DOING PHILOSOPHY

I. The Nature and Functions of Philosophy

DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY

Traditionally philosophy is defined as love of wisdom because it came from two Greek
words philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom). You might find it strange to connect love to philosophy.
You might think of philosophy as a purely intellectual discipline which has nothing to do with love.

ORIGIN OF PHILOSOPHY

Greece is the birthplace of philosophy in the West. To be more precise it is the ancient
Greek city of Miletus in the Western coast of what is now Turkey that gave birth to philosophy.
It is in this city that the first philosopher in the West, Thales, lived. Thales is the Father of
Philosophy in the Western civilization. He lived between 624 and 546 BCE a contemporary of the
Lydian king Croesus and the statesman Solon. (Stumpf and Fieser,2008).

What made Thales a philosopher is his desire to know the ultimate stuff that makes up the
different things we perceived. You see when we look at the world we encounter different things:
people, trees, clouds, mountains, rivers, etc. Now Thales believed that despite the different things
we encounter there is one underlying stuff or substance in which everything is composed. He
believes that there is One in the Many. Thales was the first individual who tried to reduce the
multiplicity in to a unity (Jones,1969).

PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITY

Thales greatest contribution to philosophy is not his identification of water as the ultimate
stuff of the universe. His greatest contribution is the problem he posed “What is the ultimate stuff
of the universe?” and his approach in solving that problem. Studying Thales makes us realize that
philosophical activity is characterized by three things:

First in terms of scope philosophy involves the widest generalizations (Rand, 1982).
While people concern themselves with shoes and clothes, the latest gossip about their favorite
celebrities, their crushes, philosophers concern themselves with big issues pertaining to the truth,
the good, the just, the beautiful, and the existence of practically all things. While scientists concern
themselves with scientific knowledge, historians with knowledge of the past, economists with
knowledge of supply and demand, philosophers concern themselves with the nature of knowledge
as such (which embraces all types of knowledge previously mentioned and more).

Second philosophy is all about fundamentals. A fundamental is the root cause that
explains almost everything in a given context. To understand this imagine that knowledge is like
a building with levels. Now the higher level depends on the lower levels (Peikoff, 1991). If
somehow the lower level crumbles then all the higher levels that rest upon it will collapse. A
fundamental is like the lower floor that supports everything above it. That kind of support is exactly
what philosophy provides. If somehow philosophical ideas like consciousness and existence
disappear then knowledge of any kind will not make any sense because there will be nothing to
know (existence) and no one to know (consciousness).

Third philosophy is driven by the desire to integrate things in to a one coherent whole.
As the celebrated philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said “The true is the Whole (Peikoff,
1991).” If you notice Thales wants to reduce the multiplicity of things into a single stuff. He desires
to find the One in the many.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Since philosophy’s concern is vast, we have to divide it into different branches. Each
branch will focus on a specific area of philosophy. To understand the branches of philosophy let
us return to the three central philosophical questions we explored earlier.

First the question, Where am I? By the time we reached adulthood we believe we know
the answer to this question. In fact we believed that the answer is obvious that we don’t bother to
look closely at the question itself. Where am I? Well let’s say I’m in Manila. You don’t need
philosophy to answer that one. But if you ask a series of where questions (Where is Manila?
Where is the Philippines? etc.) which at first seems childish you eventually end up with the
universe. And here we have to stop asking the where question (Where is the universe is an absurd
question. The universe does not exist in a place). What kind of place is the universe? Is it
governed by laws? If so what laws? The study of the universe as a whole is the province of
metaphysics. Metaphysics is further subdivided into ontology which studies existence as such
and philosophical anthropology which deals with the fundamental and essential characteristics of
human nature (Gotthelf and Salmieri, 2015).

The second question, “How do I know it?” concerns the nature of human knowledge and
the way to obtain it. How do we obtain knowledge? Do we obtain knowledge by revelation,
intuition, instinct or reason? Can we achieve certainty or are we doomed to suffer perpetual
doubt? Is knowledge based on the things we perceive or from something else? This is the
concern of epistemology which can be defined as the “branch of philosophy that studies the
nature and means of human knowledge.” We need epistemology to guide us in knowing since we
make mistakes from time to time.

The first two branches of philosophy, metaphysics and epistemology, are called cognitive
branches. These branches provide a description of being (existence) and knowing. They are the
foundations of understanding any philosophical system.

The next three branches of philosophy (ethics, politics and aesthetics) can be classified
as the normative branches of philosophy because they are concerned with the standard of the
good. If the cognitive branches are concerned with what “is” the normative branches are
concerned with what “ought” to be.

The most basic normative branch of philosophy is ethics or morality (I used this two
concepts interchangeably). It is concerned with the last of the three questions central to
philosophy: What should I do? Ethics can be regarded as the technology of philosophy (I owe this
analogy to the philosopher Ayn Rand) because it tells us how human beings ought to function as
a human being. But in order to describe how human beings ought to act we must first know what
a human being is. These last is provided by metaphysics and epistemology. (This is especially
true of philosophical anthropology a sub-branch of metaphysics which studies the metaphysical
nature of man (see discussion above). Metaphysics and epistemology are the foundations of
ethics.
What then is ethics or morality? According to Ayn Rand ethics or morality is a branch of
philosophy that provides a human being with a “code of values to guide man’s choices and actions
- the choices and actions that determine the course of his life (Rand, 1964).” It is concerned with
the values man ought to pursue, the interrelationships of those values and the means to obtain
them (virtue).

The last two normative branches of philosophy, politics and aesthetics, are derived from
ethics. Ethics is concerned with the good for human being as a human being. If we apply ethics
in a social context then it becomes politics. The concern therefore of ethics is broader than politics.
It studies the “good” for human beings in any setting (whether society is present or not). An
individual who is alone in an island still has to follow ethical principles if he wishes to survive
(Peikoff, 1991).

So what then is politics? Again following Rand’s definition politics is a branch of

philosophy “which defines the principles of a proper social system.” According to Rand “proper”
means proper for human beings which presupposes that one knows what a human being is. Since
knowledge about human being is provided by the cognitive branches of philosophy, the foundation
of politics ultimately rests on metaphysics and epistemology.

The last of the normative branch, aesthetics studies the nature of art. It is concerned with
the nature and the objective judgement of beauty.

II. Philosophical Tools and Processes

Philosophy as a science is also a systematized body of knowledge but unlike other

sciences which employs observation and experimentation to prove their theories, philosophy uses
reason to arrive at a certain knowledge or truth. At the onset Greek philosophers gave us a hint
on how to use our intellect to understand realities around us. The tools that they frequently utilized
are the following:

1. Philosophical Questions. Philosophy was born because of ignorance. If one is

ignorant, he asks questions and if he keeps on questioning the more knowledge he
acquires. Once a person stops questioning, he cease to become a philosopher. In our
daily struggles, one needs to ask questions simple, serious and deep questions that
we have to grapple with. A philosopher is like a child who has an inquisitive mind who
never stops asking questions and finding answers.

The Socratic Method, also known as method of elenchus, elenctic method, or

Socratic debate, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between
individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and
to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. (Google.com/search) Aristotle said
that it was the pre-Socratic philosopher Zeno of Elea who invented dialectic, of which
the dialogues of Plato are the examples of the Socratic dialectical method. According
to Kant, however, the ancient Greeks used the word "dialectic" to signify the logic of
false appearance or semblance. Dialectics is a term used to describe a method of
philosophical argument that involves some sort of contradictory process between
opposing sides. As a dialectical method, it is a discourse between two or more people
holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth
through reasoned arguments.

18th century philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel expounded

dialectics which later influenced Karl Marx, the father of communism.
 2. Logical Reasoning. In philosophy, reasoning is the process of thinking about
something in a logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgement. It has been the
method institutionalized by the triumvirate Greek philosophers specially Aristotle.
Philosophy is about answering questions. Reasoning is the method we use in doing
philosophy. However, although it is necessary for any competent engagement with
philosophy, it is not the end all and be all of philosophy. All branches of philosophy
employ reasoning in explaining their arguments. For example the concept of right or
wrong which is the domain of Ethics based their arguments in human reason alone in
contrast with theology which is dependent from the Bible as the source of its moral
teachings. Reasoning however is the domain of one branch of philosophy which is
Epistemology. One type of logical reasoning is the deductive reasoning:
Example:
Premise 1: All human beings are mortal
Premise 2: But the President of the Philippines is a human being
Conclusion: Therefore, the President of the Philippines is mortal.

Here we are taught to arrive at a certain truth or knowledge in a logical

process. In contrast, Inductive reasoning begins with a particular to universal
argument.
Example: Premise: Student A, B, C, D, E, F….. are wearing School ID.
Conclusion: Therefore, All students are wearing ID

The above examples show the logical process wherein by reasoning one
arrives at a certain truth or knowledge. Logic starts with the origin of ideas, terms,
propositions or premises, syllogism, etc. These terms are the basic structure of
argument. Unfortunately, this branch of philosophy is equivalent to one-subject
requirement in any course in the tertiary level.

III. Philosophical Reflection

Reflection is an activity that requires a person to examine his or her thoughts, feelings and
actions and learn from experience. (Abella, 2016). Philosophers always search for the essence
of things and the ultimate reasons for our existence.

Its trajectory is to see the bigger picture about everything. This process is called
philosophical reflection. According to Gabriel Marcel, philosophical reflection is the act of
giving time to think about the meaning and purpose of life. He mentioned two types, namely: (1)
Primary Reflection - which is the ability to think logically. The ability of the mind to construct and
evaluate arguments. It examines its object by abstraction, by analytically breaking it down into its
constituent parts. It is concerned with definitions, essences and technical solutions to problems.
The second type is (2) Secondary reflection. According to Marcel this type of reflection enables
us to look deeper into our experiences and see the bigger picture of reality. It integrates the
fragmented and compartmentalized experience into a whole. It is the idea that various systems
(e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts.

Reflection is not exclusive for philosophy in fact it is employed in any endeavour, research
or disciplines. In research it is called methodological approach. Moral theology employs the
STOP sign as guidepost of moral decision making. S= Search out the facts. It is necessary that
all means should be exhausted to better understand the issue. T=Think, reflect and analyse the
facts, its negative or positive effects, advantages or disadvantages. O= How it affects Others. We
should always consider others in every decision that we make. Every action that we take has
always a social dimension. It affects ourselves, others and community where we belong. Lastly
P= stands for Pray. We are human beings with limitations. If our best effort are not enough, then
there is no way but look up for divine or God for enlightenment and guidance. Praying is a unique
tool of theology which is in the realm of faith but philosophy’s reasoning helps in undergoing a
theological reflection as St. Anselm said, “its faith seeking understanding.” St. Thomas Aquinas,
one of the great theologian of the church quoted in latin the relationship between philosophy and
theology; ‘philosophia ancilla theologiae’ or philosophy is the handmaid of theology the former is
there to serve theology. Reason is also important in theology not just faith. Whether in philosophy,
sociology or other sciences, reflection is very useful in understanding our daily experiences to
broaden our perspective of life.

In order to reflect philosophically we need to use a framework. A framework is a conceptual

map consisting of our views and beliefs which affects the way we view the world (Abella 2016).
The framework were going to used is called AQAL. It is an acronym that stands for All Quadrants
All Levels first formulated by an American philosopher/psychologist Ken Wilber. Wilber first
introduced AQAL to the world in his book Sex, Ecology, Spirituality.

According to Wilber everything can be analysed using a vertical line.

The line above divides space into two sides: left and right. The left side represents the
interior, subjective, aspect of everything. The right side represents the exterior, objective,
aspect of everything. The interior (or “loob” in Filipino) if applied to human beings, includes one’s
values, dreams, ideas, emotions, beliefs. It basically consists of one’s inner life. It cannot be
seen or measured but can be experienced directly. The exterior side of everything are the things
that we can see, measure and touch. They include the physical objects around us including our
own bodies.

A simple example of this inside/outside distinction is when a person smiles at you. You
see the big smile so it is the exterior aspect of an event. But at the same time there is a subjective
meaning behind that smile: let’s say the person is happy. This is the interior, subjective, aspect of
the event. So you see two strands are interwoven behind any human event: the objective and the
subjective, the interior and the exterior.

Another basic distinction was introduced by Ken Wilber using a horizontal line that divides
space into above and below:

Above the line represents what is singular, individual, one. The space below represents
what is plural, collective, many. For example you are an individual but you belong in a family,
community, class (all instances of the collective).

An interesting thing happen when we combine the two lines.

 We created what Wilber calls the quadrants. According to Wilber quadrants are “the
inside and outside of the individual and collective (Wilber 2006).”

There are many ways to describe the quadrants. We can use the simple location of each
of the quadrant. So the interior of the individual is the upper left quadrant (UL), the exterior of the
individual is the upper right quadrant (UR), the interior of the collective is the lower left quadrant
(LL) and the exterior of the collective is the lower right quadrant (LR).

We can also use pronouns to label the quadrants as shown below:

But what we are interested is when we apply this to human beings. The inside of the
individual becomes the mind, the outside of the individual becomes the body, the inside of the
collective becomes culture and the outside of the collective becomes society.
 Now when we reflect on the nature of any concrete issue like poverty, corruption,
prostitution, global warming we can just put the issue at the center of the quadrant and analyzed
its mental, physical, cultural and social components. This is looking at an issue from an all
quadrant, multiple and holistic perspective.

Let’s take for example the issue of poverty. How do we reflect on the issue using the AQAL
framework? Well we know that poverty has a psychological aspect (UL quadrant) to it. It affects
the way we think, feel and even what we value. But it does not stop there. Poverty also affects
bodies (UR quadrant). It affects our nutrition, our medication and immune system. Some children
have stunted growth due to poverty. And who could deny that poverty also affects the culture such
as arts, religion and even the way we dress. Religious feast such as the procession of the Black
Nazarene is in part motivated by poverty. And of course it is obvious that poverty has an
economic, political and even technological components (all parts of the social LR quadrant).