CLINICAL ORTHOPAEDICS AND RELATED RESEARCH
Number 429, pp. 68–72
Fatigue Crack Propagation Resistance of Highly
Crosslinked Polyethylene
Letitia Bradford, MD*; David Baker, PhD†; Michael D. Ries, MD‡; Lisa A. Pruitt, PhD§
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A higher degree of cross-linking has been shown to improve
wear properties of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
in laboratory studies. However, cross-linking can also affect
the mechanical properties of ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylene. Fatigue crack propagation resistance was de-
termined for electron beam cross-linked ultra-high molecu-
lar weight polyethylene and compared with gamma irradia-
tion cross-linked and noncross-linked polyethylene fatigue
specimens. Crosslinking was done with different dosages of
irradiation followed by melting. For one irradiation dose (50
kGy) extrusion and molding processes were compared. A
fracture mechanics approach was used to determine how the
degree of cross-linking affects resistance to crack propaga-
tion in ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene. Fatigue
crack propagation resistance was reduced in proportion to
the irradiation dose. The type of irradiation (gamma or elec-
tron beam) or manufacturing method (extrusion or molding)
did not affect fatigue crack propagation resistance. The re-
duced fatigue strength of highly cross-linked ultra-high mo-
lecular weight polyethylene could lead to mechanical failure
in conditions that are associated with cyclic local tensile
stresses.
Highly cross-linked ultra-high molecular weight polyeth-
ylenes (UHMWPEs) have been developed in an effort to
minimize wear in total hip arthroplasty (THA). Cross-
linking improves the abrasion resistance of UHMWPE.
Hip simulator studies consistently show decreased wear of
highly cross-linked UHMWPE compared with conven-
tional UHMWPE.4,5,9,10,12 Early clinical reports with ra-
From the *University of California, San Francisco, CA; †Exxon-Mobil
Corp., Houston, TX; ‡Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of
California, San Francisco, CA; §Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of California, Berkeley, CA.
The institution of the authors have received funding in support of this study
from Sulzer, Inc. and Depuy, Inc.
Correspondence to: Michael D. Ries, M.D., Department of Orthopaedic
Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 500 Parnassus Ave.
(MU 320-W), San Francisco, CA 94143. Phone: 415-502-2235; Fax: 415-
476-1304; E-mail: riesm@orthosurg.ucsf.edu.
DOI: 10.1097/01.blo.0000150124.34906.34
68
© 2004 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
diostereometric analysis (RSA) techniques show less pen-
etration of the femoral head into the acetabular liner of
highly cross-linked UHMWPE compared with conven-
tional UHMWPE.8
Although cross-linking improves the wear resistance of
UHMWPE, its mechanical properties also are affected.
The higher degree of cross-linking causes a restriction of
chain mobility in the amorphous region of the polymer and
results in limited plasticity in the polyethylene (PE). This
decreased tendency toward plastic damage is thought to be
the primary mechanism for improving the wear resistance
of UHMWPE. It is thought that cross-linking mitigates
texture evolution and cyclic softening in the polymer.5,15
However, this lack of plasticity could be detrimental to
other mechanical properties such as toughness, ductility
and fatigue resistance.
Compared with unsterilized UHMWPE, the mechanical
properties including yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, and elongation are reduced by cross-linking. Re-
sistance to fatigue crack propagation also is decreased by
cross-linking.1–3
The loads on a modular UHMWPE acetabular liner
are primarily compressive so a reduction in mechanical
properties of UHMWPE may not result in mechanical fail-
ure. However, tensile stresses may also occur particularly
at the liner-locking mechanism and during activities that
are associated with impingement of the femoral neck
against the UHMWPE rim. Liner-locking mechanism dis-
sociation has been reported as a complication of many
modular acetabular components.6,11,14 Therefore, the me-
chanical properties of an acetabular liner should be suf-
ficient to minimize the risk of liner-locking mechanism
failure.
Gamma irradiation induced cross-linking is associated
with a reduction in the fatigue crack propagation resistance
that is related to the irradiation dose.1,3 The purpose of this
study was to determine the effect of electron beam and
gamma irradiation induced cross-linking on the resistance
to propagation of flaws or defects under controlled cyclic
stresses.
Number 429
December 2004 Highly Crosslinked Polyethylene Fatigue 69

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fatigue crack propagation resistance of Durasul and Sulene

(Sulzer Orthopaedics, Incorporated, Austin, TX) were evaluated
and compared with gamma-irradiation cross-linked UHMWPE
with irradiation doses from 50 kGy (5Mrad) to 200 kGy
(20Mrad). Sulzer Orthopaedics Incorporated supplied the fatigue
fracture specimens of the Sulene and Durasul materials. Sulene
and Durasul have the same base resin (GUR 1020) and are
machined from the same material (compression-molded sheet);
however Sulene is manufactured and distributed as a noncross-
linked polymer, whereas Durasul has radiation cross-linking.
The Durasul proprietary cross-linking procedure uses approxi-
mately 100 kGy of electron-beam radiation at a temperature
below the melt, followed by a melt annealing process at approxi-
mately 150°Celsius.16 The Durasul and Sulene go through eth-
ylene oxide sterilization in a similar fashion. For comparative
purposes, the data were evaluated with a varied range of cross-
linked doses (50 kGy, 100 kGy, and 200 kGy) achieved through
gamma radiation.3 For two doses, 50 kGy and 100 kGy, the
effects of gamma radiation and electron-beam radiation were
compared. Further, for the 50 kGy gamma radiation dose, two
manufacturing processes were studied: extrusion and molding.
For the 50 kGy and 100 kGy doses, gamma and electron-beam
cross-linking conditions were examined. In extruded, nonsteril-
ized form, GUR 1050 served as the control for this study. In
these comparison studies cross-linking was done using gamma
or electron beam radiation in an inert environment, then brought
above the melt temperature and cooled slowly to annihilate free
radicals. The test conditions for these material groups were iden-
tical to those for Sulene and Durasul specimens. For all sample
groups, compact tension specimens were machined from cross-
linked or control (noncross-linked) rod stock material. Ten
samples were evaluated for each group.
All fatigue tests were done on compact tension specimens
with the following geometry: width, W ⳱ 25.4 mm; length, L ⳱
31.75 mm; height, 2H ⳱ 31.75 mm; initial notch length, a ⳱
8.89 mm; notch angle, ␪ ⳱ 60°; hole diameter, d ⳱ 5.334 mm;
and thickness, B ⳱ 8.13 mm. An illustration of the specimen
geometry is provided in Figure 1. The tests were done in a
recirculating deionized water bath maintained at body tempera-
ture (37°C). Samples were allowed to equilibrate for one hour in
the bath before testing. An Instron 8511 (Instron Corp., Canton,
MA) servohydraulic materials testing machine was used to con-
duct the fatigue tests. Cyclic loading was applied using a sinu-
soidal waveform at a frequency of 5 Hz. This frequency has been
confirmed to produce negligible hysteretic heating in previous
studies.3 Tension fatigue tests were done using pin loading at a
load ratio (the ratio of the minimum load to the maximum load)
of R ⳱ 0.1. All specimens were razor notched before the tension
fatigue tests to establish a sharp mode I crack. All fatigue
samples had initial conditions of a/W approximately equal to 0.3.
The initial stress intensity was kept constant in tests before crack
inception to control for variations in initial crack length. The
length of the fatigue flaw was measured using an Olympus BH-2
(Olympus Optical Co., Melville, NY) optical microscope with
resolution of 0.2 ␮m.
Fig 1. Schematic illustration of the compact tension specimen
used in the fatigue studies is shown.
The compact tension specimens were subjected to tension
fatigue loading to examine the crack growth inception and
propagation characteristics. Changes in flaw size, a, were mea-
sured as a function of fatigue cycles, N, to determine crack
growth rate, da/dN. Corresponding stress intensity ranges,
⌬K, were determined (from linear elastic fracture mechanics
assumptions) using ⌬K ⳱ ⌬␴(a)1/2 •f(a/W), where ⌬␴ is the
cyclic stress range, a is the flaw size, and f(a/W) is the geometric
factor for the compact tension specimen. The stress inten-
sity range necessary for a minimum growth rate of 10−6 mm per
cycle was identified as ⌬⌲incep3, and determined for each
specimen group. This value has been chosen to compare critical
values for stable crack propagation and serves as a parameter to
measure differences between fatigue crack propagation resis-
tance in UHMWPE materials.2 In addition, the crack propaga-
tion rates were characterized as a function of stress intensity
range, da/dN versus ⌬K. Fatigue tests were concluded when
the crack became too large to control test parameters (this typi-
cally occurred at a crack velocity near 10−2 mm per cycle, which
is outside of the linear crack growth region.) At the comple-
tion of each fatigue characterization study, fractography was
done using the JEOL JSM 6300 scanning electron microscope
to examine the fracture micromechanisms for each material
group.
Each of the specimens tested has a variable crack length. The
⌬⌲incep of each specimen tested is dependent on the crack length
and material properties so that a number of specimens are needed
to determine the ⌬⌲incep value for each material. Because there
is one ⌬⌲incep value obtained for each material group, statistical
comparisons of ⌬⌲incep values between groups were not pos-
sible.
 Clinical Orthopaedics
70 Bradford et al and Related Research

RESULTS

Fatigue crack propagation resistance was decreased by

cross-linking. The fracture fatigue analysis of Sulene and
Durasul resulted in ⌬Kincep of 1.7 and 0.65 MPa√m, re-
spectively. Table 1 summarizes the ⌬Kincep values and
slope m of Durasul and Sulene.
Evidence of ductile behavior of the polymer resulting in
blunting of the crack tip was seen as a crisscross pattern in
scanning electron micrographs of the fracture specimens.
Figure 2 shows representative scanning electron micro-
graphs of cross-linked specimens exposed to varied de-
grees of radiation.2 Note the reduction of ductile, criss-
cross tearing on the fracture surfaces as the dose of irra-
diation and degree of cross-linking increase.
Fatigue crack propagation resistance decreased in pro-
portion to the irradiation dose or amount of cross-linking.
Figure 3 shows a plot of crack propagation rate, da/dN, as
a function of stress intensity range, ⌬K, for Durasul and
Sulene. For comparison, the fatigue crack propagation data
for GUR 1050 at crosslink dosages of 50, 100, and 200
kGy through gamma radiation along with a control (non-
cross-linked GUR 1050)2 are provided in this plot.
The fatigue crack propagation resistance was not af-
fected by the manufacturing method (molding or extru-
sion) or type of irradiation used (gamma or electron
beam). Figure 4 provides a plot of the 50 and 100 kGy
through gamma radiation and electron beam radiation, the
50 kGy gamma irradiated molded and extruded samples,
and the noncross-linked control.
The fatigue crack propagation resistance decreases with
increasing crosslink dose independent of irradiation source
or manufacturing method (Table 1). The Durasul ⌬Kincep
value and slope are very similar to the 100 kGy data. Also
note that the Sulene fatigue behavior is similar to that of
the control noncross-linked PE control.

TABLE 1. Summary of Fatigue Crack Propagation

Inception Values, ⌬Kincept (MPa √m) for
All Materials
⌬Kincept
Materials Groups (MPa √m)
Control (GUR 1050, noncross-linked, extruded) 1.76
Sulene (GUR 1020, noncross-linked) 1.7
Durasul (GUR 1020, 100kGy, E-beam) 0.65
50kGy (GUR 1050, gamma, extruded) 0.91
50kGy (GUR 1050, E-beam, extruded) 0.81
50kGy (GUR 1050, gamma, molded) 0.92
100kGy (GUR 1050, gamma, extruded) 0.72
100kGy (GUR 1050, E-beam, extruded) 0.71 Fig 2. Representative micrograph of the Paris regime for (A)
noncross-linked control, (B) 50 kGy gamma radiation, and (C)
E-beam = electron beam 100 kGy gamma radiation are shown.
Number 429
December 2004
Fig 3. Fatigue crack propagation
rate as a function of stress intensity
range is shown.
DISCUSSION
The degree of cross-linking in UHMWPE is achieved by
controlling the dose of irradiation that the polymer is ex-
posed to under specific processing conditions. Each ortho-
paedic manufacturer follows a unique proprietary protocol
to achieve cross-linked PE. In general, highly crosslinked
UHMWPE is attained using a minimum of 50 to100 kGy
(5–10 Mrad) of gamma9 or electron-beam12 radiation. This
is typically done below the melt temperature of the poly-
mer and then is coupled with a secondary annealing treat-
ment to neutralize any remaining free radicals produced by
irradiation. Cross-linking is known to change the molecu-
lar structure of the PE; for example, some cross-linked
UHMWPE materials have a decreased crystallinity (∼20–
30%) compared with the standard 1050 materials
(∼50%).12 Cross-linking can also be achieved through per-
oxy-based chemistry using a minimum of 0.3–0.5% per-
oxide,7 but the question of its long-term stability has lim-
ited its application as an orthopaedic biomaterial.
Laboratory testing indicates that cross-linked
UHMWPE has reduced resistance to fatigue crack propa-
gation.1 Baker et al2 have shown that chemical and radia-
tion cross-linking results in a lower value of stress inten-
sity necessary for the growth of a flaw compared with
noncross-linked UHMWPE. However, it has also been
suggested that cross-linking is beneficial to the flaw ini-
tiation resistance.2 The diminished capacity for flaws in
Highly Crosslinked Polyethylene Fatigue 71
the PE is caused by a loss of plasticity. Studies have shown
that this reduction in ductility is accompanied by less la-
mellae tearing in the polymer.13 This raises the question of
whether this can be extrapolated to initiation of fatigue
cracks in vivo. In order for cross-linking to be beneficial to
the longevity of the device, it is presumed that the devices
are without flaws before and during their implantation.
Ductile tearing of the polymer causes blunting of the
crack tip, slowing progression of a fatigue crack. Fractog-
raphy of the cross-linked fatigue specimens show a de-
creased prevalence of crisscross patterns, indicating a lack
of ductile tearing, with increased irradiation dose. Frac-
tography of noncross-linked UHMWPE after having fa-
tigue crack propagation, shows classic crisscross patterns
that are associated with ductile tearing.3 Baker et al2 have
shown that the fracture surface of cross-linked PE often
has a more brittle appearance and shows a decreased pro-
pensity for ductile tearing. Although ductile tearing has
been seen in nascent PE and at reduced levels of irradia-
tion used for sterilization, it is often diminished further
with higher irradiation doses (such as used for cross-
linking PE.)
The reduced fatigue crack propagation resistance of
highly cross-linked PE could lead to mechanical failure in
vivo under conditions associated with cyclic tensile stress.
Although stresses in a modular UHMWPE actetabular in-
sert primarily are compressive, tensile stresses may occur
at the liner-locking mechanism and along the rim of the

72 Bradford et al
Fig 4. Fatigue crack propagation
rates of gamma-irradiated and elec-
tron-beam irradiated and extruded
and molded specimens are shown.
component if impingement occurs. Range of motion to
impingement carefully should be evaluated with any liner
material used in total hip arthroplasty including highly
cross-linked PE and liner locking mechanisms should be
designed to minimize the risk of mechanical failure under
cyclic loads.
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