Method of

Philosophizing
The facts that form the bases of a conclusion may not be
disputed but the conclusion itself could still be contested
or questioned. To judge the truthfulness of belief, we
must also consider things such a person’s experiences
and views.
Facts are statements that are observed to be real or
truthful. Claims are statements that require further
examination to determine their truthfulness. Some
arguments may contain fallacies. We must be aware of
the various kinds of fallacies as these affect the validity
of arguments.
The following are the examples of fallacies.
Ad hominem – attacking the person presenting the
argument instead of the argument itself
Appeal to force – using the threat of force or an
undesirable event to advance an argument.
Appeal to emotion – using emotions such as pity or
sympathy
Appeal to the popular – the idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot of people accept it.
Appeal to tradition – the idea is acceptable because it
has been true for a long time.
Begging the question – assuming the thing or idea to be
proven is true; also known as circular argument.
Cause-and-effect – assuming “cause-and-effect”
relationship between unrelated events
Fallacy of composition – assuming that what is true of a
part is true for the whole
Fallacy of division – assuming that what is true for the
whole is true for its parts.
Opinions are often influenced by bias. We must be aware
of bias so that we can objectively and critically examine
points of view.
The following are the examples of biases.
Correspondence bias or attribution effect – tendency to
judge a person’s personality by his or her actions,
without regard for the external factors or influence.
Confirmation bias – tendency to look for and readily
accept information which fits one’s own beliefs or views
and to reject ideas or views that go against it.
Framing – focusing on a certain aspect of a problem
while ignoring other aspects.
Hindsight – the tendency to see past events as
predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to historical events.
Conflict of interest – a person or group is connected to
or has a vested interest in the issue being discussed.
Cultural bias – analyzing an event or issue based on
one’s cultural standards.
Opinion is something intermediary between knowledge
and ignorance. While Public opinion is the intermediate
faculty which seizes the things that float between the two
extremes (Plato)
Knowledge opinion Ignorance
Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE)- A student of Socrates, he
wrote down his mentor’s teaching and incorporated some of
his own ideas into them. Plato’s most significant ideas
included his Theory of Forms, which proposes that
everything that exist is based on an idea or template than can
only be perceived in the mind. Plato is also known for his
dialectic- a method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are
discussed in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s
lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the
Academy, an institution of higher learning.
Opinion is something intermediary between knowledge
and ignorance. While Public opinion is the intermediate
faculty which seizes the things that float between the two
extremes (Plato)
Knowledge opinion Ignorance
Opinion applies to what, being true or false, may be
other than it is: in fact, opinion is the apprehension of an
immediate and unnecessary premise (Aristotle)
Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE)- He attended the
Academy, and was the prominent student of Plato. For
him, all ideas and views are based on perception and our
reality is based on what we can sense and perceive. His
studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal
process of analyzing reasoning which give rise to
deductive reasoning-the process by which specific
statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or
generalization.
Logic is a branch of Philosophy. Unlike any other
philosophical perspectives, logic does not concern itself in
what we know regarding certain subjects. Thus, logic does
not provide us knowledge of the world directly. It only serves
as tool to guide one’s arguments or discourses so as to keep
them valid and true. Aristotle was the first philosopher who
employed logical method. He claimed that truth exists when
there is agreement between knowledge and reality. This can
only take place when mental ideas correspond to the
objective world. This is where logical reasoning comes in.
Opinion applies to what, being true or false, may be
other than it is: in fact, opinion is the apprehension of an
immediate and unnecessary premise (Aristotle)
Opinion, founded in the probable, perhaps also the name
of knowledge (Leibniz)
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1946-1716) was a polymath
active as a mathematician, philosopher, and scientist.
Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his
Discourse on Metaphysics, which he composed in 1686
as a commentary on a running dispute between Nicolas
Malebranche and Antoine Arnauld.
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that accounts on
investigating the unreal entities in terms of the real world
that we experience through our senses. The well-known
Philosopher, Plato, enlightened the field of metaphysics by
contrasting reality and appearance. He stated that our
experience with the real world is not real. Reality according
to him is how we perceive the world. Therefore, what is real
is just products of our perception through the mind. For
example, we see a yellow chair because we perceive it as
yellow chair. But others may perceive a different color when
light affecting the appearance of the chair is obstructed.
Opinion, founded in the probable, perhaps also the name
of knowledge (Leibniz)
Opinion is a belief that is conscious of being insufficient
both subjectively and objectively (Kant)
Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804)
was a German philosopher and one of the central
Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's
comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology,
metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one
of the most influential and controversial figures in
modern Western philosophy.
Ethics as another branch of Philosophy deals with the
evaluation of human actions and the nature of moral virtue.
As such, ethical philosophy accounts for the nature of our
moral judgements and it also attempts to investigate our
fundamental ethical ideas. From these contentions arise the
idea of right versus wrong and evil versus good. Discourses
like feminism (equal opportunities among genders) and law-
making become areas where ethical philosophy is employed.
Socrates pointed out that knowledge is not merely theoretical
nor speculative but also practical.
It means that knowledge on rules of right living is not
sufficient when it is not actually being practiced. One
historical example that exemplifies ethical philosophy is
that issue laid down by William Du Bois. He argued that
there must be equal rights between black and white
Americans
Epistemology as philosophical perspective concerns
itself with the nature, sources, limitations and validity of
knowledge. Some of the basic questions raised by
Epistemology are: how do we know what we know, how
do we know what we want to know and how do we
distinguish true from what is not true.
Knowledge, according to this perspective, can be
acquired through induction (empiricism) and deduction.
Induction is a process of knowledge-forming by
investigating particulars (also known as empirical
evidences) in order to arrive at general idea. Conversely,
deductive process employs generally accepted ideas in
order to arrive at specific ideas. Advocates of deductive
method are called rationalists. Rene Descartes is well-
known rationalist.
Another method used under Epistemology is
pragmatism. William James and John Dewey are famous
pragmatists. They believe:
that the meaning of conceptions is to be sought in
their practical
that the function of thought is to guide action
that truth is preeminently to be tested by the practical
consequences of belief
Aesthetics as philosophical perspective concerns itself
with the notion of beauty. Whenever we created a devise
or equipment we consequently aim to improve (or
beautify) it after some time. It only goes to show that
aesthetics accounts for the criteria of beauty.
Aesthetics can be used to explain matters regarding
culture and arts. It is in these fields where beauty can
best be explained with the use of aesthetical philosophy.
Embedded in our culture is our capacity to distinguish
beautiful from what is not. Arts as part of our cultural
milieu manifests our ideas regarding beauty.
What benefits can students get from aesthetical
knowledge?
As students, the importance of aesthetics are: it vitalizes
our knowledge making the world more useful and alive,
it helps us live more deeply and richly because
appreciation of work of arts arises, and it keeps us in
touch with our culture.
Opinion is a belief that is conscious of being insufficient
both subjectively and objectively (Kant)
An opinion gives for truth something that has been said,
although sometimes they are absurd words, which mean
nothing, impossible to understand (Hobbes)
Thomas Hobbes (15 April 1588 – 14 December 1679)
was an English philosopher. Hobbes is best known for
his 1651 book Leviathan, in which he expounds an
influential formulation of social contract theory. In
addition to political philosophy, Hobbes contributed to a
diverse array of other fields, including history,
jurisprudence, geometry, theology, and ethics, as well as
philosophy in general. He is considered to be one of the
founders of modern political philosophy.
Political philosophy or political theory, as a branch of
philosophy, is the philosophical study of government,
addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy
of public agents and institutions and the relationships
between them. Its topics include politics, liberty, justice,
property, rights, law, and the enforcement of laws by
authority: what they are, if they are needed, what makes a
government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should
protect, what form it should take, what the law is, and what
duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and
when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.
An opinion gives for truth something that has been said,
although sometimes they are absurd words, which mean
nothing, impossible to understand (Hobbes)
Public opinion is the convergence of the opinions of the
greatest number of people in a community, so that they
form a common and dominant feeling, exerting diffuse
pressure
Directions: Identify the following statement. Choose your answer form the box.
Facts Cultural of Bias Truth Framing Appeal to Tradition
Knowledge Fallacies Opinion Ad Hominem Conflict of Interest
1. It is the clear awareness and understanding of something.
2. These are statements which are observed to be real or truthful.
3. These are comprised of statements that provide views on a certain matter
4. These are arguments based on faulty reasoning.
5. It is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard.
6. A fallacy which is attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself.
7. A fallacy which the idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time.
8. A kind of biases which is focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other aspects.
9. A kind of biases which a person or group is connected to or has a vested interest in the issue being
discussed.
10. Is by analyzing an event or issue based on one’s cultural stand.
1. We cannot see the underlying matter itself but we can see
the things made of that matter. What branch of
Philosophy sees things like this?
A. Metaphysics
B. Aesthetics
C. Logic
D. Epistemology
2. As a branch of Philosophy logic does not provide us with
knowledge directly. What then is the role of logic in
Philosophy?
A. Logic enhances appreciation of arguments.
B. Logic is used in some disciplines like mathematics.
C. Logic offers opportunities discovering new knowledge.
D. Logic serves as tool concerning the validity of our
arguments.
3. A fundamental and necessary drive in every human being
is knowing what is real. Which among the branches of
Philosophy accounts for the unreal in terms of what we
accept as real?
A. Logic
B. Aesthetics
C. Metaphysics
D. Ethics
4. What does epistemology deal with?
A. Epistemology deals with the other branches of
Philosophy
B. Epistemology concerns itself with how to make
arguments more valid and essential.
C. Epistemology deals with the nature, sources, limitations
and validity of knowledge.
D. Epistemology focuses on discovering new knowledge
unknown to men.
5. Examination of unobservable entities is the focus of
metaphysical discourses. Which of the following statements
exhibits such character?
A. Beautiful designs like arts enhances the way we think.
B. If all backboned animals are called vertebrates, then a
dog is a vertebrate.
C. All objects contain water.
D. Exercise of freedom should always be accompanied with
responsibility.
6. It is not what we know that logic is interested in. Rather,
it concerns itself on the truth and validity of our
arguments. Who was the philosopher who devised the
first logical method?
A. Socrates
B. Plato
C. Zeno
D. Aristotle
7. The establishment of criteria of beauty is the function of
aesthetics. Which of the following statements shows the
importance of aesthetics to us?
A. It helps us understand better the nature and origin
of knowledge.
B. It brings us in touch with our culture and the arts.
C. It serves as a tool in unraveling the unknown.
D. It enables us to make plausible arguments.
8. Some philosophers believe that general ideas are formed
from the examination of particular facts. What method is
employed in this kind of generating idea?
A. deduction
B. induction
C. epistemological
D. logical
9. How do we understand the difference between good and
evil or right from wrong? This basic question is a
concern of what branch of Philosophy?
A. Epistemology
B. Logic
C. Ethics
D. Metaphysics
10. Ethics investigates the nature of moral virtue and evaluates
human actions in order to arrive at knowledge. Which of the
following statements exemplifies the value of ethics in
Philosophy?
A. Women are not inferior to men and that both must
complement each other.
B. All matters are composed of atoms.
C. Ideas are forms of thought representing the real objects.
D. No man is an island