Chapter 23 – Electric Fields

The electric field due to a charged rod

A rod of length l has a uniform positive charge per unit length λ and a total charge
Q . What is the electric field at a point P that is located along the long axis of the rod
and a distance a from one end?

Because the rod is continuous, we evaluate the field due to a continuous charge
distribution. The point P will only experience a field along the x axis, so there is no
need to add vectors. In the figure, dx is the length of one small segment of the rod, and
dq is the charge of that segment.

We know that
Q
λ= ,
l

and therefore that

dq = λ dx . (1)

The magnitude of the electric field at the point P due to one segment of charge is

dq
dE = k e (2)
x2

Substituting (1) into (2), we get

λ dx
dE = k e (3)
x2
Integrating (3) over the length of the rod gives us

l+ a dx
E = k e λ ∫a
x2
l+ a
= keλ −[ ]
1
x a
(4)

Substituting λ = Q /l into (4) and completing the equation,

E = ke (
Q 1
l a
−
1
l +a )
= ke (
Q l+a−a
l a (l + a) )
= ke
Q
( l
l a (l + a) )
keQ
=
a( l + a)
Electric Field Due to a Uniform Ring of Charge

A ring of radius a carries a uniformly distributive total charge Q . Calculate the electric
field at a point P lying a distance x from its center along the central axis perpendicular
to the plane of the ring.

Opposing elements in the ring will cause all y components to cancel out, therefore there
will only be field components along the x -axis.

dq
dE x = ke
cos θ
r2
dq
= ke 2 cos θ (1)
a + x2

From the figure it can be seen that

x
cos θ =
r
x
= (2)
√a + x 2
2

Substituting (2) into (1), we have

k e x dq (3)
dE = 2 2 3/2
(a + x )

Integrating (3) to find the field, we get

k x dq
∫ dE = ∫ ( a 2 +e
x 2)3 /2
ke x
2 3/ 2 ∫
E = 2
dq
(a + x )
ke x
E = Q
(a + x 2)3 /2
2
Electric field of a uniformly charged disk

A disk of radius R has a uniform surface charge density σ . Calculate the electric field
at a point P that lies along the central perpendicular axis of the disk and a distance x
from the center of the disk.

The disk can be considered to be a set of concentric rings. This means that we can use
the result obtained on the previous derivation.

ke x
dE x = 2 2 3/ 2
dq (1)
(r + x )

We know that dq = σ dA , and dA = 2 π r dr . Substituting these two equations, we have

dq = 2 σ π r dr (2)

Substituting (2) into (1) and integrating,

ke x
dE x = (2 π r dr )
( r + x 2 )3/ 2
2

R 2r
∫ dE x = k e x π σ ∫0 2 2 3 /2
dr
(r + x )
R 1
E = k e x π σ ∫0 2 2 3/ 2
d (r 2)
(r + x )
R
E = ke x π σ
[ −2
√ r 2 + x2 0 ]
E = ke x π σ
2
( −
x √ R + x2 2
2
)
E = 2keπ σ 1 −
( x
√ R + x2
2 )
An Accelerating Positive Charge

A uniform electric field ⃗E is directed along the x-axis between parallel plates of charge
separated by a distance d . A positive charge q of mass m is released from rest at a
point next to the positive plate, and accelerates toward the negative plate. Find the speed
of the particle under constant acceleration.

We can evaluate the speed of the particle with the formula

v 2f = v 2i + 2 a Δ x
= 0 + 2 a(d − 0)
= 2ad
vf = √2 a d (1)

Substituting a = (q E)/m into (1) yields

vf =
√ 2q Ed
m
 Chapter 24 – Gauss’s Law

Spherically symmetric charge distribution

An insulating solid sphere of radius a has a uniform volume charge density ρ and
carries a total positive charge Q .

A) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field at a point outside the sphere.

Because the charge is uniformly distributed, we can apply Gauss' law to find the electric
field. We choose a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r , concentric with the sphere.
E and d ⃗
For this choice, ⃗ A are parallel everywhere on the surface, and

⃗
E⋅d ⃗A = EdA

Therefore

ΦE = ∫ E⃗⋅d ⃗A (1)
= ∫ EdA
Since E has the same value everywhere on the surface, due to symmetry, we get

Q
∫ E dA = ϵ0
Q
E ∫ dA = ϵ0
2 Q
E (4π r ) = ϵ0
Q
E = (2)
4 π ϵ0 r 2

1
Since k e = , we substitute this into (2) to get
4 π ϵ0

Q
E = ke , for r > a
r2
B) Find the magnitude of an electric field at a point inside the sphere.

We choose a spherical Gaussian surface having radius r < a , concentric with the
insulating sphere. Let V ' be the volume of this smaller sphere. The charge q i n within
this Gaussian surface is less that Q .

Charge density ρ is given by

Q
ρ = 4
π a3
3
3Q
=
4 π a3

We begin by calculating q i n .

qi n
ρ =
V'
qin = ρV '
(3)
qin =
( 3Q
4 π a3 () 43 π r )
3

Q r3
qin =
a3

The conditions for Gauss' law are met, and substituting (3) we get

qi n
∫ E dA = ϵ0
Q r3
E ∫ dA =
a3 ϵ 0
2 Q r3
E (4 π r ) =
a3 ϵ 0
Q
E = r
4 π ϵ0 a 3
Q
E = ke 3 r
a
Cylindrically symmetric charge distribution

Find the electric field a distance r from a line of positive charge of infinite length and a
constant charge per unit length λ .

Pick a cylindrical Gaussian surface around the line of charge, such that ⃗ E and d ⃗ A are
parallel and therefore that ⃗
E⋅d ⃗A = E dA . The flat ends of the cylindrical surface will have
no flux, because ⃗ E and d ⃗A are perpendicular, so we turn our attention to the curved
surface of the cylinder.

First, we find q i n ;

qi n
λ =
l
qin = λl (1)

Substituting (1) into Gauss' law, we have

qi n
∫ E dA = ϵ0
λl
E ∫ dA = ϵ0
λl
E (2 π r l) = ϵ0
E = λ
2 π ϵ0 r
E = 2ke λ
r
A Plane of Charge

Consider an infinite plane of charge.

Since the plane is infinitely long, ⃗

E must be perpendicular to the plane at all points. The
direction of ⃗
E on one side must be opposite to the direction of ⃗ E on the other side. The
Gaussian surface that reflects this symmetry is a small cylinder whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane and whose ends have an area A . The curved sides of the
cylinder are parallel to ⃗ E and therefore have zero flux. The flux through each end of the
cylinder is EA , and therefore the total flux is 2 EA .

Gauss' law for this surface gives us

qi n
ΦE = ϵ0
σ A
2 EA = ϵ0
E = σ
2 ϵ0
 Chapter 25 – Electric Potential

Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Ring

Find an expression for the electric potential at a point P located on the perpendicular
central axis of a uniformly charged ring of radius a and total charge Q .

Because the ring consists of a continuous charge distribution, we can use an integral to
calculate the electric potential.

dq
V = k e∫ (1)
r

Noting that r = √ x 2 + a 2 , and that both x and a remain constant, we get

dq
V = k e∫
√ x + a2
2

ke
= ∫ dq
√x 2
+ a
2

keQ
=
√ x2 + a
2

Find the expression for the magnitude of the electric field at a point

From symmetry, ⃗
E can only have an x-component. Therefore we have

dV
Ex = −
dx
d 1
= −k e Q
dx √ x 2 + a 2
1
= k Q( x 2 − a 2)−3 /2 ( 2 x)
2 e
ke x
= Q
( x 2 + a 2)3 /2
Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk

Find the electric potential of a uniformly charged disk with a radius R and surface charge
density σ .

The disk is taken to be made up of a series of concentric rings. Therefore we can use the
previous result to find the potential difference at a point:

k e dq
dV = (1)
√ r2 + x2

Rewrite dq in terms of r :

dq = σ dA
(2)
= σ (2 π r dr )
= 2 π σ r dr

Substituting (2) into (1), we get

k e 2 π σ r dr
dV =
√ r2 + x2
R 2r
V = k e π σ ∫0 dr
√ r + x2
2

R
V = 2 ke π σ [ √ r 2 + x 2 ]0
V = 2 π k e σ [ √ R2 + x 2 − x ] (3)
Find the x component of the electric field at a point along the central
axis of the disk

We differentiate to get the electric field:

dV
Ex = −
dx
d
= −2 π k e σ ( √ R2 + x 2 − x)
dx
= −2 π k e σ
( x
√ R + x2
2
−1
)
=
(
2π k e σ 1 −
x
√ R + x2
2 )
Electric Potential Due to a Finite Line of Charge

A rod of length l located along the x axis has a total charge Q and a uniform linear
charge density λ . Find the electric potential at a point P located on the y axis a
distance a from the origin.

The potential P due to every segment of charge is positive, and since the rod is
continuous, we evaluate the potential due to a continuous charge distribution rather than a
group of charges.

The charge dq of every segment is

dq = λ dx (1)

The distance r from point P to dx is

r = √ a2 + x2 (2)

We know that

q
dV = k e (3)
r

Substituting (1) and (2) into (3), we get

λ dx
dV = ke
√ a2 + x2
∫0 k e λ2 dx 2
l
V =
√a + x
l dx
= k e λ ∫0 (4)
√ a + x2
2
 Q
Integrating (4) and substituting λ = , we get
l

Q l
V = ke
l
[ ln ( x + √ a 2 + x 2 )]0
Q
k e [ln (l + √ a + l ) − ln a ]
2 2
=
l

( √ a2 +
)
2
Q l+ l
= k e ln
l a
Two Connected Charged Spheres

Two spherical conductors of radii r 1 and r 2 are separated by a distance much greater
than the radius of either sphere, and are connected by a conducting wire. The charges
q 1 and q 2 on the spheres are in equilibrium.

Because the spheres are in equilibrium, the potential differences at the surfaces for the
spheres are equal

q1 q
V = ke = ke 2 (1)
r1 r2

Solving the ratio on (1) gives

q1 r 1
= (2)
q2 r 2

The expressions for the electric fields are

q1 q2
E1 = k e 2 (4) E2 = k e (5)
r1 r 22

Diving (4) with (5) yields

E 1 q1 r 2 2
= (6)
E 2 q2 r 1 2

Substituting (2) into (6) gives

E 1 r2
=
E 2 r1
 Chapter 26 – Capacitance and Dielectrics

The Cylindrical Capacitor

A solid cylindrical conductor of radius a and charge Q is coaxial with a shell of

negligible thickness, radius b > a , and charge −Q . Find the capacitance of this
cylindrical capacitor if its length is l .

We expect the capacitance of this system to depend on the geometries, i.e a , b and
l .The potential difference between the two cylinders is expressed by
b
V b − V a = −∫a ⃗
E⋅d ⃗s (1)

Assuming that l is much greater than a and b , we can neglect end effects, and
conclude that the electric field is perpendicular to the long axis of the cylinders, and
confined to the region between them. Since ⃗ E is parallel to d ⃗s along the radial line,
b b
∫a ⃗E⋅d ⃗s = ∫a E r dr (2)

Substituting (2) into (1), we have

b
V b − V a = −∫a E r dr
b
= −E r ∫a dr (3)

Because of the cylindrical nature of the system, we can know that the electric field at a
point outside a cylinder is

E = 2ke λ (4)
r
Substituting (4) into (3), we have

b 1
Vb − V a = −2 k e λ ∫a dr
r
b
ΔV = −2 k e λ [ ln ∣ r ∣]a
= −2 k e λ [ln b − ln a ]

= −2 k e λ ln() b
a (5)

Q
Substituting λ= into (5), we have
l

−2 k e Q ln (b /a)
ΔV = (6)
l

We therefore get

Q
C =
∣Δ V ∣
Ql
=
2 k e Q ln(b/a )
l
=
2 k e ln(b /a)
The Spherical Conductor

A spherical capacitor consists of a spherical conducting shell of radius b and a charge

−Q concentric with a smaller conducting sphere of radius a and charge Q .

We expect the capacitance to depend on spherical radii a and b . Noting that ⃗

E is
parallel to d ⃗s along a radial line, we know that

⃗
E⋅d ⃗s = E r dr (1)

The expression for the potential difference between the two conductors is
b
V b − V a = −∫a ⃗
E⋅d ⃗s
b
= −E r ∫a dr (2)

The electric field at a point outside a sphere is

Q
ke
r2 (3)

Note: Although there are two spheres, and the field we find is between them, the result in
(3) applies.

Substituting (3) into (2), we get

1 b
ΔV = −k e Q ∫a dr
r2
b

= −k e Q −
1
r a [ ]
= keQ
1 1
−
b a ( )
= keQ
a−b
ab ( ) (4)
Substituting (4) into the formula for capacitance;

Q
C =
∣Δ V∣
Q ab
=
k e Q(b − a)
ab
=
k e (b − a)

Note: When substituting the absolute value for Δ V , a − b becomes b − a .

Because b > a , this is needed to result in a positive number.
Equivalent Capacitance In Parallel

The potential difference across two capacitors connected in parallel are the same,
therefore
Δ V = Δ V1 = Δ V 2

The total charge stored by the two capacitors is

Qtot = Q1 + Q 2 = C 1 Δ V 1 + C 2 Δ V 2 (1)

Suppose that we want to replace this capacitor by an equivalent capacitor C eq ;

Qtot = C eq Δ V (2)

Substituting (1) into (2),

C eq Δ V = C 1 Δ V 1 + C 2 Δ V 2
C eq = C 1 + C 2

All the potential differences cancel out as they are all the same.

Equivalent Capacitance in Series

When two capacitors are connected in series, their middle plates are connected to each
other and nothing else. This means that the two middle plates form an isolated system that
must retain zero charge. When a battery is connected, the plates on the outside will have
charge Q and −Q , while the inner plates will have charges −Q and Q ,
respectively. This means that the charge on both capacitors are the same;

Q = Q1 + Q2

Furthermore, we know that the total voltage of the circuit is the sum of the voltages over
the two capacitors, so

Q1 Q 2
Δ V = Δ V1 + Δ V 2 = + (1)
C1 C 2

Suppose we want to replace the capacitors by one equivalent capacitor C eq such that

Q
ΔV = (2)
C eq
Substitute (2) into (1) to get

Q Q1 Q2
= +
C eq C1 C2
1 1 1
= +
C eq C1 C2
Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The work done moving a charge q through a potential difference Δ V is

W = qΔV
dW = Δ V dq
q
= dq (1)
C

Since there is a Q amount of charge to be carried over Δ V , we integrate from 0 to

Q :

1 Q
W =
C 0
∫ q dq
1
= [q 2 ]Q0
2C
Q2
= (2)
2C

Therefore the electric potential stored by a capacitor is

2
Q 1 1
UE = = 2 Q Δ V = 2 C (Δ V ) 2 (3)
2C

ϵ0 A
We can also describe this in terms of the electric field. Since Δ V = Ed and C =
d

UE = 2
1
( )
ϵ0 A
d
1
( E d )2 = 2 (ϵ 0 A d ) E 2 (4)

UE
From this we can also derive the energy field density per unit volume, which is ,
Ad

u E = 1 ϵ0 E 2 (5)
2
Capacitance of a Material With a Dielectric

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor that, without a dielectric, has a charge Q0 and a

capacitance C 0 . The potential difference across the capacitor is Δ V 0 = Q 0 /C 0 . With a
dielectric, the voltage changes to

ΔV
ΔV = κ 0 (1)

Because the charge Q0 on the capacitor does not change, the capacitance must change
to the value

Q0
C= (2)
ΔV

Substituting (1) into (2) gives

Q0
C =
Δ V 0 /κ
Q0
C = κ
Δ V0
C = κ C0
The Effect of a Metallic Slab

A parallel-plate capacitor has a plate separation d and a plate area A . An unchanged

metallic slab of thickness a is inserted midway between the plates. Find the capacitance
of the device.

Any charge that appears on one side of the capacitor must induce a charge of equal
magnitude and opposite sign on the near side of the slab. Consequently, the net charge on
the slab is zero, as is the electric field. Because the metal between the slab's surface only
serves to make an electrical connection between the edges, we can model the slab as a
capacitor, and the whole system becomes two capacitors in series, C 1 and C 2 .

From this we have

1 1 1
= +
C C1 C2

= 1/ ( ϵ0 A
( d − a)/ 2) (
+ 1/
ϵ0 A
( d − a) /2 )
2(d − a )
=
2 ϵ0 A
ϵ0 A
C =
d −a
A Partially Filled Capacitor

A parallel-plate capacitor with a plate separation d has a capacitance C 0 in the

absence of a dielectric. What is the capacitance when a slab of dielectric material of
dielectric constant κ and thickness fd is inserted between the plates, where f is a
fraction between 0 and 1?

We can model this system as a series combination of two capacitors, assuming that an
infinitesimally small metallic slab is placed at the bottom face of the dielectric.

Therefore

κϵ0A ϵ0A
C1 = and C2 =
fd (1 − f ) d

Applying the equivalent capacitance rule for capacitors in series, we get

1 1 1
= +
C C1 C2
fd (1 − f )d
= +
κ ϵ0 A ϵ0A
fd + κ (1 − f ) d
=
κ ϵ0 A
κ ϵ0 A
C = (1)
fd + κ (1 − f ) d

We know that the initial value of the capacitor without a dielectric is

ϵ0 A
C0 = (2)
d

Substituting (2) into (1) we get

C= κ C
f + κ (1 − f ) 0
 Chapter 27 – Current and Resistance

Microscopic Model of Current

Consider the current in a cylindrical conductor of cross-sectional area A . The volume of

a segment of the conductor length Δ x is given by A Δ x . The amount of charge
carriers per unit volume of this conductor is given by n , and they each carry a charge of
q through the conductor.

Therefore, the total charge Δ Q is given by

Δ Q = nA Δ x q (1)

The average speed with which the carriers move parallel to the axis of the cylinder is
called the drift speed, v d . The displacement through which a carrier moves is thus given
by

Δ x = vd Δ t (2)

The total charge is thus given by

Δ Q = (nA v d Δ t) q (3)

Dividing both sides of equation (3) by Δ t gives us the average current in the conductor:

ΔQ nAvd Δ t q
=
Δt Δt
I avg = nqv d A
Drift Speed in a Copper Wire

The 12-gauge copper wire has a cross-sectional area of 3.31 × 10−6 m2 . It carries a
constant current of 10 A. What is the drift speed of the electrons in the wire? Assume that
each copper atom contributes one free electron to the current. The density of copper is
3
8.92 g /cm .

It is first necessary to find n , the number of charge carriers. If we consider 1 mole of

copper, the volume is given by

M (1)
V= ρ ,

where M = 63.5 g /mol , the molar mass of copper. From the assumption that every
copper atom contributes one free electron, the electron density in copper is given by

NA (2)
n= ,
V

where N A is Avogadro's number. Substituting (1) into (2), we have

N Aρ
n= (3)
M

Since the current is constant, the drift speed is given by

I (4)
vd =
nqA

Substituting (4) into (3) and solving, we get

IM
vd =
qAN A ρ
(10)(0.0635)
=
(1.6 × 10 )(3.31 × 10−6 )(6.02 × 1023)(8920)
−19

= 2.23 × 10−4 m/ s
The Formula for Resistance

Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area A carrying a current I . The current

density in the conductor is defined as

I
J =
A
nqv d A
=
A
= nqv d (1)

This expression is only valid if current density is uniform, and if A is perpendicular to the
direction of the current. In ohmic materials, current density is proportional the the electric
field:

J =σ E (2)

Consider a straight wire of uniform cross-sectional area A and length l . A potential

difference of Δ V is maintained across the wire, the potential difference across the wire
can be expressed as

Δ V = El (3)

Substituting (3) into (2) we get

ΔV
J = σ
l
l
ΔV = σ J
= ( )
l
σA
I (4)

The quantity R = l / σ A is called the resistance of the conductor, which gives us

Δ V = IR

Note: σ is the conductivity of the conductor. Resistance can also be expressed in terms
of the resistivity of the conductor, where resistivity is defined as the inverse of
conductance;

1
ρ=σ

Therefore

l
R= ρ
A
Resistance of Nichrome Wire

The radius of 22-gauge Nichrome wire is 0.32 mm. The resistivity of Nichrome is
1 × 10−6 . Calculate the resistance per unit length of this wire.

l
R = ρ
A
R ρ
=
l π r2
1 × 10−6
=
π (0.32 × 10−3)2
= 3.1Ω

Resistance of a Coaxial Cable

A coaxial cable consists of two concentric cylindrical conductors. The region between
these conductors is filled with a plastic, as current leakage in the radial direction is
unwanted. The inner conductor has radius a , and the outer conductor has radius b .
Calculate the resistivity of the plastic.

The resistance of the cable can be calculated with

l
R= ρ ,
A

but since the area through which the current passes through depends on radial position,
we must use integral calculus. Therefore
ρ
dR = dr
A
ρ
= dr
2 π rL
ρ
∫ dR = ∫ 2 π rL dr
ρ 1
2π L ∫ r
R = dr
ρ b
= [ln∣ r ∣]a
2π L
=
ρ
2π L
ln ()
b
a

Given that a = 0.5 cm , b = 1.75 cm , the length of the wire L is 15 cm , and the
resistivity of the plastic is 1 × 10 13 , we get

R=
1 × 1013
−2
2 π (15 ×10 )
ln
(
1.75 × 10−2
0.5 × 10
−2 )
= 1.33 ×10
13
A Model for Electrical Conduction

The classical model for an electrical conductor can be described as follows.

Physical components:

Consider a conductor as a regular array of atoms plus a collection of free electrons,

which are called conduction electrons. The system is the combination of the atoms
and the conduction electrons. The conduction electrons, although bound to their
respective atoms when the atoms are not part of a solid, become free when the
atoms condense into a solid.

Behaviour of the components:

• In the absence of an electric field, the conduction electrons move in random

directions through the conductor. The situation is similar to the motion of gas
molecules confined in a vessel. In fact, some scientists refer to conduction electrons
in a metal as an electron gas.
• When an electric field is applied to the system, the free electrons drift slowly in a
direction opposite that of the electric field, with an average drift speed v d that is
much smaller than their average speed v avg between collisions.
• The electron's motion after a collision is independent of its motion before the
collision. The excess energy acquired by the electrons due to the work done on
them by the electric field is transferred to the atoms of the conductor when the
electrons and atoms collide.

We are now in a position to derive an expression for drift velocity. When a free electron of
mass me and charge q = e is subjected to an electric field ⃗ E , it is described by the
⃗ ⃗
particle in a field model and experiences a force F = q E . Under Newton's second law
we have

⃗
ΣF ⃗
qE
a=
⃗ = (1)
me me

Because the electric field is uniform, the electron's acceleration is constant, so the electron
can be modelled as a particle under constant acceleration. If v⃗i is the electron's initial
velocity the instant after a collision, which occurs at a time defined as t = 0 , the velocity
of the electron at a very short time later, and immediately before the next collision, is

v⃗f = v⃗i + a⃗ t
qE ⃗
= v⃗i + t (2)
me

Let's take the average value of v⃗f for all the electrons in the wire over all positive
collision times and all possible values for v⃗i . Assuming the initial velocities are all
randomly distributed over all possible directions, given by the first condition under the
behaviour of our model, the average value of v⃗i is zero.
 ⃗ /me )τ , where τ is the average
The average value of the second term in (2) is (q E
time interval between successive collisions. Because the average value of v⃗f is equal to
drift velocity,

q⃗
E (3)
v f ,avg = v⃗d = τ
me

The value of τ depends on the size of the atoms and the number of electrons per unit
volume. The equation for current in a conductor is given by

I avg = nq v d A (4)

Substituting (3) into (4), we get

I avg = nq
( )
qE
me
τ A

nq 2 E
= Aτ (5)
me

This also yields that the current density J = I avg / A is given by

nq 2 E (6)
J = τ
me

Comparing this expression with Ohm's law J = σ E , the following relationships for
conductivity and resistivity can be obtained:

nq2 τ (7)
σ =
me
me
ρ = (8)
nq2 τ

The time interval can also be related to the average distance between collisions l avg and
the average speed v avg through the expression

l avg
τ= (9)
v avg
 Chapter 28 – DC Circuits

Resistors in Series

In a series connection, the charge that exits one resistor R1 , must enter another resistor
R2 .

Since the same amount of charge passes through both resistors, the currents are the
same in both resistors:

I = I1= I2

The voltage drop over the two resistors is the sum of voltage drops over each individual
one;

ΔV = Δ V 1 + Δ V2 (1)
,
= I 1 R1 + I 2 R 2

and this same potential difference would apply to an equivalent resistor Req

Δ V = IReq (2)

Substituting (1) into (2) and cancelling out the currents, we get

IR eq = I 1 R1 + I 2 R 2
Req = R1 + R2
Resistors in Parallel

In a simple case, two resistors connected in parallel are connected directly across the
terminals of the battery.

Therefore, the potential differences across the resistors are the same

Δ V = Δ V1 = Δ V 2

Because electric charge is conserved, the current going into the junction connecting the
two resistors must be the same as the current exiting the junction, therefore

I = I1 + I2
Δ V1 Δ V 2
= + (3)
R1 R2

If we replace them with an equivalent resistor, the current in the resistor will be the total
current I . Therefore we have

ΔV
I= (4)
R eq

Substituting (4) into (3), and cancelling out the potential differences, we get

ΔV Δ V1 Δ V 2
= +
Req R1 R2
1 1 1
= +
Req R1 R2
RC Circuit – Charging a Capacitor

Consider a circuit with a battery, resistor, and capacitor which is initially uncharged.

Applying KVL in the circuit gives

q
Ε − − iR (1)
C

Rearranging (1), and substituting i = dq /dt , we get

q
iR = Ε−
C
i = Ε − q
R RC
dq q−Ε C
= −
dt RC
dq 1
= − dt
q−Ε C RC
q dq 1 t
∫0 q−Ε C
= −
RC 0
∫ dt
q 1
[ln∣ q − Ε C ∣]0 = − [t ]t0
RC
ln ( q−−ΕΕCC ) = −
t
RC
q−Ε C
= e−t / RC
−Ε C
q − Ε C = −Ε Ce−t / RC
q = Ε C − Ε Ce−t / RC
= Ε C ( 1−e−t / RC )

Realising that Ε C is the maximum amount of charge in the circuit, the above equation
becomes

q (t) = Qmax ( 1 − e−t / RC ) (2)

To find the current, we differentiate q (t ) with respect to time:

dq 1
i(t) = = − Ε C .− .e −t / RC = Ε e−t / RC
dt RC R
Discharging a Capacitor

Consider the same circuit as above, but the battery is disconnected and the capacitor is
free to discharge.

Without the battery, our KVL equation becomes

q
− − iR = 0
C
q
iR = −
C
q
i = −
RC
dq q
= −
dt RC
dq 1
= − dt (3)
q RC

Integrating the expression, taking q − Q i at t = 0 , gives

q dq 1 t
∫Q i q
= − ∫ dt
RC 0
q 1
[ln∣ q ∣]Q = − [t ]t0
i
RC
ln
( ) q
Qi
= −
t
RC
q
= e−t / RC
Qi
−t / RC
q = Qi e (4)

To find the current, we differentiate q (t ) with respect to time and get

dq(t) Q
i(t) = = − i e−t / RC (5)
dt RC
 Chapter 29 – Magnetic Fields

Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

The force a charged particle in a magnetic field experiences is given by

F⃗B = q ⃗v × ⃗
B ,

the magnitude of which is

F B = ∣ q ∣ vB sin θ . (1)

Consider a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field.

We start by considering Newton II for a particle,

F B = ma . (2)

Because the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity and the magnetic field
lines, the particle will move in a circular path. Substituting (1) and the expression for
circular motion into (2), we get

mv 2
qvB =
r
mv
r = (3)
qB

The angular speed of the particle is given by

v qB
ω= = , (4)
r m

and from this we also gain an expression for the period of the motion

2π
T = ω
2π m
= (5)
qB
Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

Consider a straight segment of wire of length L and cross-sectional area A carrying a

current I in a uniform magnetic field ⃗ B .

The magnetic force exerted exerted on a charge q with drift velocity v d is

F⃗B = q v⃗d × ⃗
B

Because the volume of the segment is AL , the number of the charges in the segment is
nAL , where n is the number of mobile charge carriers per unit volume. Hence, the
total magnetic force on the entire length of the wire is

F⃗B = ( q v⃗d × ⃗
B ) nAL . (1)

Noting that I = nqv d A , (1) becomes

F⃗B = I ⃗L × ⃗
B . (2)

Now, consider an arbitrary shaped segment of wire with a uniform cross-sectional area.
We need to apply integral calculus to find the magnetic force on the wire, which, from (2),
can be given by

d F⃗B = I d ⃗s × ⃗
B
b
F⃗B = I ∫a d ⃗s × B
⃗
Force on a semi-circular conductor

A wire bent into a semi-circle of radius R forms a close circuit and carries a current I .
The wire lies in the xy plane, and a uniform magnetic field is directed along the positive
y axis. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force acting on the straight
portion of the wire and on the curved portion.

Force on the straight part:

Note that d ⃗s is perpendicular to ⃗

B everywhere on this portion, therefore

b
F⃗1 = I ∫a d ⃗s × ⃗
B
b
= I ∫a B dx k̂
R
= IB ∫− R dx k̂
R ̂
= IB [ x]−R k
= 2 IRB k̂

Force on the curved part:

First we find an expression for d F⃗ 2 on every d ⃗s :

d F⃗ 2 = I d ⃗s × ⃗
B
= −IB sin θ ds k̂ (1)

Noting that ds = R d θ and substituting into (1), we get

d F⃗ 2 = −IRB sin θ d θ k̂
π
F⃗ 2 = −IRB ∫0 sin θ d θ
= IRB[ cos θ ]π0 k̂
= −2 IRB k̂ (2)

Notice that the net force equals to zero, and this is a general result.
Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field

Consider a rectangular loop carrying a current I in the presence of a uniform magnetic

field ⃗
B , directed parallel to the plane of the loop.

The sides parallel to ⃗

B have zero magnetic force on them. For side 2 we have

F⃗ 2 = I ⃗
L×⃗ B
= I (−a ̂j ) × ( B ̂i )
F⃗ 2 = IaB k̂ (1)

Similarly for side 4, we have

F⃗ 4 = I ⃗L × ⃗ B
= I ( a ̂j ) × ( B ̂i )
F⃗ 4 = −IaB k̂ (2)

The torque on this conductor can be given by

b b
τ max = F 2 + F4
2 2
b b
= (IaB) + ( IaB)
2 2
= IabB (3)

Since the area enclosed by the loop is A = ab , we can state (3) as

τ max = IAB .
 Chapter 30 – Sources of the Magnetic Field

Magnetic Field Surrounding a Thin, Straight Conductor

Consider a thin wire of finite length carrying a constant current I and placed along the
x axis. Determine the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field at point P .

Method 1: I.t.o θ

First, evaluate d ⃗s × ̂r . Since the angle between vectors d ⃗s and

r̂ is π − θ , by geometry, we get
2

d ⃗s × r̂ = ∣ d ⃗s × r̂ ∣k̂
= dx sin π − θ k̂
(2 )
= dx cos θ k̂ (1)

Using the Biot-Savart Law, and substituting (1), we have

μ 0 Id ⃗s ×̂r
d⃗
B =
4π r2
μ 0 I dx cos θ ̂
= k (2)
4π r2

In order to convert all terms to expressions of θ , we evaluate r by noting that

a
cos θ =
r
a
r = (3)
cos θ

and dx with

x
tan θ = −
a
x = −a tan θ
dx = −a sec2θ d θ
a
= − (4)
cos 2θ
Substituting (3) and (4) into (2) we have

d⃗
B =
μ 0 I −a
(
4 π cos 2θ
d θ
cos 2 θ
a2 )( )
cos θ k̂

μ I
= − 0 cos θ d θ k̂
4π a
μ I θ
− 0 ∫θ cos θ d θ k̂
2
⃗
B =
4π a 1

μ I
= − 0 [sin θ 2 − sin θ 1 ] k̂
4π a
μ0 I
= (sin θ 1 − sin θ 2) k̂
4π a

At infinity, θ 1≈π / 2 and θ ≈−π /2 , therefore

μ0 I
B=
2π a

Method 2: I.t.o x

Define θ as the angle between d ⃗s and r̂ . We get

μ 0 Id ⃗s × r̂
d⃗
B =
4π r2
μ 0 I sin θ ds
=
4π r2 (1)

Noting that ds = dx , and

x
sin θ =
r
,
a
=
√ r + a2
2
(2)

we substitute (2) into (1) to get

μ 0 Ia dx
d⃗
B = k̂
4 π (x + a 2 )3/ 2
2

μ 0 Ia x dx
∫
2
⃗
B =
( x + a 2 )3/ 2
2
4π −x 1

=
μ0 I
[
4π a √ x + a
2
2
x2
2
+
x1
√ x1 + a2
2
] (3)

μ0 I
At infinity, B= .
2π a
Magnetic Field Due to a Curved Wire Segment

Calculate the magnetic field at a point O for a current carrying wire segment. The wire
consists of two straight portions and a circular arc of radius a , which subtends an angle
θ .

Because d ⃗s is perpendicular to r̂ , d ⃗s ×̂r = ds . Substituting this into the Biot-Savart

law, we get

μ 0 I d ⃗s ×̂r
dB =
4π a2
μ 0 Ids
=
4 π a2
μ0 I
B =
4 π a2
∫ ds
μ0 I s
B = (1)
4 π a2

Substituting s = a θ into (1), we get

μ0 I
B= θ
4π a
Magnetic Field on the axis of a Circular Current Loop

Consider a circular wire loop of radius a located in the yz plane and carrying a steady
current I . Calculate the magnetic field at an axial point P a distance x away from
the centre of the loop.

Because of symmetry, the y values of the magnetic field will cancel out. Since d ⃗s is
perpendicular to every vector r̂ ,

d ⃗s ×̂r = ds .

Substituting this into the Biot-Savart Law, we get

μ 0 Id ⃗s × r
d⃗
B =
4π r2
μ 0 I ds
= (1)
4π (a + x )
2 2

Since the field only has an x -component, we can find the magnitude of the field with

μ 0 I ds
dB x = cos θ
4 π ( a2 + x 2 )
μ 0 I cos θ
Bx = ∮ ds (2)
4 π ( a2 + x 2 )

From geometry, we evaluate

a
cos θ = (3)
√a + x 2
2

Substituting (3) into (2) we get

μ0 I a
Bx = 3/ 2 ∮ ds
4 π ( a2 + x2 )
μ0 I a
= 3/ 2
(2π a)
4 π (a 2 + x2 )
μ 0 I a2
= 3/ 2
2 (a2 + x2 )
The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors

Consider two long, straight parallel wires separated by a distance a and carrying
currents I 1 and I 2 in the same direction. The current in each wire creates a magnetic
field.

Wire 1 is therefore subject to B⃗2 , the magnetic field from wire 2. The magnetic force is
given by

F⃗1 = I 1 ⃗l × B⃗2

Because ⃗l is perpendicular to B⃗2 , this becomes

F⃗1 = I 1 l B2 ( ̂i ×k̂ )
= −I 1 l B2 ̂j (1)

Substituting the magnitude of a thin, straight conductor, B = ( μ 0 I )/(2 π a ) , into (1), we

get

F⃗1 = −I 1 l
2π a( )
μ0 I 2 ̂
j

μ I I l
= − 0 1 2 ̂j (2)
2π a

A similar result can be obtained for F⃗ 2 . Newton III dictates that it must be equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction from F⃗1

μ0 I1 I2 l
F⃗ 2 = ̂j
2π a

If the current in the wire is reversed, the cross product ensures that the direction of the
forces are reversed.
Suspending a Wire

Two infinitely long, parallel wires are lying on the ground a distance a apart. A third wire
of length L and mass m carries a current of I 1 and is levitated above the first two
wires, at a horizontal position midway between them. The infinitely long wires carry equal
currents I 2 in the same direction, but opposite to that of I 1 . What current must the
infinitely long wires carry so that the three wires form an equilateral triangle?

Firstly, the horizontal components of the magnetic forces on the levitated wire cancel. The
vertical component of the total magnetic force on the wire is given by

(
μ I I l
F⃗B = 2 0 1 2 cos θ k̂
2π a )
μ0 I 1 I 2 l
= cos θ k̂ (1)
πa

The magnetic force on the levitated wire is

F⃗g = −mg k̂ (2)

Applying the particle in equilibrium model, we have

F⃗B + F⃗ g = 0
μ0 I 1 I 2 l
cos θ k̂ − mg k̂ = 0
πa
mgπ a
I2 = (3)
μ 0 I 1 l cos θ

Taking a = 1cm , L = 10 m , m = 400 g , and I 1 = 100 A , substituting these values

into (3) gives

π (0.4)(9.8)(0.01)
I2 = −7
(4 π × 10 )(100)(10)cos 30
= 113 A
The Magnetic Field Created by a Long Current-Carrying Wire

A long, straight wire of radius R carries a steady current I that is uniformly distributed
through the cross section of the wire. Calculate the magnetic field a distance r from the
center of the wire in the regions r ≥R and r < R .

For r ≥R , the total current passing through the plane of the circle is I , and applying
Ampere's law, we get

∮ ⃗B ⋅d ⃗s = μ0 I
B∮ ds = μ0 I
B(2 π r ) = μ0 I
μ0 I
B =
2π r

For r < R , the current I ' passing through the plane of the circle can be written as a
ratio of the areas of the outer and inner circles:

I' π r2
=
I π R2
r2
I' = 2
I
R

Applying Ampere's Law to the inner circle, we get

∮ ⃗B ⋅d ⃗s = μ0 I '
r2
B( 2 π r ) = μ 0 2 I
R ( )
μ0 I
B = r
2 π R2
The Magnetic Field Created by a Toroid

A toroid consists of a conducting wire wrapped around a ring made of a non-conducting

material. A toroid has N closely spaced turns of wire, a distance r from the center.

The magnetic field lines of the loops will form circles within the toroid, so Ampere's law can
be applied. Because the wire passes through the loop N times, the total current is I N
. Therefore

∮ ⃗B ⋅d ⃗s = B ∮ ds = B(2 π r ) = μ 0 N I
Therefore

μ0 N I
B=
2π r
Magnetic Field Inside a Solenoid

The interior of a Solenoid carries current. When the turns of the solenoid are spaced
closely enough, it can be approximated as a current loop. As the length of the solenoid
becomes longer, the interior field becomes more uniform and the exterior field becomes
weaker.

Path 2 and 4 make no contributions, as ⃗ B and d ⃗s are perpendicular along these paths.
Side 3 makes no contributions either, again because the external magnetic field lines are
perpendicular to the path. Thus only path 1 gives a contribution as its path is parallel to the
magnetic field ⃗B . The integral over the closed loop is therefore

∮ ⃗B ⋅d ⃗s = B ∫ ds = Bl
Recognising that the total current through the rectangular path equals the current through
each turn multiplied by the number of turns we have, we apply Ampere's law and get

∮ ⃗B ⋅d ⃗s =
μ0 N I
Bl =
μ0 N I
N
B = μ0 I
l
= μ0n I
 Chapter 31 – Faraday's Law

Inducing an emf in a Coil

A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square of side d = 18 cm , and a
uniform magnetic field is directed perpendicular to the plane of the coil is turned on. If the
field changes linearly from 0 to 0.5 T in 0.8 s , what is the magnitude of the induced
emf in the coil while the field is changing?

The flux through the plane of the coil is given by Φ B = BAcos θ , but since the flux is
perpendicular on the plane of the coil, it evaluates to

Φ B = BA .

We can then use Faraday's law to find the emf:

Δ ΦB
|ε | = N
Δt
Δ(BA)
= N
Δt
ΔB
= NA
Δt
B − Bi
= Nd 2 f
Δt
0.5
= ( 200)(0.18)2
0.8
= 4V

An Exponentially Decaying Magnetic Field

A loop of wire enclosing an area A is placed in a region where the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnitude of the field varies with time
according to the expression B = B max e−at , where a is some constant. Find the induced
emf in the loop as a function of time.

Using Faraday's law, we get

d ΦB −d d
ε =−
dt
=−
dt
( AB max e−at ) = −AB max e−at = aABe −at
dt
Formula for Motional emf

Consider a straight conductor, moving through a uniform magnetic field.

The electrons experience a force F B that is directed along the

length l , perpendicular to both ⃗v and ⃗ B . Under the influence
of this force, the electrons move to the one end of the conductor and
accumulate there. This charge separation creates an electric field
⃗
E inside the conductor. The charges accumulate at both ends until
the two opposing forces balance out, and are then described by the
particle in equilibrium model:

qE = qvB
E = vB

The magnitude of the electric field is related to the potential difference across the ends of
the conductor according to the relationship Δ V = El . Therefore,

Δ V = El = Blv . (1)

Now, consider a situation where the conductor is part of a closed conducting path.
Consider a circuit consisting of a conducting bar of length l sliding along two fixed,
parallel conducting rails. The bar has zero resistance, and the stationary part of the circuit
has a resistance R . The position of the bar is given by x . The flux through the area
enclosed by the circuit and the bar is

ΦB = AB cos θ
= Blx

Using Faraday's law to find the induced motional emf, we get

d ΦB
ε = −
dt
d
= − ( Blx )
dt
dx
= − Bl
dt
= − Blv (2)

The current flowing in this circuit is given by

∣ε ∣
I =
R
Blv
=
R
Magnetic Force Acting on a Sliding Bar

A conducting bar moves on two frictionless, parallel rails in the presence of a uniform
magnetic field directed into the page. The bar has a mass m , and it's length is l . The
bar is given an initial velocity v⃗i to the right and is released at t = 0 . Find the velocity
of the bar as a function of time.

The magnetic force on the bar is given by

F⃗ b = I ⃗L × ⃗
B
= Il ̂j × B(−k̂ )
= −IlB ̂i (1)

Applying the particle under a net force model we get and substituting (1), we get

F x = ma
dv
m = −IlB
dt (2)

Substituting I = BlV / R into (2), we have

dv B 2 l2
= − v
dt mR
dv B 2 l2
= − dt
v mR
B 2 l2 t
∫v dvv
v

i
= −
mR 0
∫ dt
ln
() v
vi
= − ( )
B2l 2
mR
t

mR
Define τ = 2 2
:
B l

ln
()
v
vi
=
−t
τ
v
= e−t /τ
vi
v = v i e−t /τ
Motional emf Induced in a Rotating Bar

A conducting bar of length l rotates with a constant angular speed ω about a pivot on
one end. A uniform magnetic field ⃗
B is directed perpendicular to the plane of rotation.
Find the motional emf induced between the ends of the bar.

As all the short segments of the bar are travelling in circular paths, and the magnetic field
remains constant, we integrate and see that

dε = Bv dr
ε = ∫ Bv dr
= B ∫ v dr (1)

The velocity is related to r with the angular speed with the equation v = ω r .
Substituting this into (1) we get

ε = B∫ ω r dr
l
= B ω ∫0 r dr
1
= B ω l2
2
Induced emf in a Conducting Loop

Consider a loop of radius r situated in a uniform magnetic field that is perpendicular to

the plane of the loop. If the magnetic field changes with time, an emf is induced in the loop.
The induction of current in a loop implies the presence of an induced electric field, which
must be tangent to the loop because that is the direction in which charges move in the
conductor.

The work done in moving the charges once around the loop is q ε . The electric force
acting on any one charge is q E ⃗ , thus the work done by the electric force in moving it
around the loop is q E ( 2 π r ) . These two quantities must be equal, therefore

qε = qE (2 π r )
E = ε
2π r (1)

d ΦB
Substituting ε =− into (1) we get
dt

1 d ΦB
E = −
2 π r dt
1 d BA
= −
2 π r dt
1 d Bπ r2
= −
2 π r dt
r dB
= − (2)
2 dt

Note: From this we see that the general form of Faraday's law can be written as

d ΦB
∮ E⃗ ⋅ d ⃗s = − dt
Electric Field Induced by a Changing Magnetic Field in a Solenoid

A long solenoid of radius R has n turns per unit length and carries a time-varying
current that varies sinusoidally as I = I max cos ω t , where I max is the maximum current
and ω is the angular frequency of the alternating current source. Determine the
magnitude of the induced electric field outside the solenoid at a distance r > R from its
long central axis.

Consider Faraday's law:

d ΦB
∮ E⃗ ⋅ d ⃗s = − dt

The magnetic flux through the circle with radius r is

d ΦB d dB
− = − ( B π R 2) = − π R2 (1)
dt dt dt

The magnetic field inside the solenoid is

B = μ 0 n I = μ 0 n I max cos ω t (2)

Substituting (2) into (1) yields

−d Φ B d
= − π R2 μ 0 n I max cos ω t = π R2 μ 0 I max ω sin ω t (3)
dt dt

Evaluating the left hand side of the equation, and noting that the magnitude of ⃗
E is the
same throughout, as well as being tangent to the path of integration, we get

∮ E⃗ ⋅ d ⃗s = E ∮ d ⃗s = E (2 π r ) (4)

Substituting (3) and (4) into Faraday's Law, we get

E (2 π R) = π R2 μ 0 n I max ω sin ω t
μ 0 n I max ω R2
E = sin ω t
2r
Continued: What is the induced electric field inside the solenoid, a distance r from the
axis?

The flux is this situation is given by Φ B = B π r 2 , and the magnetic field by

B = μ 0 n I max cos ω t .

The right hand side of Faraday's law is

d ΦB d
− = −π r 2 μ 0 n I max cos ω t
dt dt
= π r 2 μ 0 n I max ω sin ω t (5)

The left hand side is once more ∮ E⃗ ⋅ d ⃗s = E ∮ d ⃗s = E (2 π r ) . Substituting this and (5)
into Faraday's Law yields

E (2 π r ) = π r 2 μ 0 n I max ω sin ω t
μ 0 n I max ω
= r sin ω t
2
 Chapter 32 – Inductance

Inductance of a Solenoid

Consider a uniformly wound solenoid having N tusrns and length l . Assume l is

much longer than the radius of the windings and the core of the solenoid is air. Find the
inductance of the solenoid.

The flux through each turn in the area A of the solenoid is given by

Φ B = BA
= μ0 n i A
N
= μ0 i A (1)
l

Substituting (1) into the formula of inductance for a coil, we get

N ΦB
L =
i
2
N
= μ0 A (2)
l

Calculate its inductance if it contains 300 turns, its length is 25 cm , and its cross-
sectional area is 4 cm2

Substituting the numerical values into (2), we get

( )
2
−7 300 −4
L = (4 π × 10 ) −2
( 4 × 10 )
25 × 10
−4
= 1.81 × 10 H

Calculate the self-induced emf in the solenoid if the current it carries decreases at
the rate of 50 A . s−1

Substituting the values into the equation for self-inductance we get

di
ε = −L
dt
−4
= −(1.81 × 10 )(−50)
= 9.05 mV

Note: Because N = nl , (2) can be written as

(nl)2
L = μ0 A = μ 0 n2 A l = μ 0 n 2 V
l
RL Circuits

Consider a circuit with a battery of negligible resistance, a resistor, and an inductor. How
does the inductor affect the current flow in the circuit?

Applying KVL to the circuit, we get

ε − Vr − V L = 0
di
ε − iR − L = 0 (1)
dt

Solving this differential equation gives us

di
L = ε − iR
dt
di 1
= dt
ε − iR L
∫0 ε −1 iR di = 1L ∫0 dt
i t

1 i 1
− [ ln | ε − iR |]0 = t
R L
| R |
ln 1 − ε i = − t
R
L
R
1 − ε i = e Rt/ L
R Rt/ L
ε i = 1 −e
i = ε ( 1 − e Rt / L ) (2)
R

Alternatively, (2) can be written as

i = ε ( 1 − e−t /τ ) , (3)
R

where τ = L/R , the time it takes the circuit to reach a fraction (1 − e−1 ) of its final
value.

Note: Deriving (3) with respect to time yields

di ε −t /τ
= e ,
dt L

indicating that the change in current is a maximum (equal to ε ), when t = 0 , and falls
L
off to zero as t approaches infinity.
What if the current has reached its maximum current, and the battery is disconnected?
How is the current affected?

Since the battery has been removed, applying KVL to the circuit and solving the equation
yields

di
iR + L = 0
dt
di
L = −iR
dt
di 1
= − dt
iR L
i di 1 t
∫I max iR
= − ∫0 dt
L
1 1
[ ln| iR |] = t
R L
i R
ln | |
I max
= − t
L
i
= e Rt / L
I max
i = I max e−t /τ (3)

Since I max = ε , (3) becomes

R

i= ε e
−t /τ
R (4)
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

In a standard RL circuit, applying KVL yields the equation

di (1)
ε = iR + L
dt

Multiplying (1) with i gives

di (2)
ε i = i 2 R + Li
dt

ε i is the rate at which energy is being supplied to the battery, and i 2 R is the rate at
di
which energy is being supplied to the resistor. Therefore, Li is the rate at which
dt
energy is being stored into the inductor. We can write the energy stored in the inductor as

dUB di (3)
= Li
dt dt

To find the total energy stored in the inductor at any instant, we find U B :

dU B di
= Li
dt dt
dU B = Lidi
∫ dU B = L∫ i di
1
UB = 2
Li 2 (4)

Find the energy density:

Consider a solenoid whose inductance is given by

2
L = μ0 n V (5)

and whose magnetic field is given by

B = μ0 n i (6)

Substituting (5) and (6) into (4) yields

2

UB =
1
μ n2 V
2 0
2
( )B
μ0n
B
= V
2μ0

From this, the magnetic density can be given by uB = U B /V = B2 /(2 μ 0 )

Energy in a Discharging Inductor

Consider an RL circuit with a connected battery that has reached its steady-state value. A
switch is thrown so that the battery is disconnected from the circuit, and the current decays
exponentially with time. Show that all energy stored in the magnetic field of the conductor
appears as internal energy in the resistor as the current decays to zero.

Begin by evaluating the energy delivered to the resistor, which appears as internal energy
in the resistor:

dE (1)
= P = i2 R
dt

The current in the circuit at any given time is given by

−t / τ
i = I0e (2)

Substituting (2) into (1) we have

dE 2

dt
= ( I 0 e−t /τ ) R

= I 20 R e−2 t /τ
dE = I 20 R e−2 t /τ dt
∞
E = I 20 R ∫0 e−2 t /τ
I 20 R − τ [ e−2t /τ ]0
∞
=
( )2

= −I 20 R
L
2R( ) (0 − 1)
1
= 2
L I 20

This result is equal to the initial energy stored in the inductor.

Inductance of a Coaxial Cable

Consider a long coaxial cable as a thin, cylindrical conducting shell of radius b concentric
with a solid cylinder of radius a . The conductors carry the same current I in opposite
directions. Calculate the inductance L of a length l of this cable.

Imagine a thin, radial slice of the cable stretching from a to b . We must find the
magnetic flux through each width dr of these slices in order to calculate the inductance
of the cable. The magnetic field in the cable is due to the inner conductor alone, and is
given by

μ 0i
B= (1)
2π r

Because the magnetic field changes with the radial position, we calculate the magnetic flux
using calculus

d ΦB = B dA
μ 0i
= d (lr)
2π r
μ 0i l
= dr
2π r
μ 0i l b 1
2 π ∫a r
ΦB = dr
μ 0i l
=
2π
ln
b
a() (2)

Substituting (2) into L = ΦB /i we get

ΦB
L =
i
μ0l
=
2π
ln
b
a () (3)
Mutual Inductance Between Two Solenoids

Consider a base solenoid of length l with N 1 turns, carrying a current I , and having
a cross-sectional area A . An external solenoid is wrapped around the base solenoid,
and has N 2 turns. Find the mutual inductance of the system.

Firstly, the magnetic field in the base solenoid is given by

NB
B = μ0 I (1)
l

The mutual inductance is given by

N2 Φ
M= (2)
i

The flux in this case is BA , due to the field of the base solenoid. Substituting this into
(2), we get

N2 B A
M =
I

= ( )(
N 2 A μ0 N 1 I
I l )
N N
= μ0 2 1 A
l
Resonance in an LC circuit

Consider an LC circuit, with a capacitor and inductor, as shown below.

The capacitor is fully charged with Qmax , and since no current is flowing, no energy is
stored in the inductor. At t = 0 , the switch is closed. The energy discharges from the
capacitor until the maximum current is flowing, and all the energy is stored in the inductor.
The inductor then introduces current to the circuit, which goes back into the capacitor. This
is known as resonance, and is analogous to simple harmonic motion of a mass and a
spring.

Consider some arbitrary time t after the switch is closed such that the capacitor has a
charge q < Qmax and the current is i < I max . The total energy in the circuit can be given
by

U = UE + UB
q2 1
= + Li 2 (1)
2C 2

We assume that the circuit has zero resistance, and we ignore electromagnetic radiation.
Thus, the system of the circuit is isolated, and the current stays constant in time. We
describe this energy by setting dU /dt = 0 . Implicitly differentiating (1) with respect to
time, we get

dU
dt
=
d q2
(
dt 2 C
+ 12 Li 2)
1 d 2 1 d 2
= q + L i
2C dt 2 dt
q dq di
= + Li (2)
C dt dt
Because we know dU /dt = 0 , (2) becomes

q dq di
+ Li = 0
C dt dt
q d2 q
i + Li 2 = 0
C dt
q d2 q
+L 2 = 0
C dt
d2 q 1
= − q (3)
dt 2 LC

This has the same general form as a particle in simple harmonic motion. (3) has a general
solution that can be expressed as

q = Qmax cos ( ω t + ϕ ) (4)

where

1 (5)
ω= .
√ LC
(5) is the natural frequency of the circuit.

Because q varies sinusoidally with time, i varies sinusoidally with time as well. This
can be expressed by differentiating (4) with respect to time.

dq
i =
dt
d
= Q max cos (ω t + ϕ )
dt
= −ω Q max sin( ω t + ϕ )
= −I max sin( ω t + ϕ ) (6)

In the case that q = Qmax at t = 0 , ϕ = 0 . Substituting this value into (4) and (6)
yields q = Qmax cos ω t and i = −I max sin ω t . Substituting these new values into (1) gives

U = UE + UB
Q2max
= cos 2 ω t + 12 LI 2max sin2 ω t (4)
2C
The RLC Circuit

Consider the following circuit:

Suppose that the switch has been at position a long enough such that the capacitor has
a maximum charge Qmax , and is then the switch is thrown to position b . The total
energy in the circuit is no longer constant, as energy in the resistor is transformed to
internal energy. The rate at which the energy decreases in this circuit is given by

dU
= −i 2 R (1)
dt

Since the time derivative of the energy in the circuit is given by

dU q dq di
= + Li , (2)
dt C dt dt

we substitute (1) into (2) and simplify to get

q dq di
+ Li = −i2 R
C dt dt
2
d q q
Li 2 + i 2 R + i = 0
dt C
2
d q q
L 2 + iR + = 0
dt C
2
d q dq q
L 2 +R + = 0 (3)
dt dt C

This is analogous to a damped harmonic oscillator, where R is the dampening

coefficient. When R = 0 , (3) reduces to the equation for a simple LC circuit. When R is
small, this is analogous to light dampening in the circuit, which is given by
−Rt/ 2 L
q = Qmax e cos ω d t ,

where

√
2
ωd =
1
LC
−
R
2L ( )
 Chapter 33 – AC Circuits

The Economics of AC Power

An electricity generating station needs to deliver energy at a rate of 20 MW to a city

1.0 km away. A common voltage for commercial power generators is 22 kV , but a step
up transformer is used to boost the voltage to 230 kV before transmission. If the
resistance of the wires is 2 ohm and the energy costs are about 11 c /kWh , estimate
the cost of the energy converted to internal energy in the wires during the day.

Since P = VI , we can get the current flowing through the wires by

P avg
I rms =
Δ V rms
20 × 10 6
=
230 × 10 3
= 87 A

The power dissipated into the wires is given by

Pwires = I 2rms R
= ( 87)2 (2)
= 15 kW

This means that, over the course of a day, the energy delivered to the wires is
(15 kW )(24 h) = 363 kWh , and the cost is thus (0.11 $)(363 kW ) = 40 $ .
 Chapter 34 – Electromagnetic Waves

Displacement Current in a Capacitor

A sinusoidally varying voltage is applied across a capacitor as shown.

The capacitance is C = 8 μ F , the frequency of the applied voltage is f = 3 kHz , and

the voltage amplitude is Δ V max = 30 V . Find the displacement current in the capacitor.

Displacement current is given by I d = dq/dt . The charge q in the circuit is given by

q = CV
= C Δ V max sin ω t
= C Δ V max sin(2 π f t) (1)

Therefore

dq
Id =
dt
d
= C Δ V max sin(2 π f t)
dt
= 2 π f C ΔV max cos(2 π f t)
= 2 π (3 000) ( 8 × 10−6 ) (30)cos ( 2 π (3 000)t )
= 4.52cos ( 1.88 × 104 t )
 Chapter 35 – The Principles of Ray Optics

Light Passing Through a Slab

A light beam passes from medium 1 to medium 2, with the latter medium being a thick slab
of material whose index of refraction is n2 . Show that the beam emerging into medium 1
from the other side is parallel to the incident beam.

From Snell’s law of refraction, we have

n2 sinθ 2 = n1 sin θ 1
n
sinθ 2 = 2 sin θ 1 (1)
n1

For the lower surface, applying Snell’s law once more and substituting (1), we have

n1 sinθ 3 = n2 sinθ 2
n
sinθ 3 = 2 sin θ 2
n1
n n
(
= 2 1 sin θ 1
n1 n2 )
= sin θ 1

What if the thickness of the slab were doubled? Does the offset distance also double?
From the figure, we find an expression for a from the yellow triangle:

t
cos θ 2 =
a
t
a = (2)
cos θ 2
And for the red triangle, we find an expression for d :

d
sin γ =
a
d = a sin γ
d = a sin (θ 1 − θ 2 ) (3)

Substituting (2) into (3), we have

t
d = sin (θ 1 − θ 2)
cos θ 2

It can be seen that d proportional to t . Thus, if t doubles, so does d .

Measuring n Using a Prism

The minimum angle of deviation δ min for a prism occurs when the angle of incidence
θ 1 is such that the refracted ray inside the prism makes the same angle with the normal
to the two prism faces, as shown in the figure. Obtain an expression for the index of
refraction of the prism materials in terms of the minimum angle of deviation and the apex
angle Φ .

From the figure we can find the following results due to geometry:

• θ 2 = Φ/2
• δ min = 2 α
• θ1 =θ2 + α

Combining these three results yields

θ1 = θ2+α
δ
= Φ + min
2 2
Φ + δ min
= (1)
2

Applying the wave under refraction model at the left surface, we can describe the index of
refraction with the expression

sinθ 1
n =
sinθ 2

=
sin (
Φ + δ min
2 )
sin(Φ /2)
Huygen’s Principle Applied to Reflection and Refraction

Huygen’s principle states that all points on a given wave front are taken as point sources
for secondary waves, called wavelets, that propagate outward.

For the law of reflection:

Consider the following:

AB is a plane wave front, just as ray 1 strikes the surface. The figure above shows the
wavelets a time interval Δ t , when ray 2 strikes the surface. Because both rays 1 and 2
travel at the same speed, we must have

AD = BC = c Δ t

Notice that the triangles ABC and ADC are congruent. From geometry we can see that

BC AD
cos γ = cos γ ' =
AC AC
AC cos γ = BC (1) AC cos γ ' = AD (2)

Because AD = BC , we equate (1) and (2) to get

AC cos γ = AC cos γ '

cos γ = cos γ '
γ = γ'
90 − θ 1 = 90 − θ 1 '
θ1 = θ1'

This proves the law of reflection.

For the law of refraction:

AB is once again a plane wave front, as ray 1 strikes the surface. The figure above
shows the waves a time interval Δ t after ray 2 strikes the surface. During this time
interval, a wavelet is sent out from A to D , and makes an angle θ 2 due to refraction.
A wavelet originates from B , and travels in the same direction as ray 2.

Now, because the wavelets travel through different media, their radii aren’t the same. The
radius of the wavelets from A and B are

AD = v 2 Δ t (1) BC = v 1 Δ t (2)

Geometrically, we can see that

BC AD
sin θ 1 = sin θ 2 =
AC AC
v Δt v2 Δ t
= 1 (3) = (4)
AC AC

Dividing (3) by (4), we get

sinθ 1 v1
= (5)
sinθ 2 v2

Substituting v 1 = c /n1 and v 2 = c /n2 into (5), we get

sin θ 1 c c
= ÷
sin θ 2 n1 n2
sin θ 1 n2
=
sin θ 2 n1
n1 sinθ 1 = n2 sin θ 2

Which is Snell’s law of refraction.

 Chapter 36 – Image Formation

Concave Mirrors and the Mirror Equation

Consider the following figure:

The lateral magnification of the image is given by

h'
M= (1)
h

We introduce a negative sign, as the image is inverted, and use similar triangles to get

h' q
− =
h p
h' q
= − (2)
h p

Observe the following trigonometric equations:

h −h '
tan α = (3) tan α = (4)
p−R R−q

Comparing (3) and (4) gives

h h'
= −
p−R R−q
h' R−q
= − (5)
h p− R
Substituting (5) into (2) yields

R −q q
− = −
p−R p
R −q q
=
p−R p
p ( R − q) = q ( p − R)
Rp − pq = pq − Rq
R( p + q)
= pq
2
R pq
=
2 p +q
2 1 1
= +
R p q

We call this the mirror equation:

1 1 2
+ = (6)
p q R

Now, if the object is very far away from the mirror – that is, if p is so much greater than
R that p can be said to approach infinity – then 1/ p ≈ 0 , and (6) shows that
p ≈ R/2 . Thus, when the image is very far away from the mirror, the image point is
halfway between the centre of curvature and the mirror. The image in this case is called
the focal point F , and the image distance is called the focal length f , where

R
f = (7)
2

The mirror equation then becomes

1 1 1
+ = (8)
p q f
Images Formed by Refraction

Describe how images are formed when light rays follow the wave under refraction model at
the boundary between two transparent materials. Consider the following case

Snell’s law of refraction for the single ray originating from O is given by

n1 sinθ 1 = n2 sinθ 2 (1)

We will assume that all angles in this case are very small, and use small-angle
approximations to evaluate expressions. Because sin θ ≈ θ , (1) becomes

n1θ 1 = n2 θ 2 (2)

From simple geometry, we observe the following:

θ1=α + β (3) β =θ2 + γ (4)

Substituting (3) and (4) into (2), we get

n1 (α + β ) = n2 ( β − γ )
n1 α + n1 β = n2 β − n2 γ
n1 α + n2 γ = β (n2 − n1) (5)
Furthermore, because tan θ ≈ θ , we observe that

d d d
tan α ≈ α ≈ tan β ≈ β ≈ tan γ ≈ γ ≈
p R q

Substituting the above equations into (5), we get

d d d
n1 + n2 = (n − n 1)
p q R 2
n1 n 2 n2 − n 1
+ = (6)
p q R

Flat surfaces:

For refracting surfaces that are flat, R is infinite, and (6) reduces to

n1 n2
=− (7)
p p
The Lens-maker’s Equation

The equation for images formed by refraction is

n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ = (1)
p q R

Now, consider a lens having an index of refraction n and two spherical surfaces of radii
R1 and R2 . An object is placed at point O at a distance p1 in front of surface 1.

Using (1), and assuming that n1 = 1 because the lens is surrounded by air, the image
formed at I 1 is given by the equation

1 n n−1
+ = (2)
P 1 q1 R

The following figure represents the situation when the light rays approach surface 2.

Applying (1) to surface 2 gives

n 1 1−n
+ = (3)
p2 q 2 R2
Now, it can be seen that p2 = −q 1 + t , where t is the thickness of the lens. If the lens is
thin, compared to it’s radii of curvature, we neglect t , and get p2 = −q 1 . Substituting
this into (3) yields

n 1 1−n
− + = (4)
q1 q2 R2

We add (2) and (4) to get

1 n n 1 n−1 1− n
+ − + = +
p1 q1 q 1 q 2 R1 R2
1
+
p1 q2
1
= (n − 1)
1
R1
−
1
R2 ( )
For a thin lens, we omit the subscriptions and simply say

1 1
+
p q
= ( n − 1)
( 1
R1
−
1
R2 ) (5)

To find the focal length f of the length, we let p → ∞ . When this happens, q → f and
we get

1
f
= (n − 1)
( 1
+
1
R1 R 2 ) (6)
Focal Length for a Combination of Two Thin Lenses

Consider a special case of two lenses of focal length f 1 and f 2 in contact with each
other. If p1 = p is the object distance for the combination, application of the thin lens
equation on the first lens gives

1 1 1
+ = , (1)
p q1 f 1

where q1 is the image distance for the first lens. This image gets treated as an object for
the second lens, and there object distance q 2 for the second lens must be −q1 .
Therefore the thin lens equation for the second lens evaluates to

1 1 1
− + = (2)
q1 q f2

where q = q 2 is the final image distance. Adding (1) and (2) gives us

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ − + = +
p q 1 q1 q f1 f2
1 1 1 1
+ = + (3)
p q f1 f2

(3) then becomes

1 1 1
= +
f f1 f2

This is the equivalent focal length of two very thin lenses spaced closely together.
 Chapter 37 – Wave Optics

Analysis Model: Waves in Interference

In Young’s experiment, the viewing screen is located a perpendicular distance L from the
barrier containing two slits, S 1 and S 2 . These slits are separated by a distance d ,
and the source is monochromatic. To reach any arbitrary point P in the upper half of the
screen, a wave from the lower slit must travel farther than a wave from the upper slit. The
extra distance travelled by the lower wave is called the path difference δ .

The value of δ determines whether the two waves are in phase when they arrive at point
P , and is given by

δ = d sin θ (1)

If δ is either zero or some integer multiple of the wavelength, the two waves are in phase
and constructive interference results. The condition for constructive interference therefore
is

d sinθ bright = m λ , m = 0 , ±1 , ±2,… (2)

where m is called the order number. When δ is an odd multiple of λ /2 , the two
waves at point P are 180 degrees out of phase, and destructive interference results. The
condition for destructive interference is

( 1
d sinθ dark = m + 2 λ , ) m = 0 , ±1 , ±2 (3)
The expressions for the linear positions of the slits can be found in triangle OPQ , with
the expression

y
tan θ = (4)
L

Modifying (4) gives the equations

y bright = L tan θ bright (5)

and

y dark = L tan θ dark (6)

When the angles of the fringes are small, their positions are linear near the centre of the
pattern. This is because, for small angles, tan θ ≈ sin θ . Thus, we substitute (2) into (5)
and (3) into (6) to get the equations

mλ
y bright = L (7)
d

and

y dark =L
( m + 2)λ
1
(8)
d
Interference in Thin Films

Consider a film of uniform thickness t and index of refraction n .

The wavelength of light in the film is λ n = λ /n where λ is the wavelength of light in free
space, and n is the index of refraction of the film of material. The light rays in the figure
are considered to be very close to the normal of the surface.

Reflected Ray 1, which is reflected from the upper surface, has a 180 degree phase
change. Reflected ray 2 undergoes no phase change, because it is reflected from a
medium that has a lower index of refraction. Therefore, ray 1 is 180 degrees out of phase
from ray 2, which is equivalent to a path difference of λ n /2 . We must also consider that
ray 2 travels an extra distance 2t before the waves recombine in the air above the film.

Therefore, if 2t = λ n /2 , rays 1 and 2 recombine in constructive interference. Thus, the

general condition for constructive interference is

( 1
)
2t = m + 2 λ n , m = 0 , 1 , 2 ,… (1)

Substituting λ n = λ /n into (1) yields

(
2 nt = m +
1
2 )λ , m = 0 , 1 , 2 ,… (2)

If the extra distance is a multiple of λ n , the waves recombine in destructive interference.

The general condition for destructive interference is thus

2 nt = m λ , m = 0 , 1 , 2 ,… (3)