad areas of student need are commonly identified. The first concerns the aca-
demic needs of international students, with particular attention given to levels of English
language proficiency appropriate for successful participation in university studies (Mulli-
gan and Kirkpatrick 2000; Xu 1991) and student expectations about academic approaches
in Australian universities (Biggs and Watkins 2001; Volet and Renshaw 1995). The second
broad area concerns students' physical and psychosocial health needs. University inves-
tigations have tended to place greater emphasis on the first, although not ignoring the
second area of need. This second area provides the context for this report.
The study is located within a larger research project concerning international students'
perceptions of their health and well-being as they experience life and study in Melbourne,
Australia (Rosenthal et al. 2007, 2008; Russell et al. 2008). Well-being is a broader, more
encompassing concept than health, one which includes health as a sub-component (Danna
and Griffin 1999). It is, in essence, a self-evaluative concept and is subjectively estab-
lished. Research on it is, by definition, interested in the person's experience of life (Art-
haud-Day et al. 2005). Measures of well-being have been used as indices of psychosocial
adaptation in research on university students in different countries (Halamandaris and
Power 1997; Leontopoulou 2006).
In a major review of three decades of research on the generic concept of subjective well-
being, Diener defined the components of the concept thus: "Subjective well-being is a broad
category of phenomena that includes people's emotional responses, domain satisfactions,
and global judgments of life satisfaction" (Diener et al. 1999, p. 277). The affective and
cognitive components of subjective well-being are defined as pleasant affect (such as
contentment, happiness, pride), unpleasant affect (such as anxiety, depression, stress), and
the cognitive processes involved in the evaluations of general life satisfaction and domain
satisfactions, such as those of work, family and health (Arthaud-Day et al. 2005; Diener
2000). The domains selected for evaluation of well-being differ according to the orientation
and purpose of the researcher (Cummins et al. 2003; Kreitler and Kreitler 2006).
The international student experience commonly challenges a person's sense of well-
being. The literature contains much discussion of the range of problems that international
students face in their effort to live and study successfully within an unfamiliar culture in a
foreign country: homesickness, loss of support systems, loneliness, lack of meaningful
relationships with host nationals, culture shock, perceived discrimination, language diffi-
culties, unfamiliar academic approaches and overload, an altering sense of identity,
unrealistic family and self-expectations, financial problems, and difficulties at home in
their own country (Church 1982; Lee et al. 2004; Mori 2000; Sandhu and Asrabadi 1994).
How do international students respond to this situation? The stress they experience and
its negative consequences are often emphasised. Psychological correlates such as
depression, helplessness, anxiety, paranoid feelings and irritability are described, as well as
physical correlates such as persistent sleep disturbances, loss of appetite, low energy,
greater susceptibility to illnesses, and chronic somatic complaints (Mori 2000; Thomas and
Althen 1989). Claims have been made that international students have more numerous and
more severe university adjustment problems than domestic students (Lee et al. 2004; Mori
2000). Such adjustment problems have sometimes been conceptualised within a framework
of psychopathology or mental illness (Ward et al. 2001). Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994)

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 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249 237

believe there is a general consensus th

although they is point out that there
assume that the subjective well-bein
Fortunately, the international stude
ficult as might be concluded from su
individual differences in student we
and the variable-focussed approach.
students whose pattern of response
different from that of others. For
identified three patterns of adaptat
dents - resilient, adapted and mala
adversity (number of adverse life ev
control, coping strategies, academic
thology, self-esteem and subjective
A variable-focussed approach investi
on the basis of independent variable
origin, language proficiency, gender,
Two examples illustrate this. The cu
sojourner's culture of origin and the h
distance implying more difficulty i
cultures tend to fall at opposite end
Hofstede (1997), suggesting that Asian
Australia. Another factor is length
country, the better the language an
support, and the greater the ease of e
The person-focussed and variable-f
person-focussed approach can be use
patterns or ways of responding and
then be used to investigate associatio
students exhibiting those patterns. T
identify groupings of students with
investigate associations between patt
The following research questions gu

(1) Can international students be g

perceived well-being and satisfacti
(2) Can these patterns of well-bein
measures used in the study?
(3) Is there a significant association
being?

Method

Sample

A sample was drawn from on-site international students with confirmed enrolments in
undergraduate or postgraduate courses at a large metropolitan university in Melbourne,
Australia, in March 2005. All such international students (n = 8,053), exclusive of

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 238 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249

short-term Study Abroad students

formed the pool (n = 6,828) from wh
student from an alphabetical listin
sample, resulting in a sample size
obtained. When the number of retur
represented a response rate of 43.9%
The achieved sample was checked f
the total population of international
alignment on major demographic v
gender does the sample vary from th
higher percentage of women respond
versity population (64% compared w
shows that females tend to be more
2005; Porter and Whitcomb 2005).

Instrument

The research instrument used in the

project. Areas included in the questio
needed to address the purpose of the
sojourners and international students
associated contexts, were consulted in
studies were in-depth explorations of
since no other empirical study of int
cerned the range of areas of health and
questionnaire construction involved d
Piloting of the draft questionnaire,
modified, final questionnaire that e
being: relating to others while living
health and health-related behaviour.
perceived need for and consequent
selling services. Demographic and r
questionnaire can be found in Rose

Procedure

It was essential to ensure the anonymity of student responses, if they were to feel free to
respond. Questionnaires were mailed, with responses being returned in anonymous, reply-
paid envelopes. A second mailing was made to the whole sample, ~2 weeks after the first,
in order to encourage non-respondents to participate. A brightly coloured warning slip
indicated that the questionnaire was intended only for students who had not replied to the
first mailing. The strategy of having a second mailing was successful, with an additional
274 responses being received.

Measures of well-being

A range of responses to individual questionnaire items, together with scale scores from
aggregated item groups, acted as indicators of well-being in the different domains of life

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 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249 239

Table 1 Comparison of the

Variable Achieved University
achieved sample and the popula-
tion of international students at
sample: population:
percentage percentage
the university, March 2005

Age
Below 20 18.8 15.8

20-24 57.0 59.9

25-29 13.1 13.8

30-34 6.4 5.6

35(+) 3.9 4.9

Missing 0.8 -
Gender

Male 35.4 42.7

Female 64.0 57.3

Missing 0.6 -
Course type
Undergraduate 70.8 74.0
Postgraduate 26.0
Coursework 18.9

Research 9.3

Other 0.7

Missing 0.3
Faculty
Architecture 5.7 6.6

Arts 13.0 11.1

Economics/Commerce 25.6 27.0

Education 4.2 4.9

Engineering 15.9 16.8

Land/Food resources 1.3 2.1

Law 2.8 4.8

Medical/Dental/Health Sciences 12.5 11.0

Melbourne Business School 0.8 0.7

Music 1.4 1.1

School of Graduate Studies - 0. 1

Science 12.2 11.6

Veterinary Science 1.8 1.3

Victorian College of the Arts 1 .2 0.9
Missing 1 .5
Country of origin categorie
P.R. China 22.9 22.5

Hong Kong 8.2 7.1

India 1.6 1.9

Indonesia 9.8 8.7

Malaysia 23.0 20.7

Singapore 11.5 13.5
UK/US/Canada 3.9 4.6

Other East Asia 4.4 4.5

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 240 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249

Table 1 continued
Variable Achieved University
sample: population:
percentage percentage

Other S.E. Asia/Pacific 5.1 4.9

Middle East/North Africa 1.1 1 .5

Other Africa 1 .4 2.2

Europe 2.7 2.4

Latin America 0.7 0.9

Other South Asia 1.3 1.8

Missing 2.3 2.8

explored in the questionnaire

and reliability scaling proced
constituting a scale had to be
constituting each scale are p

Relating to others

The Connectedness in Melbo

support available to them in
point Likert-type scales. The
unfamiliar setting was measu
items rated on four-point s
concerning students' patterns
participation in clubs or asso
studying here.

Living and studying in Melbourne

Several items rated on a four- point scale measured students' satisfaction with accommo-
dation, adequacy of financial support, worry about having sufficient money to live on,
balance of time spent on study as opposed to other activities, balance of time spent with
others versus alone, and perceived ability to cope with the amount of university work. A
three-point rating of students' perceived academic progress was also obtained. Students'
perceived experience of abuse while living in Melbourne (i.e. not specific to the university)
was also measured. An aggregate measure of students' experience of physical abuse, sexual
harassment and verbal abuse, together with four-point ratings of their degree of distress in
response to each, formed the Abuse and Distress scale (a = .87). In addition, a four-point
rating of students' distress in response to perceived social exclusion was obtained.

Health and health-related behaviour

A four-point rating of students' perceived physical health was obtained. Mental health was
measured by the short form of the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (Lovibond and
Lovibond 1995), with Cronbach's alpha being .88, .81 and .86, respectively for the presen
sample. Two items rated on four-point scales were used to gain an indication of self-
esteem. A range of health-related behaviours was also measured: use of condoms by

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 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249 241

sexually active students; number of s

involvement in three types of self-har
Australia. Three scales, consisting main
additional forms of health-related, ris
scale (a = .84), Perceptions of Alcohol
and Gambling scale (a = .77).

Analysis of data

Research question 1 : Cluster analysis w

homogeneous groups of students, based
size, the ^T-means form of cluster ana
deletion of cases for missing data, a prop
some variables with lower frequencies
convergence criterion for iteration was
Since the questionnaire consisted of 1
variables), it was necessary to make a sel
analysis. The selection ensured that all
were represented. Emphasis was place
important in conceptual and practical t
Priority was given to variables that agg
Some 21 variables were selected for the
remainder individual items. Standardised scores were used.
Research question 2: Analyses of variance were used to test predictions in four of the
five areas (power = 1.0, with alpha = .05), with the Scheffé test being used for post hoc
comparisons. The chi-square test was used in the fifth area.
Research question 3: Chi-square tests were used to investigate associations between
demographic variables and patterns of well-being. Statistically significant variables were
then entered into a multinomial logistic regression in order to find the model that best
predicted the classification of students into the three clusters.

Results

Patterns of well-being

Cluster solutions consisting of two, three or four groupings were considered. The three-
cluster solution was clearly the best in terms of number of iterations required for con-
vergence, the contribution of variables to the separation of clusters, the number of cases
allocated to constituent clusters, and the conceptual meaningfulness of cluster profiles. The
means of the contributing variables that form the cluster centres of each of the three
clusters are set out in Table 2. While the significance values of the analysis of variance
tests carried out on each of these variables are not to be taken seriously because clustering
is designed to create maximally separate groups, the relative size of the F values indicates
the level of contribution of each clustering variable to the separation of groups and thus the
formation of the clusters. These F values are presented in Table 3.
Three sets of variables play a strong role in the separation of cluster groupings: first,
measures of connectedness and cultural stress, the Connectedness in Melbourne and the
Cultural Stress scales; secondly, four measures of risk-related behaviours (the Perceptions

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242 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249

Table 2 Final cluster centres (means) for eac

Variable Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3

{n = 576) (n = 337) (n = 66)

Domain 1: Relating to others

1. Connectedness in Melbourne scalea .32 -.51 -.21
2. Cultural Stress scaleb -.45 .69 .38
Domain 2: Living and studying in Melbourne
3. Abuse and Distress scaleb -.25 .26 .28
4. Experience of exclusion8 .30 -.48 -.21
5. Finances satisfactory3 .25 -.36 -.30
6. Worry about financesb -.33 .48 .46
7. Balance: time with others/alonea .31 -.48 -.28
8. Balance: study and other activities" .27 -.42 -.27
9. More university work than can cope withb -.30 .43 .38
10. Perceived academic progressb -.19 .31 .07
Domain 3: Health and health- related behaviour

1 1 . Depression scaleb - .5 1 .70 .90

12. Anxiety scd'Qh -.47 .62 .89
13. Sfrascale11 -.50 .70 .74
1 4. Perceptions of Drug Use scaleb -.15 -.16 2.14
1 5 . Perceptions of Alcohol Use scaleb -.12 -.12 1 .62
16. Perceptions of Smoking/Gambling scaleb -.21 -.18 2.68
17. General physical healtha .31 -.46 -.33
18. Condom usea -02 .16 -.67
19. Number of sexual partners in Australia -.05 -.21 1.43
20. Gambling in Australia3 .08 .07 -1.03
21. Self-harm totalb -.22 .21 .82

a High scores are positive. b Low scores are po

of Drug Use scale, the Perceptions of A

and Smoking scale, and the aggregate nu
the Depression, Anxiety and Stress scale
all contributing variables that provides t
meaning. As with any such groupings,
cluster will show variation.
In comparison with those in other clust
connectedness in Melbourne, display a
psychological distress. The cluster cent
scale scores all fall within the normal
them even in the mild range of psych
fewer experiences of abuse and less dis
their financial situation than others an
selves leading a more balanced lifestyle
progressing academically better than stu
experiencing better general physical hea
risk-taking behaviours of drugs, drink

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 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249 243

Table 3 ANOVA tests on each clustering

Variable Cluster Error F

Mean square df Mean square df

Domain 1: Relating to others

1. Connectedness in Melbourne scale 73.80 2 0.85 972 86.81***
2. Cultural Stress scale 139.69 2 0.71 957 196.71***
Domain 2: Living and studying in Melbourne
3. Abuse and Distress scale 5.34 2 0.95 160 5.65***
4. Experience of exclusion 64.53 2 0.87 962 74.35**
5. Finances satisfactory 42.52 2 0.91 969 46.50***
6. Worry about finances 77.78 2 0.84 972 92.37***
7. Balance: time with others/alone 70.25 2 0.86 974 81.89***
8. Balance: study and other activities 53.40 2 0.89 975 59.83***
9. More university work than can cope with 60.67 2 0.88 971 69.18***
10. Perceived academic progress 25.83 2 0.95 962 27.24***
Domain 3: Health and health-related behaviour

11. Depression scale 183.08 2 0.62 960 294.98***

12. Anxiety scale 151.62 2 0.69 958 221.17***
13. Stress scale 170.03 2 0.65 956 263.06***
14. Perceptions of Drug Use scale 162.66 2 0.66 959 245.39***
15. Perceptions of Alcohol Use scale 93.54 2 0.81 951 116.15***
16. Perceptions of Smoking/Gambling scale 254.43 2 0.47 957 540.91***
17. General physical health 65.90 2 0.87 975 76.02***
18. Condom use 18.36 2 0.96 948 19.05***
19. Number of sexual partners in Australia 73.12 2 0.84 885 87.36***
20. Gambling in Australia 37.43 2 0.93 972 40.46***
21. Self-harm total 42.91 2 0.91 971 46.96***

** p < .01 *** p < .001

reported sexual activity, condom usage and i

Overall, cluster 1 students' responses show a
well-being, much more so than students in t
cluster show a positive and connected way of
Cluster 2 students find life much more diffic
cluster are the most isolated and unconnected o
highest level of cultural stress. Compared with
of perceived abuse and resultant distress, inc
seem more worried and stressed by aspects of
students: worried by their financial situation,
versity work and their perceived academic pro
higher levels of depression, anxiety and genera
in the mild range, with about 30% of cluster st
levels of distress. Consistent with this, these
have poorer perceived physical health relative t
have low levels of risk-taking behaviour, com

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 244 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249

regard to drugs, alcohol, gambling a

activity. The pattern of responses of
lack of satisfaction in many areas
university life shown by these stude
Students in cluster 3 show some sim
of connectedness and high levels o
cluster 2 students. While they report
they have been less subject to social
also worried about their financial s
about other aspects of their life an
ticular about their lifestyle balance
demic progress and their physical h
and positive about these things as c
regard: they are the only ones who
involvement in drugs, alcohol, gamb
The pattern of responses exhibited
distressed of the three groups. Th
general stress, with the difference i
While the cluster centres for these
students have scale scores indicating
cluster 3 display a way of adapting t
and risk-taking.
The relative numbers of students
interest. Most students, 576 or 58
pattern of well-being. There is, nev
nected, stressed pattern. Some 337
belonging to cluster 2. Relatively few
6.7% of the sample) show a distresse
in Melbourne.

Predicting student well-being on the basis of cluster membership

If the typology of students' patterns of well-being is valid, one would expect to be able to
predict successfully, on the basis of cluster membership, to other measures of well-being
and satisfaction, thus establishing a form of concurrent validity for the typology. Five
variables were selected for this purpose from among the many response variables excess to
the purpose of the cluster analysis. Each of the five allowed readily predictable cluster
differences in varied aspects of well-being. Results provided statistically significant sup-
port for these predictions.

• Cluster 2 students mix with Australians both within the university (F(2,974) = 24.28,
p<.001, rj2 = .047) and off campus (F(2,975) = 20.63, p < .001, n2 = .041)
significantly less than students displaying either of the other two patterns.
• Cluster 1 students have a significantly higher level of self-esteem than other students on
the item, / have a positive view of myself as a person, (F(2,971) = 62.11, p < .001,
n2 = . 1 1 3). On the second self-esteem item (As a person, I am as good as most others.),
cluster 1 students again have a significantly higher rating than the unconnected and
stressed students (F(2,972) = 28.70, p < .001, t]2 = .056), though not significantly
higher than cluster 3 students.

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 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249 245

• Clusters 2 and 3 students have signifi

expectations than students with a p
(F(2,971) = 55.41, p < .001, rj2 = .
• Cluster 1 students are significantly
cluster 2 students, but the differenc
sufficient to reach significance (F(
• A significant positive association e
students and the need for help from
N = 975) = 24.83, p < .001, CC =
p < .001, CC = .21).

Demographic variables and patterns o

The three patterns of well-being were

related factors: age, gender, marital st
study in Australia, accompanying chil
when growing up and use of a langua
Only four demographic variables are s
course level, use of a LOTE off-camp
represented in cluster 1 in proportion
higher representation of females in c
higher representation of males than e
CC = .11). More postgraduate student
positive and connected way (cluster
clusters 2 or 3. The reverse is true fo
p < .05, CC = .21). Those who speak a
group having an unconnected and stres
cluster 3. The reverse is true of stud
N = 973) = 13.74, p < .01, CC = .12).
The fourth demographic variable that is significantly associated with the classification
of patterns of well-being is country of origin (/2 (26, N = 956) = 56.03, p < .001,
CC = .24). Four country categories show cluster membership distributions that are dif-
ferent from what would be expected on the basis of chance: Hong Kong, Indonesia, UK/
USA/Canada, and Europe. Dummy variables were constructed for each of these country
groupings and then tested. Hong Kong students are under-represented in cluster 1 and over-
represented in clusters 2 and 3 (/2 (2, N = 979) = 9.86, p < .01, CC = .10). There are
more Indonesian students than expected in cluster 1 and fewer than expected in clusters 2
and 3 (/2 (2, N = 979) = 6.06, p < .05, CC = .08). Students from UK/USA/Canada are
over-represented in cluster 3, the distressed, risk-taking pattern of well-being (#2 (2,
AT = 956) = 18.06,/? < .001, CC = .14). There are more European students than expected
in cluster 1, fewer than expected in cluster 2, and a tendency for them to be over-repre-
sented in cluster 3 (*2 (2, N = 956) = 6.27, p < .05, CC = .08).
These four demographic variables are not independent. Hong Kong students, for
example, are almost all enrolled in undergraduate courses and speak a language other than
English off the campus, while a disproportionate number of UK/US/Canadian and Euro-
pean students are enrolled in post-graduate courses. The four demographic variables were
entered into a multinomial logistic regression in order to find the model that best predicts
the classification of students into the three clusters. The best model consists of three

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 246 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249

significant predictors: gender (p < .

from Europe (p < .05). However, the
classifications correctly, none of wh
significant (p = .53) and a very smal
R2 = .032). A strong association be
patterns of well-being is not support

Discussion

A person-focussed approach to the investigation of international student psychosocial

responses to the challenge of life and study in Melbourne has resulted in the identification
of three groups of students, each with a characteristic but different pattern of perceived
well-being. The components of well-being - pleasant and unpleasant affect and cognitive
appraisals of satisfaction - that are evident in individual responses to questionnaire items
are also evident in the three styles of adaptation to the international student experience.
One of the three styles of adaptation is clearly a positive one. Almost 60% of students
were classified into cluster 1 . Positive affect and appraisals define this pattern. This result is
at odds with the view of international students as a high-risk group, whose stress-related
psychological and physical symptoms need to be considered within a framework of psy-
chopathology and mental illness.
This does not imply that the international student experience is free of stress and
challenge. Far from it. Yet, despite challenges, the majority of these students exhibit a
constructive and positive sense of self within their host environment. Perhaps we should
not be surprised. Many, if not most, international students are among the brightest and best
from their own countries, a highly select and motivated set of students, presumably having
the inner resources demonstrated in the face of complexity by most of the domestic
students in Leontopoulou's (2006) study.
The remaining two groups of students in this study exhibit patterns of well-being that
indicate less positive ways of adapting to their experience as international students.
However, neither of these two patterns should be viewed as extremely maladaptive. For
example, although both groups show elevated levels of depression, anxiety and stress
compared with students in the first cluster, neither group is characterised by pathological
levels of psychological distress. What the unconnected and stressed pattern of cluster 2
students and the distressed and risk-taking pattern of cluster 3 students do show is below-
average satisfaction with the various domains of life explored and above-average experi-
ence of negative affect. In fact, each of these two patterns represents one of two main ways
of expressing unpleasant affect: directing these negative feelings inwards and internalising
the distress or directing the feelings outwards and externalising distress in ways that are
potentially damaging to self and others (Roeser et al. 1998; Kazdin 1993).
Students who appear to internalise their distress represent a substantial minority, i.e.,
approximately one-third of those who participated in the present study, including a higher
than expected number being female students. Those within universities will be familiar
with the anxious, stressed student, adrift in an overwhelming environment, who devotes
most waking hours to study, often unproductively, who experiences guilt and self-blame
for the failure to cope more effectively and who achieves possibly well below capacity.
Students who seem to externalise their distress, the cluster 3 students, constitute a very
small minority, some 6.7% of the sample. While the distressed, risk-taking pattern shares
some features (especially above-average levels of cultural stress, depression, anxiety and

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 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249 247

general stress) with the cluster 2 pa

damaging involvement of cluster 3 s
sexual activity and self-harm. There i
of these risky, health-related behavio
studies pointing to common risk fact
male pattern than a female one (Bar
It is wise to approach typologies wit
usefulness of typologies concerning t
validity and generalisability, and poin
study, the typology has been establish
is meaningful conceptually. The que
dicted, positive and connected stude
social mixing with Australians, and sa
dents, especially students whose ada
show significantly lower levels of
expectations and significantly less p
services. These results provide eviden
typology.
Further work should be undertaken to establish the generalisability of the typology to
other student groups. It would have been valuable to be able to compare the cluster groups
emerging from this study with those identified in other studies of international or domestic
students. However, no comparable studies could be found. The one study that bears some
similarity to the present one is the study by Leontopoulou (2006), previously outlined.
While patterns of resilience in Greek domestic student adaptation to university life were
explored in that study, the measures used as a basis for defining patterns of adaptation were
different from those of the present study. Thus, it is not surprising that the three-cluster
typology Leontopoulou identified differs from that of the present study. The one point of
similarity is her identification of a small 'maladaptive' group of students, characterised by
greater mental health problems and lower levels of well-being and self-esteem. This bears
a partial resemblance to the distressed and risk-taking group of the present study, though
the difference in input variables of the two studies means that risk-taking element in
particular is absent from the 'maladaptive' group in Leontopoulou' s study.
The typology gives educational institutions useful information pertinent to their services
for international students. With knowledge of the types of psychosocial adaptation diffi-
culties students experience and the extent to which such difficulties are characteristic of the
international student population, universities are in a better position to target their support
services to meet needs. Attention is directed in particular to students exhibiting the
unconnected and stressed way of adapting, who constitute about one-third of the study
sample. We believe these are the students who, with targeted support, are most likely to
experience increased satisfaction and well-being during their time as international students.
Approaches that provide systematic strengthening of students' connectedness and self-
confidence within both study and social settings would be valuable. The difficulties faced
by the distressed, risk-taking students are believed to be much more challenging and less
amenable to change.
The interpretation and meaningfulness of the patterns of well-being were not illumi-
nated significantly by their association with demographic and background variables. This is
consistent with the view of Diener and his colleagues (Diener et al. 1999) who claim that
researchers have now turned to individual, within-person variables such as personality,
goal structure and adaptive coping strategies as ones more likely to account for differences

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 248 High Educ (2010) 60:235-249

in perceptions of well-being, regard

interesting that measures of length
not significantly associated with patt
focus on increasing ease in coping w
result of social learning (Ward et al.
this study seem to be characteristic,
the host environment and relatively
sistent with the concept of the ps
dependent on individual and within-p
dimensions of personality, life cha
There are three aspects of the presen
work. Interpretations of the three st
styles have typical coping strategie
strategies to test these suggestions
results. It would be helpful to see w
could be delineated within internati
outside Australia, as well as within
While the challenge of adapting to
students, they still confront many
patterns might constitute underlying
characteristic of all university stude
concerns the development and testing
students with a less than optimal s
effective strategies tailored to the n
stressed students would be particular

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