Paleo Indians

9/9/23, 8:20 PM Paleo-Indians - Wikipedia
Paleo-Indians
Paleo-Indians, Paleoindians or Paleo-Americans were the first peoples who entered,
and subsequently inhabited, the Americas during the final glacial episodes of the late Paleo-Indians
Pleistocene period. The prefix paleo- comes from the Ancient Greek adjective: παλαιός, Paleo-Indians hunting a glyptodont
romanized: palaiós, lit. 'old; ancient'. The term Paleo-Indians applies specifically to the lithic Heinrich Harder (1858–1935), c. 1920.
period in the Western Hemisphere and is distinct from the term Paleolithic.[note 1]
Traditional theories suggest that big-animal hunters crossed the Bering Strait from North
Asia into the Americas over a land bridge (Beringia). This bridge existed from 45,000 to
12,000 BCE (47,000–14,000 BP).[1] Small isolated groups of hunter-gatherers migrated
alongside herds of large herbivores far into Alaska. From c. 16,500 – c. 13,500 BCE
(c. 18,500 – c. 15,500 BP), ice-free corridors developed along the Pacific coast and valleys of
North America.[2] This allowed animals, followed by humans, to migrate south into the
interior of the continent. The people went on foot or used boats along the coastline. The
precise dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas remain subjects of ongoing
The Paleo-Indians, also known as the Lithic
debate.[3] At least two morphologically different Paleo-Indian populations were coexisting in
peoples, are the earliest known settlers of
different geographical areas of Mexico 10,000 years ago.[4]
the Americas; the period's name, the Lithic
Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the stage, derives from the appearance of lithic
earliest human activity in the Americas. Archeologists and anthropologists use surviving flaked stone tools.
crafted lithic flaked tools to classify cultural periods.[5] Scientific evidence links Indigenous
Americans to eastern Siberian populations. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by the
distribution of blood types, and genetic composition as indicated by molecular data, such as DNA.[6] There is evidence for at least two
separate migrations.[7] From 8000 to 7000 BCE (10,000–9,000 BP) the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic
technology advances, resulting in a more sedentary lifestyle.
Migration into the Americas

Researchers continue to study and discuss the specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact
dates and routes traveled.[9] The traditional theory holds that these early migrants moved into Beringia between eastern Siberia and
present-day Alaska 17,000 years ago,[10] at a time when the Quaternary glaciation significantly lowered sea levels.[11] These people are
believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleo-Indians 1/15
and Cordilleran ice sheets.[12] An alternative proposed scenario involves migration,

either on foot or using boats, down the Pacific coast to South America.[13] Evidence
of the latter would have been submerged by a sea-level rise of more than a hundred
meters following the end of the last glacial period.[14]
The time range of the peopling of the Americas remains a source of substantial
debate. Conventional estimates have it that humans reached North America at some
point between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago.[15][16][17][18] The few areas of agreement
achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the
Map of early human migrations based on the Out of Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known
Africa theory; figures are in thousands of years ago as the late glacial maximum, around 16,000 to 13,000 years before present.[10][19]
(kya)[8]
Periodization
Sites in Alaska (East Beringia) are where some of the earliest evidence has been found of
Paleo-Indians,[20][21][22] followed by archaeological sites in northern British Columbia,
western Alberta and the Old Crow Flats region in the Yukon.[23] The Paleo-Indian would
eventually flourish all over the Americas.[24] These peoples were spread over a wide
geographical area; thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the
individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles
and progress identifiable.[22] This early Paleo-Indian period's lithic reduction tool
adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands The Mammut americanum (American
consisting of approximately 20 to 60 members of an extended family.[25][26] Food would mastodon) became extinct around 12,000–
have been plentiful during the few warm months of the year. Lakes and rivers were 9,000 years ago due to human-related
teeming with many species of fish, birds and aquatic mammals. Nuts, berries and edible activities, climate change, or a combination of
roots could be found in the forests and marshes. The fall would have been a busy time both. See Quaternary extinction event and
because foodstuffs would have to be stored and clothing made ready for the winter. During Holocene extinction.
the winter, coastal fishing groups moved inland to hunt and trap fresh food and furs.[27]
Late ice-age climatic changes caused plant communities and animal populations to change.[28] Groups moved from place to place and
sought new supplies as preferred resources were depleted.[24] Small bands utilized hunting and gathering during the spring and
summer months, then broke into smaller direct family groups for the fall and winter. Family groups moved every 3–6 days, possibly
traveling up to 360 km (220 mi) a year.[29][30] Diets were often sustaining and rich in protein due to successful hunting. Clothing was
made from a variety of animal hides that were also used for shelter construction.[31] During much of the Early and Middle Paleo-Indian
periods, inland bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct megafauna.[24] Large Pleistocene mammals
were the giant beaver, steppe wisent, musk ox, mastodons, woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer (early caribou).[32]
The Clovis culture, appearing around 11,500 BCE (c. 13,500 BP) in North America, is one of the most notable
Paleoindian archaeological cultures.[33] It has been disputed whether not the Clovis culture were specialist big-
game hunters or employed a mixed foraging strategy that included smaller terrestrial game, aquatic animals, and
a variety of flora.[34][35] Paleo-Indian groups were efficient hunters and carried a variety of tools. These included
highly efficient fluted-style spear points, as well as microblades used for butchering and hide processing.[36]
Projectile points and hammerstones made from many sources are found traded or moved to new locations.[37]
Stone tools were traded and/or left behind from North Dakota and Northwest Territories, to Montana and
Wyoming.[38] Trade routes also have been found from the British Columbia Interior to the coast of California.[38]
The glaciers that covered the northern half of the continent began to gradually melt, exposing new land for
occupation around 17,500–14,500 years ago.[28] At the same time as this was occurring, worldwide extinctions
among the large mammals began. In North America, camelids and equids eventually died off, the latter not to
Folsom projectile reappear on the continent until the Spanish reintroduced the horse near the end of the 15th century CE.[39] As the
point Quaternary extinction event was happening, the Late Paleo-Indians would have relied more on other means of
subsistence.[40]
From c. 10,500 – c. 9,500 BCE (c. 12,500 – c. 11,500 BP), the broad-spectrum big game hunters of the Great Plains began to focus on a
single animal species: the bison (an early cousin of the American bison).[41] The earliest known of these bison-oriented hunting
traditions is the Folsom tradition. Folsom peoples traveled in small family groups for most of the year, returning yearly to the same
springs and other favored locations on higher ground.[42] There they would camp for a few days, perhaps erecting a temporary shelter,
making and/or repairing some stone tools, or processing some meat, then moving on.[41] Paleo-Indians were not numerous and
population densities were quite low.[43]
Classification
Paleo-Indians are generally classified by lithic reduction or lithic core "styles" and by regional adaptations.[22][44] Lithic technology
fluted spear points, like other spear points, are collectively called projectile points. The projectiles are constructed from chipped stones
that have a long groove called a "flute". The spear points would typically be made by chipping a single flake from each side of the
point.[45] The point was then tied onto a spear of wood or bone. As the environment changed due to the ice age ending around 17–13 Ka
BP on short, and around 25–27 Ka BP on the long,[46] many animals migrated overland to take advantage of the new sources of food.
Humans following these animals, such as bison, mammoth and mastodon, thus gained the name big-game hunters.[47] Pacific coastal
groups of the period would have relied on fishing as the prime source of sustenance.[48]
Archaeologists are piecing together evidence that the earliest human settlements in North America were thousands of years before the
appearance of the current Paleo-Indian time frame (before the late glacial maximum 20,000-plus years ago).[49] Evidence indicates that
people were living as far east as northern Yukon, in the glacier-free zone called Beringia before 30,000 BCE (32,000 BP).[50][51] Until
recently, it was generally believed that the first Paleo-Indian people to arrive in North
America belonged to the Clovis culture. This archaeological phase was named after the city
of Clovis, New Mexico, where in 1936 unique Clovis points were found in situ at the site of
Blackwater Draw, where they were directly associated with the bones of Pleistocene
animals.[52]
Recent data from a series of archaeological sites throughout the Americas suggest that
Clovis (thus the "Paleo-Indians") time range should be re-examined. In particular, sites
located near Cooper's Ferry in Idaho,[53] Cactus Hill in Virginia,[54] Meadowcroft
Rockshelter in Pennsylvania,[55] Bear Spirit Mountain in West Virginia,[56] Catamarca and
Salta in Argentina,[57] Pilauco and Monte Verde in Chile,[58][59] Topper in South
Carolina,[60] and Quintana Roo in Mexico[61][62] have generated early dates for wide-
ranging Paleo-Indian occupation. Some sites significantly predate the migration time
frame of ice-free corridors, thus suggesting that there were additional coastal migration
routes available, traversed either on foot and/or in boats.[63] Geological evidence suggests
the Pacific coastal route was open for overland travel before 23,000 years ago and after
16,000 years ago.[64]
Different types of Projectile points, from the

Paleo-Indian periods in southeastern North
America
South America
In South America, the site of Monte Verde indicates that its population was probably territorial and resided in their river basin for most
of the year. Some other South American groups, on the other hand, were highly mobile and hunted big-game animals such as
gomphotheres and giant sloths. They used classic bifacial projectile point technology, such as Fishtail points.
The primary examples are populations associated with El Jobo points (Venezuela), fish-tail or Magallanes points (various
parts of the continent, but mainly the southern half), and Paijan points (Peru and Ecuador) at sites in grasslands, savanna
plains, and patchy forests.[65]
The dating for these sites ranges from c. 14,000 BP (for Taima-Taima in Venezuela) to c. 10,000 BP.[66] The bi-pointed El Jobo
projectile points were mostly distributed in north-western Venezuela; from the Gulf of Venezuela to the high mountains and valleys. The
population using them were hunter-gatherers that seemed to remain within a certain circumscribed territory.[67][68] El Jobo points
were probably the earliest, going back to c. 14,200 – c. 12,980 BP and they were used for hunting large mammals.[69] In contrast, the
fish-tail points, dating to c. 11,000 B.P. in Patagonia, had a much wider geographical distribution, but mostly in the central and
southern part of the continent.[70][71]
Archaeogenetics
The haplogroup most commonly associated with Amerindian genetics is Haplogroup Q-
M3.[73] Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the
majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This
allows the historical pattern of mutations to be easily studied.[74] The pattern indicates
Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes: first with
the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the
Americas.[75] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and
founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous Amerindian populations.[76]
Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line,
Frequency distribution of haplogroup Q-M242.[72]
with an initial layover on Beringia for the founding population.[77][78][79][80] The micro-
satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates
that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of
the region.[81] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations, however, exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations that are
distinct from other Amerindians with various mtDNA mutations.[82][83][84] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern
extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.[85]
Evidence from full genomic studies suggests that the first people in the Americas diverged from Ancient East Asians about 36,000 years
ago and expanded northwards into Siberia, where they encountered and interacted with a different Paleolithic Siberian population
(known as Ancient North Eurasians), giving rise to both Paleosiberian peoples and Ancient Native Americans, which later migrated
towards the Beringian region, became isolated from other populations, and subsequently populated the Americas.[86][87]
Transition to archaic period

The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer, more arid climate and the disappearance of the
last megafauna.[88] The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers, but now individual groups
started to focus on resources available to them locally. Thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional
generalization like the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty, Dalton, and Plano traditions. These regional
adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, and a more mixed
economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables, and harvested plant foods.[30][89] Many groups
continued to hunt big game but their hunting traditions became more varied and meat procurement
methods more sophisticated.[28] The placement of artifacts and materials within an Archaic burial site
indicated social differentiation based upon status in some groups.[90]
See also
Atlatl weights and carved
Adams County Paleo-Indian District – (Archeological site) stone gorgets from Poverty
Arlington Springs Man – (Human remains) Point
Blackwater Draw – (Archeological site)
Borax Lake Site – (Archeological site)
Buhl woman – (Human remains)
Calico Early Man Site – (Archeological site)
Caverna da Pedra Pintada – (Archeological site)
Cody complex – (Culture group)
Cueva de las Manos – (Cave paintings)
East Fork Site – (Archeological site)
Folsom Tradition - (Culture group)
Fort Rock Cave – (Archeological site)
Hiscock Site – (Archeological site)
Kennewick Man – (Human remains)
Leanderthal Lady – (Human remains)
Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site – (Archeological site)
Lindenmeier site – (Archeological site)
Luzia Woman – (Human remains)
Marmes Rockshelter – (Archeological site)
Mastodon State Historic Site – (Archeological site)
Mummy Cave – (Archeological site)
Naia – (Human remains)
Paisley Caves – (Archeological site)
Peñon woman – (Human remains)
Post Pattern – (Archaeological culture)
San Dieguito complex – (Archeological site)

Sandia Man Cave – (Archeological site)
Upward Sun River site – (Archeological site)
Witt Site – (Archeological site)
X̲ áːytem – (Archeological site)
Quad site – (Archeological site)
Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
Notes
1. Paleolithic specifically refers to the period between c. 2.5 million years ago and the end of the Pleistocene in the Eastern
Hemisphere. It is not used in New World archaeology.
References
1. Sonneborn, Liz (January 2007). Chronology of American Indian History (https://books.google.com/books?id=OKfBId96DTIC&pg=PA
3). Infobase Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8160-6770-1. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
2. Viegas, Jennifer. "First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121010092348/http://dsc.discover
y.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american.html). Discovery News. Archived from the original (http://dsc.discovery.com/news/
2008/02/13/beringia-native-american.html) on 10 October 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2009. "Archaeological evidence, in fact,
recognizes that people started to leave Beringia for the New World around 40,000 years ago, but rapid expansion into North
America didn't occur until about 15,000 years ago, when the ice had literally broken" page 2 (http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/0
2/13/beringia-native-american-02.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120313061401/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/200
8/02/13/beringia-native-american-02.html) 13 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
3. Ward, H. Trawick; Stephen Davis, R. P. (1999). Time before history: the archaeology of North Carolina (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=0vVOdOSIv_cC&pg=PA2). University of North Carolina Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8078-4780-0. Retrieved 29 November
2011.
4. Cockburn, Harry (7 January 2020). "10,000-year-old skeleton challenges theory of how humans arrived in Americas" (https://www.in
dependent.co.uk/news/science/skeleton-mexico-tulum-paleoindian-population-americas-anthropology-a9319641.html). The
Independent. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/skeleton-mexico-tul
um-paleoindian-population-americas-anthropology-a9319641.html) from the original on 2022-05-24.
5. "Method and Theory in American Archaeology" (https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6136197). Gordon Willey and Philip
Phillips. University of Chicago. 1958. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
6. Ash, Patricia J.; Robinson, David J. (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=JUlSYsyC-NQC&pg=PT289). John Wiley & Sons. p. 289. ISBN 978-1-119-96424-7.
7. Pitblado, B. L. (2011-03-12). "A Tale of Two Migrations: Reconciling Recent Biological and Archaeological Evidence for the
Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas". Journal of Archaeological Research. 19 (4): 327–375. doi:10.1007/s10814-011-9049-y (http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10814-011-9049-y). S2CID 144261387 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144261387).
8. Burenhult, Göran [in Swedish] (2000). Die ersten Menschen [The first people] (in German). Weltbild Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8289-0741-
6.
9. White, Phillip M. (2006). American Indian chronology: chronologies of the American mosaic (https://books.google.com/books?id=_V
nZ8_2kSScC&pg=PA1). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-313-33820-5. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
10. Wells, Spencer; Read, Mark (2002). The Journey of Man – A Genetic Odyssey (https://books.google.com/books?id=WAsKm-_zu5s
C&q=The%20Journey%20of%20Man&pg=PA138) (Digitised online by Google books). Random House. pp. 138–140. ISBN 978-0-
8129-7146-0. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
11. Fitzhugh, William; Goddard, Ives; Ousley, Steve; Owsley, Doug; Stanford, Dennis. "Paleoamerican" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
090105215737/http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI//nmnh/origin.htm). Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Outreach Office.
Archived from the original (http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/origin.htm) on 2009-01-05. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
12. "The peopling of the Americas: Genetic ancestry influences health" (http://www.physorg.com/news169474130.html). Phys.org.
Retrieved 2009-11-17.
13. Fladmark, K. R. (January 1979). "Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America". American Antiquity. 44 (1): 55–69.
doi:10.2307/279189 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F279189). JSTOR 279189 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/279189). S2CID 162243347
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162243347).
14. "68 Responses to "Sea will rise 'to levels of last Ice Age'"" (http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2009/01/sea-will-rise-to-lev
els-of-last-ice-age/). Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University. 26 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
15. Wells, Spencer (2006). Deep Ancestry: Inside the Genographic Project (https://books.google.com/books?id=432Kt0A7J_UC&pg=PA
222). National Geographic Books. pp. 222–. ISBN 978-0-7922-6215-2. OCLC 1031966951 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10319669
51).
16. Relethford, John H. (17 January 2017). 50 Great Myths of Human Evolution: Understanding Misconceptions about Our Origins (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=rAjcDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA192). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-0-470-67391-1.
OCLC 1238190784 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1238190784).
17. Birx, H. James, ed. (10 June 2010). 21st Century Anthropology: A Reference Handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=fsF1A
wAAQBAJ&pg=PT50). SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-6630-5. OCLC 1102541304 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/110254130
4).
18. Kicza, John E.; Horn, Rebecca (3 November 2016). Resilient Cultures: America's Native Peoples Confront European Colonialization
1500–1800 (https://books.google.com/books?id=b2t4DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT20) (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-50987-7.
19. Bonatto, S.L.; Salzano, F.M. (1997). "A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA
sequence data" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC20009). PNAS. 94 (5): 1866–1871. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.1866B
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997PNAS...94.1866B). doi:10.1073/pnas.94.5.1866 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.94.5.186
6). PMC 20009 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC20009). PMID 9050871 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9050871).
20. Bruce Elliott Johansen; Barry Pritzker (2008). Encyclopedia of American Indian history (https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E
9_J6IC&pg=PA451). ABC-CLIO. pp. 451–. ISBN 978-1-85109-817-0. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
21. "Period 1 (10,000 to 8,000 years ago)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110713193402/http://www.learnersportal.com/CanadaFP/Anc
ient/per1.html). Learners Portal Breton University. 2006. Archived from the original (http://www.learnersportal.com/CanadaFP/Ancien
t/per1.html#Palaeo-Indian) on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
22. Wm. Jack Hranicky; Wm Jack Hranicky Rpa (17 June 2010). North American Projectile Points – Revised (https://books.google.com/
books?id=ctw4OPNR540C&pg=PA135). AuthorHouse. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-4520-2632-9. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
23. Norman Herz; Ervan G. Garrison (1998). Geological methods for archaeology (https://books.google.com/books?id=YSPkmV_mRvk
C&pg=PA125). Oxford University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-19-509024-6. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
24. Barry Lewis; Robert Jurmain; Lynn Kilgore (10 December 2008). Understanding Humans: Introduction to Physical Anthropology and
Archaeology (https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6dg1FPViKEC&pg=PT342). Cengage Learning. pp. 342–348. ISBN 978-0-495-
60474-7. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
25. David J. Wishart (2004). Encyclopedia of the Great Plains (https://books.google.com/books?id=rtRFyFO4hpEC&pg=PA589). U of
Nebraska Press. p. 589. ISBN 978-0-8032-4787-1. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
26. Rickey Butch Walker (December 2008). Warrior Mountains Indian Heritage - Teacher's Edition (https://books.google.com/books?id=
Ah3wOOrWthAC&pg=PA34). Heart of Dixie Publishing. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-934610-27-5. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
27. Dawn Elaine Bastian; Judy K. Mitchell (2004). Handbook of Native American mythology (https://books.google.com/books?id=IsyQu1
kDK-kC&pg=PA6). ABC-CLIO. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-85109-533-9. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
28. Pielou, E.C. (1991). After the Ice Age : The Return of Life to Glaciated North America (https://books.google.com/books?id=knEyjCY
WEHQC&q=After%20the%20Ice%20Age%20%3A%20The%20Return%20of%20Life%20to%20Glaciated%20North%20America&p
g=PP1) (Digitised online by Google books). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-66812-3. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
29. David R. Starbuck (31 May 2006). The archeology of New Hampshire: exploring 10,000 years in the Granite State (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=DcKQoMp9Qv0C&pg=PA27). UPNE. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-58465-562-6. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
30. Fiedel, Stuart J. (1992). Prehistory of the Americas (https://books.google.com/books?id=Yrhp8H0_l6MC&q=Paleo-Indians%20traditi
on&pg=PR5) (Digitised online by Google books). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42544-5. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
31. "Alabama Archaeology: Prehistoric Alabama" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100613070843/http://bama.ua.edu/~alaarch/prehistoric
alabama/paleoindian.htm). University of Alabama Press. 1999. Archived from the original (http://bama.ua.edu/~alaarch/prehistorical
abama/paleoindian.htm) on 2010-06-13. Retrieved 2010-04-10.
32. Breitburg, Emanual; John B. Broster; Arthur L. Reesman; Richard G. Strearns (1996). "Coats-Hines Site: Tennessee's First
Paleoindian Mastodon Association" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110646/http://web.utk.edu/~anthrop/research/Tennessee
Archaeology/04_The_First_Peoples_of_Tennessee_03032008.pdf) (PDF). Current Research in the Pleistocene. 13: 6–8. Archived
from the original (http://web.utk.edu/~anthrop/research/TennesseeArchaeology/04_The_First_Peoples_of_Tennessee_03032008.pd
f) (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
33. Catherine Anne Cavanaugh; Michael Payne; Donald Grant Wetherell (2006). Alberta formed, Alberta transformed (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=V_XNCXJcjlkC&pg=PA9). University of Alberta. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-55238-194-6. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
34. Waguespack, Nicole M.; Surovell, Todd A. (April 2003). "Clovis Hunting Strategies, or How to Make out on Plentiful Resources" (http
s://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0002731600048393/type/journal_article). American Antiquity. 68 (2): 333–352.
doi:10.2307/3557083 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3557083). ISSN 0002-7316 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7316).
JSTOR 3557083 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3557083). S2CID 164047864 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164047864).
35. Scott C. Zeman (2002). Chronology of the American West: from 23,000 B.C.E. through the twentieth century (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=KK1q6N16zIAC&pg=PA9). ABC-CLIO. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-57607-207-3. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
36. William C. Sturtevant (21 February 1985). Handbook of North American Indians (https://books.google.com/books?id=kGWuMa6sRY
sC&pg=PA87). Government Printing Office. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-16-004580-6. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
37. Emory Dean Keoke; Kay Marie Porterfield (January 2005). Trade, Transportation, and Warfare (https://books.google.com/books?id=
aKIEZsxbYdUC&pg=PA1). Infobase Publishing. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-8160-5395-7. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
38. Brantingham, P. Jeffrey; Kuhn, Steven L.; Kerry, Kristopher W. (2004). The Early Upper Paleolithic beyond Western Europe (http://w
ww.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9850.php). University of California Press. pp. 41–66. ISBN 9780520238510. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
39. "A brief history of the horse in America: Horse phylogeny and evolution" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140819083344/http://www.c
anadiangeographic.ca/Magazine/ma05/indepth/). Ben Singer. Canadian Geographic. 2005. Archived from the original (http://www.ca
nadiangeographic.ca/Magazine/ma05/indepth/) on 2014-08-19. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
40. Anderson, David G.; Sassaman, Kenneth E. (1996). The Paleoindian and Early Archaic Southeast (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=rbfIL7NKFwgC&q=Paleo%20Indian&pg=PP1) (Digitised online by Google books). University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-
8173-0835-3. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
41. Mann, Charles C. (2006-10-10). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (https://books.google.com/books?id=XhA
qcIq_pGcC&q=Paleo-Indians&pg=PA334) (Digitised online by Google books). Random House of Canada. ISBN 978-1-4000-3205-
1. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
42. "Folsom Traditions" (http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/manarchnet/chronology/paleoindian/folsom.html).
University of Manitoba, Archaeological Society. 1998. Retrieved 2010-04-10.
43. "Beginnings to 1500 C.E" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101206163225/http://multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/p4/1).
Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. Archived from the original (http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/Encyclopedia/A-Z/p4/1) on 2010-
12-06. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
44. Holliday, Vance T. (1997). Paleoindian geoarchaeology of the southern High Plains (https://books.google.com/books?id=tUb2o1fPG
9EC&pg=PA15). University of Texas Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-292-73114-1. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
45. Adovasio, J.M. (2002). The First Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology's Greatest Mystery. with Jake Page. New York: Random
House. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-375-50552-2.
46. Berger, Wolfgang H.; Noble Shor, Elizabeth (25 April 2009). Ocean: reflections on a century of exploration (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=nMUqEdOd3NEC&pg=PA397). University of California Press. p. 397. ISBN 978-0-520-24778-9. Retrieved
29 November 2011.
47. McHugh, Tom; Hobson, Victoria (1979). The Time of the Buffalo (https://books.google.com/books?id=xSbrXXh0lWMC&q=buffalo+mi
grated+from+Asia+to+America&pg=PA13). University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-8105-9. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
48. deFrance, Susan D.; Keefer, David K.; Richardson, James B.; Alvarez, Adan U. (2010). "Late Paleo-Indian Coastal Foragers:
Specialized Extractive". Latin American Antiquity. 12 (4): 413–426. doi:10.2307/972087 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F972087).
JSTOR 972087 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/972087). S2CID 163802845 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163802845).
49. "Alberta History pre 1800 – Jasper Alberta" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160313201121/http://telusplanet.net/public/dgarneau/alb
erta1.htm). Jasper Alberta. 2009. Archived from the original (http://www.telusplanet.net/public/dgarneau/alberta1.htm) on 2016-03-
13. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
50. Bradley, Bruce; Stanford, Dennis (2004). "The North Atlantic ice-edge corridor: a possible Palaeolithic route to the New World".
World Archaeology. Vol. 34.
51. Lauber, Patricia (2003). Who Came First? New Clues to Prehistoric Americans. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.
52. "National Park Service Southeastern Archaeological Center: The Paleoindian Period" (http://www.nps.gov/history/seac/outline/02-pa
leoindian/index.htm). Retrieved 2009-11-17.
53. Wade, Lizzie (2019-08-29). "First people in the Americas came by sea, ancient tools unearthed by Idaho river suggest" (https://www.
science.org/content/article/first-people-americas-came-sea-ancient-tools-unearthed-idaho-river-suggest). Science | AAAS.
Retrieved 2020-12-28.
54. Bowers, Bruce (2000). "Early New World Settlers Rise in East" (https://www.sciencenews.org/article/early-new-world-settlers-rise-ea
st). Science News. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
55. "Meadowcroft Rockshelter" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150511004804/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1113831
918&ResourceType=Site). National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original (http://tps.
cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=1113831918&ResourceType=Site) on 11 May 2015. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
56. "Author Discovers Ceremonial Site" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181109201722/https://www.heraldmailmedia.com/life/author-dis
covers-ceremonial-site-and-reconnects-with-indian-heritage/article_7d9d4f7c-5ac5-5010-a7a1-e5393eec2ace.html). Archaeology
Site Article listing. Herald Mall Media. Archived from the original (https://www.heraldmailmedia.com/life/author-discovers-ceremonial-
site-and-reconnects-with-indian-heritage/article_7d9d4f7c-5ac5-5010-a7a1-e5393eec2ace.html) on 2018-11-09. Retrieved
2019-03-15.
57. "Encontraron la evidencia humana más antigua de Argentina" (http://www.unidiversidad.com.ar/encontraron-la-evidencia-humana-m
as-antigua-de-argentina) [They found the oldest human evidence in Argentina]. Universidad (in Spanish). 21 May 2018.
58. "Confirman huella humana en Chile como la más antigua de América" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190427201944/https://www.jo
rnada.com.mx/ultimas/2019/04/27/confirman-huella-humana-en-chile-como-la-mas-antigua-de-america-4987.html) [Confirm human
footprint in Chile as the oldest in America]. la Jornada (in Spanish). Archived from the original (https://www.jornada.com.mx/ultimas/
2019/04/27/confirman-huella-humana-en-chile-como-la-mas-antigua-de-america-4987.html) on 2019-04-27. Retrieved 2019-04-27.
59. "Monte Verde Archaeological Site – UNESCO World Heritage Centre" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1873/). Retrieved
2009-11-17.
60. "CNN.com: Man in Americas Earlier Than Thought" (http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/11/17/carolina.dig/index.html). 2004-
11-18. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
61. Villarreal, Ignacio (2010-08-25). "Mexican Archaeologists Extract 10,000 Year-Old Skeleton from Flooded Cave in Quintana Roo" (ht
tp://www.artdaily.com/index.asp?int_sec=2&int_new=40187). Artdaily.com. Retrieved 2010-09-17.
62. "Skull in Underwater Cave May Be Earliest Trace of First Americans – NatGeo News Watch" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110226
224240/http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/blogs/news/chiefeditor/2011/02/skull-in-mexico-cave-may-be-oldest-american-found.ht
ml). Blogs.nationalgeographic.com. 2011-02-18. Archived from the original (http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/blogs/news/chiefedi
tor/2011/02/skull-in-mexico-cave-may-be-oldest-american-found.html) on 2011-02-26. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
63. Connor, Steve. "Does skull prove that the first Americans came from Europe?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20040302011546/http://
www.utexas.edu/courses/stross/ant322m_files/1stpersons.htm). The University of Texas at Austin – Web Central. Archived from the
original (http://www.utexas.edu/courses/stross/ant322m_files/1stpersons.htm) on 2004-03-02. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
64. Jordan, David K. (2009). "Prehistoric Beringia" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140212155854/http://www.anthro.ucsd.edu/~dkjorda
n/arch/beringia.html). University of California - San Diego. Archived from the original (http://www.anthro.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/arch/ber
ingia.html) on 2014-02-12. Retrieved 2010-04-15.
65. TOM D. DILLEHAY, The Late Pleistocene Cultures of South America. (https://web.archive.org/web/20160108213554/http://www.latin
americanstudies.org/ancient/pleistocene-cultures.pdf) Evolutionary Anthropology, 1999
66. Cummings, Vicki; Jordan, Peter; Zvelebil, Marek (2014). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-
Gatherers (https://books.google.com/books?id=Nl2yAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA418). OUP Oxford. p. 418. ISBN 978-0-19-102526-6.
67. José R. Oliver, Implications of Taima-taima and the Peopling of Northern South America. (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journ
ey/taima-taima-text3.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160425071105/http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/tai
ma-taima-text3.html) 2016-04-25 at the Wayback Machine bradshawfoundation.com
68. Oliver, J.R., Alexander, C.S. (2003). Ocupaciones humanas del Plesitoceno terminal en el Occidente de Venezuela. Maguare, 17
83–246
69. Silverman, Helaine; Isbell, William (2008). Handbook of South American Archaeology (https://books.google.com/books?id=yZr-lxQg
JiAC&pg=PA433). Springer Science. p. 433. ISBN 978-0-387-75228-0.
70. Silverman, Helaine; Isbell, William (2008). Handbook of South American Archaeology (https://books.google.com/books?id=yZr-lxQg
JiAC&pg=PA35). Springer Science. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-387-75228-0.
71. Dillehay, Thomas D. (2008). The Settlement of the Americas (https://books.google.com/books?id=aM0CRBQ9kFcC&pg=PA209).
Basic Books. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-7867-2543-4.
72. Balanovsky, Oleg; Gurianov, Vladimir; Zaporozhchenko, Valery; et al. (February 2017). "Phylogeography of human Y-chromosome
haplogroup Q3-L275 from an academic/citizen science collaboration" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5333174).
BMC Evolutionary Biology. 17 (S1): 18. doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0870-2 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12862-016-0870-2).
PMC 5333174 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5333174). PMID 28251872 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/282518
72).
73. "Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas" (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Bortolini-
AJHG-03-YAmer.pdf) (PDF). University College London 73:524–539. 2003. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
74. Orgel, L. (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world" (http://www.d.umn.edu/~pschoff/documents/OrgelRNAWorld.
pdf) (PDF). Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol. 39 (2): 99–123. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.537.7679 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?
doi=10.1.1.537.7679). doi:10.1080/10409230490460765 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10409230490460765). PMID 15217990 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15217990). S2CID 4939632 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4939632). Retrieved
2010-01-19.
75. Wendy Tymchuk, ed. (2008). "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100622001311/http://www.geneba
se.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=16). Genebase Systems. Archived from the original (http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=
16) (Verbal tutorial possible) on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
76. Wendy Tymchuk, ed. (2008). "Learn about Y-DNA Haplogroup Q" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100421215503/http://www.geneba
se.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=16). Genebase Systems. Archived from the original (http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=
16) (Verbal tutorial possible) on 2010-04-21. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
77. Alice Roberts (2010). The Incredible Human Journey (https://books.google.com/books?id=ng8ai3xkZRUC&pg=PT101). A&C Black.
pp. 101–03. ISBN 978-1-4088-1091-0.
78. "First Americans Endured 20,000-Year Layover - Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121010092348/h
ttp://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/beringia-native-american.html). Archived from the original (http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2
008/02/13/beringia-native-american.html) on 2012-10-10. Retrieved 2009-11-18. page 2 (http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/13/
beringia-native-american-02.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120313061401/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/02/1
3/beringia-native-american-02.html) 2012-03-13 at the Wayback Machine
79. "Pause Is Seen in a Continent's Peopling" (https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/13/science/linguistic-study-sheds-new-light-on-peoplin
g-of-north-america.html?ref=science). The New York Times. 13 Mar 2014.
80. Than, Ker (2008). "New World Settlers Took 20,000-Year Pit Stop" (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/02/080214-amer
ica-layover.html). National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
81. "Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110510204204/http://64.40.115.138/file/
lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc%3D.jpg?download=1). Genebase Systems. 2009. Archived from the original (http://64.40.115.1
38/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc=.jpg?download=1) on 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
82. Ruhlen M (November 1998). "The origin of the Na-Dene" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC25007). Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (23): 13994–6. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9513994R (https://ui.ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PNAS...9513994R). doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.95.23.13994).
PMC 25007 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC25007). PMID 9811914 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9811914).
83. Zegura SL, Karafet TM, Zhivotovsky LA, Hammer MF (January 2004). "High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to
a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsh009).
Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21 (1): 164–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsh009).
PMID 14595095 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14595095).
84. Saillard, Juliette; Forster, Peter; Lynnerup, Niels; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Nørby, Søren (2000). "mtDNA Variation among Greenland
Eskimos. The Edge of the Beringian Expansion" (http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297%2807%2963257-1). Laboratory
of Biological Anthropology, Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, McDonald Institute for
Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, University of Hamburg, Hamburg. Retrieved 2009-11-22.
85. Torroni, A.; Schurr, T. G.; Yang, C. C.; Szathmary, E.; Williams, R. C.; Schanfield, M. S.; Troup, G. A.; Knowler, W. C.; Lawrence, D.
N.; Weiss, K. M.; Wallace, D. C. (January 1992). "Native American Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Indicates That the Amerind and the
Nadene Populations Were Founded by Two Independent Migrations" (http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/130/1/153).
Center for Genetics and Molecular Medicine and Departments of Biochemistry and Anthropology, Emory University School of
Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. Genetics Society of America. 130 (1): 153–162. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
86. Raff, Jennifer (2020-06-09). Origin: A Genetic History of the Americas (https://www.twelvebooks.com/titles/jennifer-raff/origin/978153
8749715/). Twelve. ISBN 978-1-5387-4971-5.
87. Sapiens (2022-02-08). "A Genetic Chronicle of the First Peoples in the Americas" (https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/ancient-dna
-native-americans/). SAPIENS. Retrieved 2022-10-29.
88. Campbell, Douglas Ian; Whittle, Patrick Michael (2017). Resurrecting Extinct Species: Ethics and Authenticity (https://books.google.
com/books?id=mEtADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37). Springer. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-3-319-69578-5.
89. Salomon, Frank; Schwartz, Stuart B. (1999-12-28). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=PqEQWch7woQC&q=Formative%20stage%20in%20the%20americas&pg=PA256) (Digitised online by Google
books). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63075-7. Retrieved 2009-11-17.
90. Imbrie, J.; Imbrie, K. P. (1979). Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery (https://archive.org/details/aftericeager00piel). Short Hills NJ: Enslow
Publishers. ISBN 978-0-226-66811-6.
Further reading
Jablonski, Nina G. (2002). The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World (https://books.google.com/books?id
=RI32r548fUwC&q=The%20first%20Americans%3A%20the%20Pleistocene%20colonization%20of%20the%20New%20World%2
0%20By%20Nina%20G.%20Jablonski&pg=PP1). California Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-0-940228-49-8.
Peter Charles Hoffer (2006). The Brave New World: A History of Early America (https://archive.org/details/bravenewworldhis0000hof
f_a3b3). JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8483-2.
Meltzer, David J (2009). First peoples in a new world: colonizing ice age America (https://books.google.com/books?id=jWgZPz6oXS
wC&q=First%20peoples%20in%20a%20new%20world%3A%20colonizing%20ice%20age%20America%20%20By%20David%20
J.%20Meltzer&pg=PP1). University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 978-0-520-25052-9.
External links
Atlas of the Human Journey (https://web.archive.org/web/20080405232839/https://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atla
s.html), Genographic Project, National Geographic
Journey of Mankind – Genetic Map (http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/) – Bradshaw Foundation
The Paleoindian Period (http://www.nps.gov/history/seac/outline/02-paleoindian/index.htm) – United States Department of the
Interior, National Park Service
Alabama Archaeology: Prehistoric Alabama (https://web.archive.org/web/20100613070843/http://bama.ua.edu/~alaarch/prehistorica

labama/paleoindian.htm) – The University of Alabama, Department of Archaeology
The Paleoindian Database (http://pidba.utk.edu/main.htm) – The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology.
Paleoindians and the Great Pleistocene Die-Off (http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntecoindian/essays/pleistocene.
htm) – American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Humanities Center
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paleo-Indians&oldid=1172449248"

Paleo Indians

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Paleo Indians

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

9/9/23, 8:20 PM Paleo-Indians - Wikipedia

Migration into the Americas

and Cordilleran ice sheets.[12] An alternative proposed scenario involves migration,

Different types of Projectile points, from the

Transition to archaic period

San Dieguito complex – (Archeological site)

Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal

Alabama Archaeology: Prehistoric Alabama (https://web.archive.org/web/20100613070843/http://bama.ua.edu/~alaarch/prehistorica

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paleo-Indians&oldid=1172449248"

You might also like